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A Critical Analysis of Different Power Quality Improvement Techniques in Microgrid

March 2024

March 2024
8(9):100520

DOI:10.1016/j.prime.2024.100520

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Subhashree Choudhury

Siksha O Anusandhan University

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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

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A critical analysis of different power quality improvement techniques

in microgrid

Subhashree Choudhury

, Gagan Kumar Sahoo

Department of EEE, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed To Be University, Bhubaneswar, India

Department of EE, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed To Be University, Bhubaneswar, India

ARTICLE INFO

Keywords:

Active power lter (APF)

Distributed generation (DG)

FACTS

Optimization techniques (OTs)

Harmonics reduction

MicroGrid (MG)

Power quality (PQ)

Renewable energy

SUMMARY

Recently, the exponential decay of traditional petroleum and coal-based reserves with the ever-rising energy

demand has led to the need for alternate energy sources. Distributed Generation (DG) based on renewable energy

sources serves as a viable alternative solution for researchers to counter the issue of rising load. Hence the use of

renewable energy sources is of utmost priority. Renewable non-traditional energy resources also have the

advantage of being an unlimited energy source and climate-friendly in nature. In this context, distributed micro-

generating units come into the picture, popularly known as MicroGrid (MG). The MGs are small-scale resources

generating electrical energy and connected to the main utility through power electronic converters. The main

drawbacks associated with MGs are their association with converters and switching devices, which leads to the

injection of disturbances in the power system. Due to the tremendous use of MGs in modern power systems, the

inherent intermittent nature of the renewable sources increased inltration of nonlinear loads, and the distrib-

uted nature of micro-generating units, huge power quality (PQ) issues are observed hazardous to both generation

and supply ends. PQ issues could be either the reactive power compensation or the generation of harmonics that

hamper the normal functioning of the electrical energy system. To maintain healthy transmission and distri-

bution of electrical power, these issues must be taken care of utmost priority. Because of customer satisfaction,

utilities have adopted many protable schemes and power quality improvement methods. In this regard, around

350 recent review articles have been comprehensively surveyed, and a detailed discussion about regulation of

power quality issues using the lters, controllers, Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), optimization

techniques (OTs), and machine learning tools with modern and advanced control techniques have been high-

lighted in this review article. A clear idea regarding power quality and its enhancement in MG has been pre-

sented. The technical and economic aspects have also been projected in brief. In addition, an in-depth study

covering all challenges has been cited, and possible solutions in the future for hassle-free PQ improvement have

been suggested in detail. It is believed that this review article would serve as an efcient background for re-

searchers, academicians, electrical engineers, industrialists, and manufacturers working towards the hassle-free

operation of MGs by efcient PQ issues mitigation.

Abbreviations: DG, distributed generation; MG, microgrid; PQ, power quality; FACTS, exible ac transmission systems; OTs, optimization techniques; DERs,

distributed energy resources; MLTs, machine learning tools; PPFs, passive power lters; PV, photovoltaics; APFs, active power lters; HPFs, hybrid power lters; PI,

proportional integral; PR, proportional resonant; MIMO, multiple-input and multiple-output; FL, fuzzy logic; ANN, articial neural network; SVC, static var

compensator; TSC, thyristor switched capacitor; TCR, thyristor controlled reactor; TCSC, thyristor controlled series compensator; ATC, available transfer capability;

DSTATCOM, distributed static synchronous compensator; DFACTS, distributed FACTS; DTCSC, distributed thyristor-controlled series compensator; DSSC, distributes

static series compensator; DSFC, distributed switched lter compensator; ZVRT, zero-voltage-ride-through; PSO, particle swarm optimization; PP-FFO, predator-prey

based rey optimization; GOA, grasshopper optimization algorithm; DVR, dynamic voltage restorer; BA, bat algorithm; PSO-GWO, PSO-grey wolf optimiser; SSWO,

salp swarm optimization; CDOA, collecting decision optimization algorithm; TEO, thermal exchange optimization; CSO, crow search optimization; BCO, bee colony

optimization; WSAA, weighted superposition attraction algorithm; SOA, seeker optimization algorithm; SMO, spider monkey optimization; GA, genetic algorithm;

DE, differential evolution; PCC, point of common coupling; EVs, electric vehicles; UPS, uninterruptible power supply; APC, active power conditioner; UPQC, unied

power quality conditioners; CPDs, custom power devices; IDFA, improved discrete rey algorithm; VSI, voltage source inverter; CSI, current source inverter; HRES,

hybrid renewable energy system; ASO, atom search optimization; FFT, fast Fourier transform; FLC, fuzzy logic controller; PMU, phasor measurement unit; ADALINE,

adaptive linear combiner; KF, Kalman ltering; HT, Hilbert transform.

* Corresponding author.

E-mail address: subhashreechoudhury@soa.ac.in (S. Choudhury).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical

Engineering, Electronics and Energy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/prime

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prime.2024.100520

Received 15 November 2023; Received in revised form 8 February 2024; Accepted 18 March 2024

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

Introduction

Recently, most countries have started to adopt renewable energy-

based DGs, leaving behind conventional energy sources due to their

limitations such as environmental pollution, depletion of fossil fuels,

very low energy efciency, non-exible and ageing. The concept of MG

refers to an assemblage of several micro-generating units popularly

known as DGs, which can operate alone and can be connected to the

main utility through power electronic-based converters [1]. The various

DG units are solar, hydro, biomass, wind, fuel cells, and microturbine

[2]. The modes of operation are popularly referred to as islanded mode

(supplying own loads only and detached from the utility) and

grid-connected mode (connected to the main grid). The random distant

location and a huge number of micro resources lead to the use of power

converters which helps in promoting exibility in control and better

operation of the overall power system. However, this power electronic

interface gives rise to an abundance of PQ hindrances such as the in-

jection of harmonics and disturbances in the system [3–5]. These dis-

turbances are dangerous and can cause mal-operation of load and

source-side equipment and overheating, which must be taken care of.

These disturbances are commonly termed PQ issues. Several PQ issues

exist in an MG system, such as harmonic distortion, voltage imbalance,

voltage sag, voltage swell, voltage interruption, transient phenomenon,

frequency deviation, etc.[6]. These PQ issues should be taken care of for

the efcient operation of the MG system and the effective utilization of

the power at the load side. This study provides an elaborate discussion of

the PQ issues and their mitigation methods associated with recent and

future trends.

