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Biofuels
ISSN: 1759-7269 (Print) 1759-7277 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tbfu20
Physical characterization of briquettes produced
from paper pulp and Mesua ferrea mixtures
S. Y. Kpalo, M. F. Zainuddin, H. B. A Halim, A. F. Ahmad & Z. Abbas
To cite this article: S. Y. Kpalo, M. F. Zainuddin, H. B. A Halim, A. F. Ahmad & Z. Abbas (2019):
Physical characterization of briquettes produced from paper pulp and Mesua�ferrea mixtures,
Biofuels, DOI: 10.1080/17597269.2019.1695361
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2019.1695361
Published online: 27 Nov 2019.
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Physical characterization of briquettes produced from paper pulp and
Mesua ferrea mixtures
S. Y. Kpalo
a,b
, M. F. Zainuddin
b
, H. B. A Halim
b
, A. F. Ahmad
c
and Z. Abbas
c
a
Department of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria;
b
Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Serdang, Malaysia;
c
Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to evaluate the physical and thermal characteristics of briquettes made
from a mixture of paper pulp and Mesua ferrea leaves. Paper pulp/ground Mesua ferrea leaves
mixtures prepared were of 80–20%, 60–40%, 50–50% ratio and 100–0% mixture which served as a
reference briquette. The mixtures were densified at a room temperature of 28 C under three dif-
ferent compression pressures; 5.1, 10.2, and 15.3 MPa. The characteristics of the briquette samples
were assessed in terms of moisture content, density, shatter index and calorific value. The findings
revealed the following range of values for all samples; moisture content (5.55–12.33%), density
(0.24–0.37 g/cm
3
), shatter index (79.18–99.9%), and calorific values (15.77–18.99 MJ/kg). Specifically,
100–0% briquettes yielded the highest moisture content and the lowest calorific value as expected.
In contrast, the 50–50% briquettes yielded the lowest moisture content, highest calorific value and
lowest shatter index. The quality of these briquettes was found to be comparable to biomass bri-
quettes produced from other agricultural waste. The novel contribution of this study was the use
of garden waste to develop briquettes with appropriate physical and thermal qualities that could
serve as alternate fuel sources for local applications.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 12 April 2019
Accepted 4 November 2019
KEYWORDS
Briquette; calorific value;
density; Mesua ferrea;
moisture content; paper
pulp; shatter index
Introduction
Biomass is an organic material obtained from plant and
animal waste, which can be used for fuel. It is the largest
source of energy for three quarters of the global popula-
tion living in developing countries, and accounts for about
14% of the total global energy use [1]. Generally, biomass
is lignocellulosic in nature as it is comprised of lignin, cellu-
lose and hemicellulose. Lignocellulosic biomass has been
used in the production of biofuels such as bioethanol [2],
biogas [3] and briquettes [4,5]. Lignin from lignocellulosic
biomass can be used for heat and power production [6,7],
and its contribution to bulk density and durability of bri-
quettes made from different feedstock has been confirmed
[8]. Studies have reported that a pre-treatment process is
performed for lignocellulosic biomass to either increase the
accessibility of the crystalline fibrous structure maintaining
cellulose units enclosed within the tough lignin coat [9], or
to convert it into compatible energy fuels [10].
Bajwa et al. [11], categorized biomass resources as
woody and non-woody biomasses based on properties or
agricultural residue, and harvested natural materials based
on sourcing. Biomass is one of the most important sources
of renewable energy in Malaysia. The use of environmen-
tally friendly, sustainable and viable sources of biomass
energy has been encouraged by the National Biofuel Policy
since 2006 [12]. The Seventh Malaysia Plan (RMK-7)
revealed that Malaysia is endowed with renewable energy
resources such as biomass, solar and wind, which are
however, costly to harness [13]. The Eight Malaysia Plan
(RMK-8) further emphasized the need to generate at least
5% of electricity from renewable resources by 2005 and
introduce it as the country’s fifth fuel source [14].
Fossil fuels are currently the most important source of
energy across the globe and they release tremendous
amount of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere during
combustion [15,16]. The growing demand and utilization
of fossil fuels, consequent increases in GHGs emissions, and
their adverse impacts, i.e. global warming and climate
change, have already endangered public health. The 2017
Lancet report noted that an estimated 7 million deaths
occur annually from air pollution, and 4.2 million of these
deaths are a result of ambient air pollution, much of which
is from burning of fuels [17]. About 3 billion people glo-
bally, rely on fuelwood, coal, charcoal or animal waste,
without access to healthy, clean, and sustainable cooking
fuel or technologies [18,19]. In recent times there has
been a remarkable growth of renewable electricity and a
gradual decrease in demand for coal. However, carbon
emissions have not reduced, due to the growth in use of
other fossil fuels, such as oil and natural gas. Carbon emis-
sions increase the atmospheric temperature. Sustaining the
global average temperature rise to well below 2 C
demands among other things, a total decarbonization of
energy generation away from fossil fuels [19]. All these
along with increasing energy demand for household
cooking and heating has now necessitated the search for
alternative renewable resources to add to the energy mix.