Authors have also reported the operation of an MG, where the

optimized planning and working of the MG are discussed to increase the

longevity, considering the climatic issues [7]. The MG control and

construction, along with the dynamics, are also discussed [8]. A sum-

mary of the types, modes of operation, control, and coordination of a

typical MG is presented. The PQ may be dened as the prociency of the

utility grid to deliver consumers consistent, ideal, and continuous

power. The control of MG is of vital importance as it deals with the

coordination among the DGs and affords power-sharing according to the

load demand between the DGs. The authors have discussed the classi-

cation of MG control schemes into three levels: primary, secondary,

and tertiary [9]. Primary and secondary levels deal with the operation of

the MG itself, while the tertiary level concerns the coordinated operation

of the MG. The use of multiple uses of Distributed Energy Resources

(DERs) is suggested by researchers with storage devices and controllable

loads [10]. Authors have proposed the modelling and investigation of

the independent action of inverter-based MG, where each sub-section is

designed in the state-space method, and all are united collectively

through a common reference frame [11]. The researchers have proposed

the smaller potential DERs that can encounter consumer needs and can

be attached to the grid by unifying these resources into MG [12]. In this

way, a bidirectional ow of power can be possible, allowing a lesser

burden on the grid for power production. This active and reactive

power-controlling approach of electronically integrated DG units has

been suggested by authors, where a multiple-DG MG system environ-

ment is considered [13]. According to load data, the optimized distri-

bution of energy is discussed, where individual DGs provide their energy

receiving and collecting data [14]. The grid can be broadly divided into

AC or DC grids, in both types of grids, the instruments and equipment

are dissimilar, and both may operate independently or combinedly. In

this context, the exploration of power-sharing concerns of a

self-governing hybrid MG is studied, apart from a purely AC grid, the

hybrid MG comprises DC and AC sub-grids unied through power

electronic interfaces [15]. The governing of a complex MG is vital as it

takes care of control, coordination, and distribution of power between

micro resources in different ways, as suggested by various researchers

[16–18].

The PQ associated with various disturbances must remain within

specied limits. According to IEEE Std. 1250–2011, the PQ factors such

as voltage deviation must be maintained within an acceptable range

within 10% of the nominal limit in the MG system. The power factor

must be equivalent to or more than 0.9 as given in IEC 60831-1/2

standard. The voltage/current harmonic is limited to within 5%, as

denoted in IEEE Std. 519–2014. The frequency distortion must be within

±0.1 Hz as notied in IEEE Std.1159–2009 [19]. These limitations

request consistent and procient control, which must be connected so

that PQ should be preserved systematically and effectively during

grid-connected and islanded levels of operation. PQ may be dened as

the capacity of the grid to deliver a spotless and steady ow of electric

power. The power components such as voltage and current must have a

pure sinusoidal waveform, and the power must be constrained within

acceptable voltage and frequency tolerances. The PQ issues as discussed

above can be hazardous to the MG system, hence these must be

controlled by specic and advanced techniques. Fig. 1 illustrates the

review methodology undertaken in this present survey article.

The primary contributions of this review article include:

1) In this research work, various techniques that have been incorpo-

rated into the literature for PQ issues mitigation have been meticu-

lously reviewed and explored in detail.

2) A deep insight into PQ and enhancement in MG has been presented.

3) Around 350 recent research papers have been comprehensively

surveyed. In addition, a detailed discussion about the regulation of

PQ issues using the Filters, Controllers, FACTS, OTs, Compensators,

Conditioners, and Machine Learning Tools has been highlighted.

4) A comprehensive evaluation of technical and economic aspects has

been presented.

5) An in-depth study covering all challenges has been cited, and

possible solutions in the future for hassle-free PQ improvement have

been suggested in detail.

6) This comprehensive survey paper is believed to serve as an efcient

background for researchers, academicians, electrical engineers, in-

dustrialists, and manufacturers working in the eld of PQ

enhancement.

The entire article has been categorized into the following sections: In

Section 2, details about PQ and its issues have been highlighted. A

thorough study of the various PQ mitigation techniques has been pre-

sented in Section 3. The technical and economic aspects have been

projected in Section 4. The challenges faced and the possible solutions

for hassle-free PQ improvement in the future have been suggested in

Section 5. Finally, in Section 6, the conclusions have been discussed.

Power quality and overview of issues

The utilization of nonlinear power electronics loads has posed

threats among the industrial and commercial utilities, consumers, and

manufacturers, thus making the quality of the electrical power produced

a vital factor [20]. Nowadays, sustaining the electrical power quality

under suitable indices is a chief concern [21]. Therefore, the power grid

should ensure the customers with a consistent, safe, and uninterrupted

power supply. Power quality is usually manifested as the ability to

maintain a near sinusoidal voltage or current waveform with a partic-

ular rated magnitude and frequency [22]. Any deviation to the wave-

forms is termed a PQ issue, leading to the electrical power grid system

[23]. PQ issues may pose several problems to the power grid network,

such as more losses, interference with neighbouring communication

lines, maloperation of equipment, etc. Therefore, optimizing several

factors such as voltage, frequency, real and reactive power imbalance,

and harmonics is the primary need for ensuring the reliable operation of

the MG.

Various PQ disturbances associated with MG as reported in the

literature are as follows: 1) voltage sag, 2) voltage swell, 3) voltage

unbalance, 4) voltage spike, 5) voltage uctuation, 6) voltage icker, 7)

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

Fig. 1. Review methodology undertaken in this present survey article.

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

interruptions, 8) harmonics, 9) noise, 10) switching transients [23,24]

The voltage sags and the transients are reported to have the maximum

and minimum contribution towards the PQ disturbances. The compre-

hensive research on PQ consists of detecting, classifying, and mitigating

methods of PQ. Many authors have reported the numerous methods

facilitating the detection and classication of various PQ events in the

literature [25–30].