Renewable energy offers several important potential
mechanisms for addressing climate change and improv-
ing health
CONTACT M. F Zainuddin z_faiz@upm.edu.my
ß2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
BIOFUELS
https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2019.1695361
Among the abundant woody biomass in Malaysia is the
tree called Mesua ferrea (Figure 1). The tree, which is also
known as penaga lilin,Ceylon ironwood,Indian rose chest-
nut,orcobra’s saffron, belongs to the family Calophyllaceae
and is grown as an ornamental tree [20,21]. It is a tropical
Asian tree of moderate size that bears flowers from April to
July and fruits from October to November. Its leaves are
linear, 3-6.5 inches in length and have white flowers from
the top axils of the leaf. The leaves usually fall off the tree
branches to the ground and dry up to constitute a nuis-
ance, resulting in innumerable waste management prob-
lems. They are regarded as garden waste materials because
of their biodegradable inorganic fraction. According to
Khalib et al. [22], the traditional disposal method for this
type of garden waste is by open burning, which may cause
health problems due hazardous chemicals from incomplete
combustion. Another method is by dumping into landfills
or incineration processes, leading to the occupation of
valuable agricultural land and the production of large
amount of greenhouse gases. These means of disposal
can only contribute to environmental pollution and
degradation [23]. Using lignocellulosic biomass waste, a
second-generation feedstock [24], is becoming increasingly
important for energy production, either for domestic or
industrial applications. However, some types of waste have
very limited energy content due to their low density.
Densifying these wastes into briquettes produces homoge-
neous fuel with a high energy density. Several studies have
shown that leaves can be densified to produce bioenergy
instead of just burning as a means of disposal [25–28]. This
action could, to a large extent, address the problem of dis-
posal, thereby reducing the effect of environmental pollu-
tion as well as helping to meet the energy demand for
cooking and heating [29].
Paper products constitute about 40–45% of municipal
solid waste [30], and they become undesirable particularly
if they can no longer be recycled. The technology to
recycle paper involves the process of de-inking and
decontamination, which could be expensive [31]. The non-
recyclable paper products usually become waste and pre-
sent a significant source of energy. According to
Olorunnisola, [32], there have been past attempts to pro-
duce fuel from newspapers by rolling them up into logs,
but they were found not to burn properly. However, results
from recent studies suggest that quality briquettes can be
produced from a mixture of paper and other biomass
materials. [33–36]. As reported in Lela et al. [31], paper has
a low Sulphur content and low nitrogen oxide emissions,
and it is not contaminated with non-combustible material.
Paper also has a binding ability because of its cellulosic
nature which contains proteinaceous materials with adhe-
sive property [36]. The non-toxic emissions and adhesive
property make it a feasible component for binding agricul-
tural residues for smokeless briquette production. The idea
of converting undesirable waste into valuable energy as
opined by [37] could increase the economic efficiency of
cooking, space heating and power generation. The main
aim of this study was to develop and characterize bri-
quettes from a mixture of paper pulp and Mesua ferrea
leaves. The objective, on the other hand, was to determine
Figure 1. Messua ferrea trees around UPM campus.
2 S. Y. ZAINUDDIN ET AL.
the physical and thermal properties of the briquettes as
alternative energy sources.
Materials and methods
Preparation of biomass and matrix materials
Mesua ferrea dried leaves and wastepaper used for the
experiment was gotten from within the Universiti Putra
Malaysia (UPM) premises and were chosen because of their
availability in large quantity. The leaves were screened to
remove dirt and sun-dried for seven (7) days to reduce the
moisture content to an average of 9.27% [38]. A grinder
was used to reduce the dried samples into small pieces,
which were then sieved through a 2 mm sieve size to get
the preferred particle size [39]. The waste papers were
shredded and soaked in water for two (2) days before con-
version into pulp by crushing in a grinder [40]. The paper
pulp was used as the matrix material as it had been found
to be an effective binder with good combustion property
[32,35]. The paper pulp and Mesua ferrea leaves were com-
bined at percentage proportions of 100:0, 80:20, 60:40, and
50:50 as samples before densification.
Production of briquette
The briquettes were produced using a manually operated
hydraulic piston-press at the dry laboratory of the Faculty
of Environmental Studies (UPM) (Figure 2). The mixture was
fed into a mould with 51 mm inner diameter and a height
of 48 mm (Figure 3). Three different pressures of 5.1, 10.2
and 15.3 MPa were applied during compaction at a room
temperature of 28 C. Compacted briquettes were held in
residence for 60 s [41] before ejection from the mould. The
produced briquettes were kept in a room with adequate
ventilation and left to dry for thirty (30) days (Figure 4).