Integration of DERs in the form of MG plays a vital role in enhancing

the overall system reliability, efciency, and security, and meeting the

requirements of the end-users. MG can supply the critical loads by either

operating in islanded or grid-connected mode during the power failure

from the main grids [30,31]. The seamless operation of static transfer

switch employed with robust controllers helps to perform the transition

of one mode to another mode of operation [32]. PQ disturbances such as

voltage swells and sags are predominant in a smaller and weaker MG

[33,34]. In islanded operation, the PQ issues such as voltage distortion

and unbalance are most likely to occur, whereas, in grid-tied mode,

voltage sags have frequent occurrence [35]. Properly selecting inverter

and associated control strategies play a signicant role in mitigating

power quality problems in MG [36,37]. Table 1 demonstrates the

different PQ issues highlighting the cause, effects, category, and dura-

tion of occurrence.

Power quality enhancement techniques for microgrid

Power quality can be termed MG’s capacity to deliver a spotless and

steady ow of electric power. The power components such as voltage

and current must have a pure sinusoidal waveform, and the power must

Table 1

PQ types, causes, effects, category, and duration.

PQ Issue Types Causes Effects Category Duration

Voltage Sag [38] ✓ Energizing of transformer

✓ Switching of heavy loads

✓ Faults on network

✓ Starting of large motors

✓ Faults on the consumer’s installation side

✓ Tripping of sensitive

equipment and protecting relays

✓ Efciency loss and

disconnection for rotating

machines

✓ Short duration

✓ Instantaneous

✓ Momentary

✓ Temporary

✓ 0.5 to 30 cycles

✓ 30 cycles to 3 s

✓ 3 s to 1 min

Voltage Swell

[39]

✓ Turning up of large loads

✓ Improperly regulated transformers during off-peak hours

✓ Loss of stored data

✓ Damage to delicate power

electronics interface units

✓ Hardware failure

✓ Short duration

✓ Instantaneous

✓ Momentary

✓ Temporary

✓ 0.5 to 30 cycles

✓ 30 cycles to 3 s

✓ 3 s to 1 min

Voltage

Unbalance [40]

✓ Load variation

✓ Due to voltage variation where magnitude and phase angle differences

between the phases are unequal.

✓ Torque pulsation

✓ Enhanced vibration and

mechanical stress

✓ More losses

✓ Overheating of motor

✓ Long duration ✓ Steady State

Voltage Spike

[41]

✓ Lightning

✓ Due to static electricity

✓ Magnetic elds

✓ Internal changes in voltage use

✓ Turning off heavy loads

✓ Interference

✓ Maloperation of electronic

units

✓ Damage to insulation materials

✓ Loss of data

✓ Short duration ✓ <3 nano-sec

Voltage

Fluctuation

[42]

✓ Loose connections

✓ Continuous switching ON and OFF of oscillatory loads and elevators

✓ Arc furnaces

✓ Produces deteriorated power

quality and discomfort

✓ Disruption of production

processes

✓ Affects the vision process and

brain reaction

✓ Long/Short

duration

✓ >1 min

Voltage Flicker

[43]

✓ Fluctuation of the supply voltage

✓ Due to the use of large loads with rapid uctuation in active and reactive

power demand.

✓ Hampers the production by the

environment

✓ Causes personnel fatigue

among workers

✓ Reduces work concentration

levels

✓ Long/Short

duration

✓ 8 to 10 cycles

per sec

Interruptions

[44]

✓ Short interruptions are mainly due to the constant opening and closing of

safety equipment to remove the faulty part and due to the failure of insulation

✓ Long interruptions are mainly due to storms, wind, objects, humans, re,

failure of safety equipment, and failure of materials

✓ Tripping of protecting relays

and devices

✓ Information loss

✓ Misfunctioning of data

processing units

✓ Breakdown of all power

electronic components

✓ Short/ long

duration

✓ Momentary

✓ Temporary

✓ 0.5cycles-3 s.

✓ 3sec-1 min.

Harmonics [45] ✓ Due to the presence of nonlinear loads

✓ Due to the operation of a highly efcient lighting system

✓ Due to power electronic interfaces

✓ Due to the employment of variable frequency drives

✓ Leads to resonance

✓ Excessive heating of power

electronic equipment and cables

✓ Reduced efciency

✓ Interference with the

neighbouring communication

line

✓ Tripping of thermal protectors

✓ Wave

distortion

✓ Steady-state

✓ >2.5 min

Noise [46] ✓ Electromagnetic interferences provoked by Hertzian waves such as

microwaves, television diffusion, and radiation due to welding machines, arc

furnaces, and electronic equipment.

✓ Incorrect grounding

✓ Loss of stored data

✓ May create data processing

errors

✓ Creates issues on nonlinear

loads

✓ Wave

distortion

✓ Steady-state

Switching

Transients [47]

✓ Any abrupt change in the circuit

✓ Switching of devices

✓ Static discharge

✓ Arcing furnace

✓ This leads to the degradation of

insulation

✓ May cause ashover

✓ May lead to total equipment

damage

✓ Short duration ✓ Micro‑sec to

several milli-sec

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

be constrained within acceptable voltage and frequency tolerances. The

PQ issues as discussed above can be hazardous to the MG system, hence

these must be controlled by specic, robust, and advanced techniques.

In this regard, a thorough review of the literature has been carried out,

and in-depth ideas about various PQ mitigation techniques have been

highlighted, such as 1) Filters, 2) Controllers, 3) FACT Devices, 4) OTs,

5) Compensators, 6) Conditioners and 7) Machine Learning Tools

(MLTs). Fig. 2 illustrates the overall techniques employed for PQ issues

mitigation.

Filters

Filters play a vital role in regulating harmonics, compensating real

power and neutral current, reducing voltage ickers and unbalance,

balancing loads, and mitigating voltage distortions, sags, and swells [43,

45,48–50]. The lters can be generally categorized into three types,

namely passive, active and hybrid power lters.

Passive power lters (PPFs)

A passive lter is the simplest among all lters and can be dened as

the grouping of passive elements such as capacitors and inductors

adjusted for a particular frequency or a range of frequencies [49]. Fig. 3

depicts a schematic representation of PPF. Numerous topologies of PPFs

are reported in the literature, such as series, shunt, low pass, high pass,

bandpass, band rejection, LCL, and LLC [51,52]. The passive lters are

utilized to overpower harmonic currents and minimize bias in voltage

which occurs in delicate components of the power system network.

Several literatures suggest using passive lters to mitigate PQ issues in

renewable energy systems such as photovoltaics (PV) and wind, electric

traction, and industrial power systems [53–57]. Authors have proposed

an optimization problem formulation to allocate and size single-tuned

passive lters in power distribution systems to minimize total har-

monic distortion [58]. However, the PPFs suffer from serious short-

comings such as: 1) the ltering property is heavily affected due to

resonance caused by source impedance, 2) the size is large, 3) limitation

in the reactive power compensation, 4) bulkier in size, 5) improper

tuning, 6) suffers from harmonic amplication issue, 7) dynamic

compensation is not possible, 8) needs many ltering units and 9) not

exible. Owing to the above-cited issues, the PPFs nd less utilization in

the case of a complex MG associated with multiple distributed genera-

tors. Further, due to the intermittent nature of DERs and the nonlinear

and variable nature of loads in modern power systems, the use of

equipment that can actively participate in mitigating the harmonic

components of current and at the same time could compensate the

reactive VARs is highly necessary. Therefore, the researchers opt to

implement the active power lters (APFs) in the power system network.

Active power lters (APFs)

APFs consist of power electronics interfaces and passive storage units

like inductors and capacitors, as shown in Fig. 4. APFs are the feasible

alternative over conventional PPFs due to many merits such as 1) fastest

dynamic response, 2) less volume and lighter in weight, 3) ability to

compensate harmonics and reactive power requirement of nonlinear

loads [59]. The APFs make a difference from passive lters because they

inject real power at the source frequency and the opposite phase to

mitigate the harmonic components [48]. The mitigation of harmonics

with the help of an active power lter for a PV and fuel-cell-based MG

system has been reported [60]. Furthermore, the authors have discussed

implementing an active power lter for current harmonics mitigation in

an industrial power system [61]. The APFs mostly nd their application

in medium power applications, thus facilitating active response to

voltage notch, voltage distortion, and power factor enhancement

[62–64]. Topologically, the active power lters are mainly of three types

Fig. 2. Overall techniques for PQ issues mitigation.

Fig. 3. Schematic structure of PPF.

Fig. 4. Schematic structure of APF.

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

such as series,[65] shunt,[66] and hybrid lter [67]. The hybrid lter is

the amalgamation of both series and shunt active lters. Depending on

the nature of the converter used, an APF can be either voltage source--

based,[68] or current source-based [69]. Basing on several phases, APFs

can be single-phase,[70] or three-phase types [71].

Hybrid power lters (HPFs)

The combination of PPFs and APFs results in the HPFs, as illustrated

in Fig. 5. They are assumed to be the best among other lters as they

combine the advantages of PPFs being cost-effective and the merits of

APFs for providing efcient harmonic mitigation and regulation of

voltage [72–75]. HPFs are reported to be available in different forms

such as single-phase,[76] three-phase three-wire,[77] and three-phase

four-wire [78]. Further, each type mentioned earlier can be classied

into active,[79] or passive types [80]. Many researchers have reported

the implementation of HPFs along with their control methods in various

elds such as PV,[81–85] wind energy,[86,87] electric traction,[87–89]

reducing inverter power rating,[90] and frequency regulation [91].

Further, a volume of work has been reported in the literature regarding

harmonic regulation [92–96]. The authors have also discussed the

analysis and control of new reduced switch count HPFs for ensuring high

output voltage at minimum distortions [97].

Controllers

Controllers play a signicant role in enhancing the system’s stability

and quality by regulating system voltage and frequency. The inverter of

the MG can be controlled through various methods depending on the

type of distributed generation resources used. A volume of research

work employing controllers as control methods has been suggested in

the literature to facilitate power quality issues mitigation. In this regard,

a rigorous review of many recent articles has been carried out, and a

summary regarding each type of controller used, its merits, demerits,

and application has been presented in Table 2.

FACTS devices

According to the IEEE, FACTS can be dened as: “Alternating current

transmission systems incorporating power electronic-based and other

static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer

capability” [141]. FACTS have been successfully employed in various

sectors such as MGs, renewable systems, electric vehicles, aircraft, etc.

facilitating many advantages such as 1) enhancement in the useable

capacity of transmission lines, 2) proper control of the power ow over

selected transmission paths, 3) improvement of power quality, 4)

strengthening of power system’s control, 5) delivers rapidity and exi-

bility to the transmission network, 6) deliberates electronically

controlled high voltage power ow by the use of high-speed power

electronic interfaces and algorithms, 7) allows increased loading of the

transmission lines thus making the operation nearer to the thermal

limits and 8) efcient damping of harmful power system oscillations

[142]. According to their connection, FACTS devices can be of several

types: series, shunt, and combined series-shunt. A detailed discussion of

some basic FACTS devices and their applications in power quality

enhancement as a technique is highlighted in the following subsections

after a meticulous literature survey.

Static var compensator (SVC)

SVC came into existence in the 1970s and is referred to as the rst

generation of FACTS controllers as it is controlled with the help of a

thyristor [143]. It is a shunt-connected electrical controller which injects

reactive power into the system and controls various parameters of the

electrical grid network. Incorporation of SVC into MG serves many ad-

vantages such as 1) proper exchange of capacitive or inductive power for

controlling various system parameters, 2) faster response, 3) highly

capable and reliability as compared to other synchronous condensators,

4) better improvement in voltage quality, 5) efcient in mitigating

voltage oscillations, 6) good regulation of voltage transmission, 7)

supports and stabilizes the power grid effectively, 8) high accuracy, 9)

ease of availability and 10) helps control of reactive power for

enhancement in system’s transient stability, reduction in system losses

and effective damping of ickers and swings [142]. Fig. 6 illustrates the

typical circuit diagram of SVC consisting of two blocks connected in

parallel, namely Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) and Thyristor

Controlled Reactor (TCR) [144]. These blocks play the primary role in

varying the circuit reactance based on the thyristor’s partial conduction.

Authors in literature have reported SVC to play an essential role in

various elds with numerous applications, some of which are summa-

rized in Table 3.