The procedure for densification of each sample proportion
was replicated ten (10) times, and four (4) briquettes out of
each sample proportion were randomly selected for prop-
erties testing after drying.
Characterization
Moisture content
Moisture content was determined by using oven-dried
methods in accordance with BS EN 14774-2, as obtained in
[42]. Each briquette was weighed and then oven-dried at
105 ± 3 C to constant mass in 24 hrs. The loss in mass,
expressed as a percentage of the final oven-dried mass,
was taken as the moisture content of the briquettes. The
moisture content was calculated by the equation:
MC ¼w1w2
w2
100 (1)
where MC ¼moisture content, W
1
¼wet weight, and W
2
¼
weight after drying.
Density
The briquette density was calculated by dividing the mass
of the briquette by its volume. A Vernier caliper was used
to measure the diameter and the height of the sample,
while an electronic balance was used to measure the
weight. [43] The density of the biomass briquette sample
was calculated by the equation:
q¼m
V(2)
where q¼Density, m¼mass of biomass briquette, and V
¼volume of biomass briquette.
Figure 2. Mould of briquette.
BIOFUELS 3
Shatter index
Shatter index was measured according to ASTM standards
D440-86 [44]. The initial mass of each briquette sample
was weighed and recorded by using digital electronic
weighing scale. The briquette sample was subjected to the
fall of gravity and dropped on concrete floor from a con-
stant 2-meter height for three (3) times. The disintegrated
briquette was sieved through a sieve of size 2.36 mm. The
mass of the briquette retained on the sieve was recorded
[42]. The shatter index of each briquette was calculated by
the equation
K¼Bz
B100 (3)
where K¼shatter index, Bz¼weight of briquette after
shattering, and B¼weight of briquette before shattering.
Calorific value
The calorific value of the briquette was determined by
using the IKA C2000 Basic bomb calorimeter in accordance
with ASTM standard D5865-13 [45]. The test was performed
at the Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security
(ITAFOS), UPM.
Results and discussions
Moisture content of briquettes
The briquette samples yielded different values of moisture
content due to the fibre/binder ratio and pressure applied
during the compaction process. Figure 5 shows that the
100% briquette yielded the highest moisture content range
decreasing from 12.33% to 11.11% under all pressures
applied. In contrast, the 50–50% briquette samples yielded
the lowest moisture content range from 6.33% under low
pressure and decreasing to 5.55% under higher pressure.
These results are consistent with the findings from other
studies, which show that the amount of moisture content
is higher for briquettes with a higher binder content and
low pressure applied [31,46]. Overall, the briquette sam-
ples yielded moisture content in a range between 5.55%
and 12.33%, which is within the limits of 14.3% moisture
content, appropriate for storage and combustion capability
as recommended by Olorunnisola, [32]. The briquettes are
also suited for transportation because of increased physical
and mechanical resistance of briquettes with such low
Figure 3. Hydraulic piston press.
Figure 4. Paper pulp/Mesua ferrea briquettes.
4 S. Y. ZAINUDDIN ET AL.
moisture content [47,48]. Other studies also recommended
moisture content of less than 10% [49,50], however, bri-
quettes with extremely low moisture content will be too
dry and hence burn out easily [51]. Moisture content more
than 20% would result in considerable loss of energy
required for water evaporation during combustion at the
expense of the calorific value of the fuel [32,52,53].
Density of briquette
The density of briquette is an indication of its strength and
can be influenced by its moisture content [16] as well as
compaction pressure [54]. As depicted in Figure 6, the
results from the experiment show that pressure at 15.3 MPa
produced the highest densities for each ratio of briquettes,
while the pressure at 5.1 MPa produced the lowest den-
sities. In general, 80-20% briquettes at a pressure of
15.3 MPa had the highest density of 0.37 g/cm
3
, and the
lowest density of 0.28 g/cm
3
was seen in the 100% bri-
quettes at the same pressure. These values are slightly less
than the 0.63 g/cm
3
maximum and 0.54 g/cm
3
minimum
reported in Birwatkar et al. [27], and 0.56 g/cm
3
in Antwi-
Boasiako & Acheampong [42]. However, they are similar to
the lower density values of 0.31 g/cm
3
reported in Sotande
et al. [55], 0.38 g/cm
3
in (46), and 0.37 g/cm
3
, 0.35 g/cm
3
,
and 0.32 g/cm
3
for three different particle sizes in Mitchual
et al.,[56]. The results agree with the suggestions that a
hydraulic piston press produces briquettes that are usually
less than 1.00 g/cm
3
[42]. The differences in density could
be attributed to the type of binder and pressure applied
[46]. From the results, it can be implied that the greater
the pressure, the higher the density, which is also deter-
mined by the ratio of fibre and binder. Increase in density
improves the strength of the briquettes at least for the pur-
pose of handling characteristics [57], but could also com-
promise combustion properties like burning rate [58]
Shatter index of briquette
Borowski [59] observed that shatter index should attain a
value higher than 90% for easy handling and transporta-
tion. In the work of Birwatkar et al [27], the maximum aver-
age shatter resistance was found to be 94.46% in
25:25:40:10 ratio of dried mango leaves, dried acacia leaves,
saw dust and cow dung binder combination, respectively.