Thyristor controlled series compensator (TCSC)

Depending on the technological characteristics, TCSC has been

classied as the rst generation of FACTS devices. TCSC was rst

installed in 1992 and enhanced the transmission network capacity by

30% [165]. It is a series-connected device consisting of a

thyristor-controlled reactor in a shunt with many parallel capacitor

banks to generate smooth variable series capacitive reactance [166].

Fig. 7 shows a simple circuit of a TCSC. Combining an inductor in shunt

with a series capacitor facilitates proper control of equivalent reactance

of the transmission system and empowers a continuous and quick vari-

ation in the series compensation system. The primary functions of TCSC

in an MG include 1) proper power ow control, 2) mitigation of

sub-synchronous resonance, 3) prevent the ow of short circuit current,

4) improvement in the system’s transient and dynamic stability, 5)

damping out harmful oscillations, 6) enhancement in power transfer

capability, 7) ability to operate near thermal and electric limits by

increasing the loading on the power line and 8) can transmit more real

power [167–169]. A rigorous review of the literature based on TCSC

applications in different elds, as suggested by many researchers, has

been carried out in this article, and some of them are presented in

Table 4.

Distributed static synchronous compensator (DSTATCOM)

The DFACTS (Distributed FACTS) are the last-generation controllers

mostly employed in the distribution system. Unlike conventional FACTS

devices, DFACTS is a new concept introduced recently that possesses the

Fig. 5. Conguration of HPF.

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

advantages of having a modular structure and loss cost for efcient power

ow control [188]. Further, it also has the capability of effective dynamic

control of the line impedance, enhancing system controllability and

reliability, improving utilization of assets, and ensuring better power

quality to end users with reduced environmental hazard and cost, which

makes it a superior candidate for extensive deployment in the power

system network [189]. There are many types of DFACTS reported in the

literature, namely DSTATCOM,[190] Distributed Thyristor-Controlled

Series Compensator (DTCSC),[191] Distributes Static Series Compen-

sator (DSSC),[192] Distributed Switched Filter compensator (DSFC),

[193] etc. Among all, the DSTATCOM-based DFACTS device has been

reported to serve as a powerful FACTS controller having the capability to

compensate currents regarding PQ events. It is usually a voltage source

inverter comprising a current-controlled insulated-gate bipolar transistor

Table 2

Merits, demerits and applications of different control strategies for PQ enhancement.

Control Strategy Merits Demerits Application

Proportional Integral

(PI)

✓ Easy to implement

✓ System response is linear

✓ No steady-state error

✓ Regulation of fundamental

components is possible

✓ Fails to respond to nonlinear and imbalanced systems

✓ Stability covers a very narrow range

✓ Poor dynamic and transient response

✓ Renewable energy resources

integration [98]

✓ Dual instantaneous power theory [99]

✓ Dynamic Voltage Restorer [100]

✓ Industrial electrical drives [101]

✓ Doubly fed induction generator [102]

Proportional

Resonant (PR)

✓ The ability to introduce an innite

gain at the fundamental frequency

✓ Can achieve zero steady-state error

✓ The decoupling method and complex

transformation are not required.

✓ The capability of attaining higher

gains

✓ Robust current controller

✓ Fails to operate at any other frequency apart from the tuning

frequency

✓ Provides low gain and cannot regulate the reference signal is

made to work at any other frequency rather than the resonant

frequency

✓ A wind power converter [103]

✓ Smart household [104]

✓ PV [105]

✓ Micro hydropower generation [106]

✓ Multilevel inverter control [107]

✓ Multifunctional capacitive-coupling

grid-connected inverter [108]

✓ Converters for renewable energy

resources [109]

Hysteresis ✓ Simple in structure

✓ Overall system dynamics are

satisfactory

✓ It does not depend on load parameters

✓ Robust working

✓ Faster response

✓ The fundamental period may change the switching frequency

resulting in irregular inverter working

✓ Lower-order harmonics are not ltered out

✓ Operation at higher power is not possible due to switching

losses.

✓ Capacitance reduction in a 1-φ Quasi

Z-Source Inverter [110]

✓ Power Quality Enhancement [111]

✓ MG application [112]

✓ Grid-tied Solar systems [113]

Repetitive ✓ Capable of mitigating frequent

disturbances

✓ Robust operation

✓ Ability to maintain zero steady-state

error at any frequency.

✓ Fails to show efcient stability when the disturbances at the load

end are not periodic

✓ Sluggish response due to uncertainty of load.

✓ In Synchronous Rotational Frame

[114]

✓ 3-φ, 4-Wire SAPF [115]

✓ MG application [116]

Dead Beat ✓ The structure is very simple

✓ The dynamic response is the fastest

✓ Accuracy is more

✓ Requires a high rate of sampling for operation

✓ Depends on system parameters

✓ Smart-grids [117]

✓ Grid-connected inverters [118]

✓ Wind energy [119]

✓ Aircraft [120]

✓ Solar energy [121]

H-innity ✓ Robust to any load variations

✓ Modular in structure

✓ Quick response

✓ Consumes less energy for operation

✓ The overall cost is less

✓ It can be applied to multiple-input and

multiple-output (MIMO) systems

✓ Enhanced performance

✓ System modelling is complex

✓ Requires high-level knowledge of mathematics for modelling

the control unit

✓ Aircraft systems [122]

✓ MGs [123]

✓ Electric Vehicle [124]

✓ Grid-connected converters [125]

✓ MG and energy storage units [126]

✓ Fuel cell [127]

✓ Photovoltaic generation systems

[128]

✓ Wind energy [129]

Fuzzy Logic (FL) ✓ Simple in computation

✓ Can handle system non-linearity

✓ Convergence speed is good

✓ Can control single or multiple inputs

and output system

✓ Illustration of the knowledge about

the control action is easy

✓ Design is complicated

✓ Dependent on the performance of the expert’s knowledge and

experience

✓ Needs a proper choice of parameters, the denition of

membership functions, and the fuzzy rules

✓ Operation is quite slow

✓ Hybrid FC-PV-Wind-Battery energy

utilization scheme [130]

✓ Commercial airplane [131]

✓ PV and battery-based system [132]

✓ MG with battery-based energy storage

system [133]

✓ Photovoltaic with partial shading

effects [134]

✓ DSTATCOM based MG [135]

Articial Neural

Network (ANN)

✓ Holds high fault-tolerant abilities

✓ The ability to store a huge amount of

information over a network

✓ Capability to operate with incomplete

information

✓ Robust to faults

✓ Weights require proper training

✓ Manufacturing costs are higher

✓ Only numeric data can be fed as input

✓ Depends on the user’s ability

✓ Electric vehicles [136]

✓ Wind energy-based DC MGs [137]

✓ Harmonic mitigation in the solar

system [138]

✓ Multilevel inverter [139]

✓ Wavelet-based islanding detection in

AC MGs [140]

Fig. 6. Typical circuit diagram of SVC.

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

that is being fed from a DC voltage source. A schematic diagram of

DSTATCOM is shown in Fig. 8. DSTATCOM has several advantages such

as 1) helps in power factor correction, 2) compensation of harmonics, 3)

facilitates load balancing, 4) ability to generate the rated current at

virtually any network voltage, 5) better dynamic response and 6) uses

moderately small capacitor on the DC bus [194]. Table 5 highlights some

of the major implementations of DSTATCOM in numerous elds.

Optimization techniques (OTs)

OTs play a signicant role in overall PQ enhancement in an MG.

Various authors have implemented and reported the advantages of

incorporating numerous OTs as controllers by considering the lters,

controllers, and power-sharing methods as the optimization constraints

[216]. The major advantage of OTs is that they can be employed in any

either linear or nonlinear system in an autonomous or grid-tied mode of

operation. A thorough review of the articles presented by researchers on

OTs as a supreme controller for PQ mitigation in MG and other appli-

cations has been carried out in this section and is summarized in Table 6.

Compensators

Compensators nd their primary application mostly in renewable-

based DERs and MGs to ensure low current harmonic distortion and

generation of enhanced power quality. Many research papers highlight

the impact of compensators in attenuating current harmonics in an MG

[252,253]. Some of the major contributions of the compensators for PQ

enhancement in MG and other power system networks are listed in

Table 7.

Conditioners

A conditioner is also termed a power line conditioner, which is

usually a device that aims to enhance the PQ delivered to electrical load

Table 3

Literature survey citing the SVC applications in numerous elds.

Application Field Major Effect of SVC Implementation

Wind generator [145,146] ✓ Voltage prole enhancement

✓ Enhancement in voltage stability and low-

voltage ride-through capability

Electric railways [147,148] ✓ Compensation of harmonic and negative

sequence components in the power system

✓ Voltage stability improvement

Low voltage grids [149] ✓ Mitigation of voltage uctuation and reactive

power compensation

Arc Furnace [150–153] ✓ Voltage icker mitigation

Solar PV system [154–156] ✓ Active and Reactive power management

✓ Stability Improvement

Fuel cell-wind-diesel hybrid

power system [157–159]

✓ Enhanced dynamic response

✓ Reactive power control

Electric Vehicles [160,161] ✓ Power factor improvement of the distribution

system

✓ Improvement of voltage proles and reduction

of losses of unbalanced multiphase smart grid

Two machine system [162] ✓ Transient stability improvement

Energy storage units in MGs

[163]

✓ Mitigation of switching over-voltages in MGs

MG [164] ✓ Proper Voltage Sag Investigation

Fig. 7. Simple circuit of TCSC.

Table 4

Literature review citing the TCSC applications in different elds.

Application Field Major Effect of TCSC Implementation

Interconnected multi-source

power system [170–172]

✓ Effective oscillations damping

✓ Mitigation of inter-area oscillations

✓ Power system stability

Grid-connected Solar Farms

[173–175]

✓ Improvement of Power Quality and

Performance

Wind energy [176,177] ✓ Mitigating subsynchronous resonance

✓ Analysis and protection of transmission lines

Electried railway [178,179] ✓ Low-Frequency Oscillation Suppression

Electric vehicle [180,181] ✓ Low-Frequency Oscillation Suppression

✓ Stability Improvement

MG [182,183] ✓ Intelligent voltage and reactive power

management

✓ Enhancement of stability and Available

Transfer Capability (ATC) of transmission lines.

Energy Storage [184,185] ✓ Transmission Expansion Planning

Directional relaying [186] ✓ Fault direction estimation technique

IEEE Fourteen Bus Power System

Network [187]

✓ Power transmission congestion management

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of DSTATCOM.

Table 5

Literature review citing the DSTATCOM implementations in different elds.

Application Field Major Effect of DSTATCOM Implementation

Grid-connected PV system

[195–197]

✓ Power quality improvements employing active

current control

Hybrid renewable energy

system [198]

✓ Enhancement of low-voltage ride-through

capability

Multi-grounded distribution

network [199]

✓ Voltage compensation

Wind energy [200–202] ✓ Distribution Network Compensation

✓ Thermal and reliability assessment in MGs

✓ Adaptive reactive power control in weak AC grid

Energy storage unit [203,

204]

✓ Power quality improvement in the distribution

network

✓ Mitigate Grid Disturbances with Solar Energy

Penetration

Hybrid wind and energy

storage systems [205]

✓ Intelligent voltage and reactive power

management

✓ Enhancement of stability and ATC of transmission

lines.

MGs [135,206–210] ✓ Economic load sharing

✓ Enhancement in power quality

✓ Harmonic mitigation

✓ Low-voltage ride-through characteristics and

capability to support the utility grid during external

faults

✓ Enhancement in voltage regulation

Diesel generator [211,212] ✓ Compensation of the neutral current, harmonic

current, reactive power, and unbalanced load

Multilevel inverter

[213–215]

✓ Effective Load Compensation

✓ Zero-voltage-ride-through (ZVRT) capability

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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

Table 6

Literature review citing the OTs applications in different elds.