Figure 7 shows the shatter index (%) of briquettes of
Figure 5. Moisture content (%) in briquettes of varying mixture ratio at different pressures.
Figure 6. Density (g/cm
3
) of briquettes of varying mixture ratio at different pressures.
BIOFUELS 5
varying fibre/binder ratios at different pressures. The high-
est shatter index readings of >99% were seen in the
100% paper briquette and this was due to the excellent
binding of paper pulp. The higher the ratio of paper pulp,
the higher the percentage shatter resistance. The 50–50%
briquettes had the lowest shatter index of <90% and sug-
gest that they may not be suitable for handling and trans-
portation. This latter result is consistent with the assertions
of Antwi-Boasiako and Acheampong [42] and Li and Zhang
[60], where they stated that greater shatter index is indica-
tive of high durability to gravitational deterioration
Calorific value of briquettes
The calorific value of any biofuel including briquette is an
important characteristic. It is a determinant of the amount
of heat energy present in a biomass material [61] and
could also influence market value in terms of price, as
stated in [42]. In this study, all the briquettes, except for
the 100% ratio, contained calorific values >18 MJ/kg at all
pressures applied. The lower values for the 100% briquettes
could be attributed to high moisture content and as such a
decreased calorific value [62]. However, the 50–50% bri-
quette had the highest calorific values ranging between
18.84 and 18.99 MJ/kg (Figure 8), indicative of higher effi-
ciency as an energy source [63]. The values are also closely
comparable to 18.53 MJ/kg elephant grass briquette and
18.09 MJ/kg spear grass briquette [64] but fared better
than 17.83 MJ/kg rice straw and sugarcane leaves [65],
17.7 MJ/kg banana leaves briquette [26] and 16.68 MJ/kg
paper/sawdust briquettes [66]. The high energy density
may have been as a result of appreciable calorific values of
waste papers as reported by Bro
zek, [67]. The values
reported in this study can satisfactorily produce enough
heat required for household cooking and other commercial
applications [68–71]. Results of the experiments revealed
that calorific value negatively correlates with moisture con-
tent (r¼0.98) but is relatively positive with density
(r¼0.56). Comparatively, the low correlation does not
affect the quality of the briquette except beyond a certain
limit. It is important that briquettes are produced with a
lower moisture content since they are so valued due to its
influence on calorific value, storage management and han-
dling properties [72]
Figure 7. Shatter index (%) of briquettes of varying mixture ratio at different pressures.
Figure 8. Calorific Value (MJ/kg) of briquettes of varying mixture ratio at different pressures.
6 S. Y. ZAINUDDIN ET AL.
Conclusions and future prospects
This study confirmed that the briquettes produced from a
mixture of paper pulp/Mesua ferrea dried leaves, which are
garden waste, exhibit great potentials for use as viable and
economical domestic fuel. The relatively high shatter index
suggests that the proposed briquettes can be handled and
transported with minimal concern for disintegration. The
moisture content of the proposed briquettes is within
acceptable limits and has minimal impact on its calorific
value. The briquettes exhibited calorific values that are con-
siderably high and comparable to agriculture waste bri-
quette. Furthermore, paper pulp was used in this study
both as raw material and as a binder with dried leaves,
without relying on food substances like starch. Additionally,
paper pulp enhances the briquette to be produced under
mild temperature and low-compaction pressure. This study
views vast opportunities for garden waste as suitable
source of biomass for briquette production. The lower car-
bon, sulfur and chlorine contents of biomass have a great
potential to reduce emissions formed during combustion.
However, to fully assess the quality of briquettes from the
biomass material used, the study recommends that other
compression conditions like temperature, and feedstock
properties like particle size be investigated in future works.
It also recommends the production and evaluation of bri-
quettes from leaves of other ornamental trees typically
planted in city parks. This would help reduce pollution on
the environment and possibly add to the energy mix.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This study is supported by UPM Insentif Putra (grant no. 9444400) and
UPM Geran Putra (grant no. 9608400). The authors would like to thank
Mr Abdul Ghafar and Mr Mohamad Azrul Gani for their support during
the completion of this study.
ORCID
S. Y. Kpalo http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6780-4105
M. F. Zainuddin http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5652-0310
Z. Abbas http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4284-7149
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