OTs Application Field Major Effect of OTs Implementation

Particle Swarm Optimization

(PSO) [217–224]

✓ Autonomous MG

✓ Grid-connected fuel cell

✓ Grid-tied PV

✓ AC MG

✓ PV-based DC MG

✓ Grid-tied MG system

✓ Power quality enhancement

✓ Intelligent frequency control

✓ Proper regulation of voltage and frequency

✓ Optimal Energy Scheduling

✓ Overcomes partial shading impact

✓ Economic Optimization of Electricity Generation and Sales

Predator-Prey based Firey

Optimization (PP-FFO) [225]

✓ Power system network ✓ Optimal design of shunt active power lter for power quality

enhancement

Grasshopper Optimization

Algorithm (GOA) [226]

✓ Dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) ✓ Robust control of DVR and power quality enhancement

Hybrid algorithm: a combination

of PSO and Bat Algorithm (BA)

[227]

✓ Distributed solar PV-based MG ✓ Robust capacity conguration optimization

Hybrid PSO-Grey Wolf Optimiser

(PSO-GWO) [228]

✓ Solar/wind/bio-generator/diesel/battery-based MGs ✓ Optimal planning of MG

Salp Swarm Optimization

(SSWO) [228,229]

✓ Grid-tied AC MG

✓ Three-Phase Soft Starter-Based Induction Motor

✓ Dynamic response enhancement

✓ Mitigate Transients

Novel Collecting Decision

Optimization Algorithm

(CDOA) [230]

✓ Hybrid Power Source-Based solid oxide fuel cell and

Supercapacitor for Grid Integration

✓ Enhanced Dynamic Performance

Thermal Exchange Optimization

Technique (TEO) [231]

✓ Hybrid Energy Storage Systems ✓ Supervisory State of Charge and State of Power Management Control

Crow Search Optimization

Technique (CSO) [43]

✓ Grid-Tied Solid Oxide Fuel Cell ✓ Improvement of Performance and Quality of Power in Grid

Novel Bee Colony Optimization

(BCO) [232]

✓ Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) ✓ Voltage Flicker Compensation

Novel Weighted Superposition

Attraction Algorithm (WSAA)

[233]

✓ Islanded System with Battery and SuperCapacitor-based Hybrid

Energy Storage System

✓ for the State of Charge and Power Management

Modied PSO [234] ✓ Solar ✓ Harmonic Cancelation

Hybrid Fuzzy Logic and Seeker

Optimization Algorithm (SOA),

[36]

SOA based on PI [235]

✓ Among micro-sources and supercapacitors in an islanded MG

✓ Between hybrid PV and SOFC in an islanded MG

✓ Grid-connected diesel generator

✓ Optimal energy management

✓ Economic load sharing

✓ Power quality enhancement

Spider Monkey Optimization

Technique (SMO) [236]

✓ Unied Design of power system stabilizer and TCSC ✓ Efcient damping of Inter-Area Oscillations

Genetic Algorithm (GA) [237] ✓ MG ✓ Optimized power generation

Differential Evolution (DE) [238,

239]

✓ Grid-connected MG ✓ Dynamic cost analysis

✓ Operating cost reduction under real-time pricing

Ordered Flower Pollination

Algorithm [240]

✓ Solar PV system ✓ Improved MPPT Tracking Time by 85%

✓ Reduction in tracking time

✓ Increase in the efciency

Optimized Ten Check Algorithm

(OTCA) [241]

✓ 4S2P PV system conguration ✓ Enhanced MPPT speed and efciency

✓ Better settling time

HOMER Software [242] ✓ Microgrid system that supplies uninterrupted power supply to

Mirpur University of Engineering and Technology (MUST), Azad

Jammu and Kashmir AJK, Pakistan

✓ A solar photovoltaic system, a diesel generator, a battery bank, and a

power converter make up the proposed system for the university campus;

together, they provide a reliable means of meeting energy needs for the

next 25 years at a reasonable cost. With 99% of its energy coming from

renewable sources, the system encourages the development of clean,

green energy and helps to signicantly lower greenhouse gas emissions.

MPPT Techniques [243] ✓ Solar PV System ✓ It is clear from examining a number of traditional and soft-computing

methods for Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) that no single

method is appropriate for every meteorological scenario.

✓ In partial shading settings, effectiveness frequently results in

algorithmic complexity and large computations, while simplicity

sacrices efciency in such conditions.

✓ The best MPPT algorithms should be straightforward, simple to

implement, able to discriminate between local and global MPP, track MPP

quickly and correctly in both uniform and partial shading situations, and

free of oscillations in the steady state with zero electric parameters.

Modied Flower Pollination

Algorithm (MFPA) [244]

✓ Solar PV System ✓ A few structural changes have been suggested for the FPA in order to

enhance its search capabilities and obtain faster, more precise, and more

effective MPPT results for solar PV systems.

Strategic Perturb and Observe

Algorithm [245]

✓ Photovoltaic system ✓ Structural modications in P&O method has been carried out to obtain

efcient results under partial shading conditions such as tracking speed,

tracking time, efciency, and ability to track the Global MPP (GMPP).

Adaptive Flower Pollination

Algorithm (AFPA) [246]

✓ Standalone solar photovoltaic system ✓ To improve tracking speed and efciency, a well-known, nature-

inspired Flower Pollination Algorithm (FPA) was carefully examined,

changed, and integrated with a random walk lter.

✓ The suggested technique has shown excellent performance, especially

in monitoring global Maximum Power Points (GMPPs) under different

Partial Shading Conditions (PSCs).

Optimized Flower Pollination

Algorithm [247]

✓ Solar System ✓ The proposed method shows outstanding performance in zero shading

condition, weak PSC, strong PSC, and changing weather conditions.

(continued on next page)

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

equipment. There are two basic types of Conditioners, namely, 1) Active

Power Conditioner (APC) and 2) Unied Power Quality Conditioner

(UPQC), which is discussed in depth in this section.

Active power conditioners (APCs)

APC is regarded as one of the efcient Custom Power Devices (CPDs)

capable of mitigating PQ issues such as harmonic distortion and voltage

sag, facilitating power factor correction, and enhancing system ef-

ciency [263]. It is generally connected in parallel and is assumed to be a

multi-function compensating device based on the available controller

design. The primary part of APC consists of a voltage source converter

that converts the DC-link voltage into three-phase AC voltages with

controllable amplitude, frequency, and phase [264]. Numerous appli-

cations of APCs have been reported in the literature for PQ disturbances

mitigation and overall enhancement of system stability, some of which

are summarized in Table 8.

Unied power quality conditioners (UPQCs)

UPQC is regarded as a Universal APF which combines the shunt APF

with the series APF sharing the same DC-link to mitigate supply voltage

power quality disturbances (such as sags, swells, unbalance, icker,

harmonics) and load current power quality issues (such as, harmonics,

unbalance, reactive current and neutral current) [272]. The main

objective of UPQC is to maintain the supply voltage sinusoidal at a

nominal value along with the source currents to become sinusoidal in

phase with the source voltages [273]. A UPQC comprises two voltage

source converters sharing a common DC-link either in a single-phase,

three-phase three-wire, or three-phase four-wire congurations.

Among the two converters, one acts as a current source inverter (CSI)

being placed in parallel at the PCC with the help of a transformer as

shown in Fig. 9(a), and the other acts as a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI),

being connected in series between the source and the load with the help

of a transformer as depicted in Fig. 9(b). The series converter carries out

the following functions: 1) compensation of disturbances at the supply

voltage such as sags, swells, harmonics, ickers, imbalances, etc., 2)

facilitates harmonic isolation, and 3) damps out harmonic oscillations.

The DC-link voltage regulation and compensation of load current

waveform distortions are brought about by the shunt converter [274,

275]. A thorough survey of the articles reported in the literature

regarding UPQC application for PQ enhancement in MG and other sec-

tors has been carried out in this research paper and presented in Table 9.

Machine learning tools (MLTs)

Appropriate monitoring of power system dynamics is essential for

maintaining constant PQ, and this is brought about by incorporating

MLTs into the power system network. Authors have studied the uctu-

ations in the power system by adopting the frequency spectrum analysis

method based on the acquisition of time-domain signals by using the

LabVIEW-based monitoring and analyzing tool [296,297]. Numerous

harmonic analysis techniques have been reported in the literature for PQ

enhancement, such as Articial Neural Network (ANN),[298–302] Fast

Fourier Transform (FFT),[303–307] and Fuzzy logic Controller (FLC)

[36,135,308–311]. Detection and monitoring of PQ issues at a specic

power line location is possible by the Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)

device, which determines the phasor quantity. The phasor helps in

nding the appropriate magnitude and phase angle of the supply voltage

and current. Further, this information can also determine the frequency

and analyze system conditions [312]. Researchers have also discussed

and implemented some applications of PMU for PQ improvement

[312–326].

Authors have adopted an Adaptive Linear Combiner (ADALINE) to

detect PQ issues such as voltage sag, swell, transients, interruptions, etc.

The main merits of this method are: 1) does not require setting up a

threshold value for detecting PQ issues and 2) provides true and higher

tracking ability [327–331]. Kalman Filtering (KF) method is also

adopted for detecting various PQ disturbances. It has proved to be a

more efcient technique as the PQ issues can be identied in the wavelet

domain [332]. The application of the KF technique for PQ improvement

has been thoroughly investigated in the literature [333–341]. Another

algorithm suggested by researchers for signal processing in both the time

and frequency domains is the Hilbert Transform (HT) algorithm

[342–345]. This technique operates in a specic frequency range and

uses an analog all-pass lter to effectively monitor mostly the voltage

icker type of PQ issues [346–351]. Fig. 10 shows the various MLTs for

PQ events. Table 10 describes the major PQ issues and some of its

possible PQ mitigation methods.

The overview and literature review of Deep Learning and Machine

Learning’s application to power system control Issues has been critically

discussed by many authors [352,353]. To preserve reliability, machine

learning techniques are used to extract patterns and arrange data to

analyse, process, predict, and classify massive amounts of data relevant

to the assessment of intricate power system dynamic security challenges.

An overview of the various uses of AI-based methods in microgrids,

including energy management, cyber security, protection, load and

generation forecasts, and power electronics control, has been presented

by the researchers [353]. Authors have reported the application of

machine learning and intelligent controllers for prediction, control,

energy management, and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) in hydrogen fuel

cell vehicles [354]. A comprehensive review of the role of articial

Table 6 (continued )

OTs Application Field Major Effect of OTs Implementation

Ten Check (TC) algorithm [248] ✓ PV array ✓ Analysis showed that, in comparison to the P&O and FPA algorithms,

the developed method attained the GMPP precisely and effectively.

Decrease and Fix method with

Pertub and Observe [249]

✓ Standalone solar photovoltaic system ✓ In this research, a novel technique called "Decrease and Fix" is

effectively provided as an enhancement to the PAO algorithm to address

these tracking speed and oscillation problems.

✓ The decrease and x approach is the rst effective use of the PAO

algorithm for achieving stability and expediting the photovoltaic system

tracking process.

IRG based MOR techniques [250] ✓ Discrete time systems ✓ The suggested methods outperform traditional stability-preserving

techniques in ensuring model stability even after reduction.

✓ The suggested methods produce stable ROMs and improve inaccuracy

in comparison to other stability-preserving frequency-limited MOR

methods already in use.

Optimized hill climbing

algorithm (OHC) [251]

✓ Off shore PV system ✓ The suggested optimised HC (OHC) algorithm maintains the strength of

the traditional HC algorithm while achieving zero steady-state

oscillations.

✓ Both algorithms were implemented on an off-grid photovoltaic system

in both constant and uctuating weather scenarios, and the outcomes

show that the suggested OHC method outperforms the traditional HC

approach.

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

intelligence methods and their sub-procedures in addressing problems in

transient stability has been analysed and the rationality, applications,

challenges and future opportunities have been projected [355]. The

concept of deep learning, IoT and blockchain has been also implemented

in the solar PV system to forecast maximum voltage to provide reference

value to its MPPT technique [356,357]. Frequent blackouts and

restricted access to energy in many poor countries have been studied by

the application of articial intelligence and machine learning applica-

tions in the energy sector [358]. Machine learning scopes on microgrid

predictive maintenance with potential frameworks, challenges, and

prospects have been comprehensively outlined and future research

prospects in the industry have been discussed. A thorough analysis of the

applications of articial intelligence optimisation techniques in a hybrid

microgrid during fault outbreaks has been elaborated by authors [359].

Researchers have given the concepts of synthesising control references

for an active power lter (APF) that is installed in a smart grid with

distortion loads to enhance power quality and adhere to standardised

indices [360].

Power quality issues and mitigation methods in various sources of

microgrid

It is essential to address power quality concerns and incorporate

efcient mitigation techniques with diverse microgrid sources. The

dependability, longevity, and efciency of electrical systems are all

strongly impacted by power quality, which also affects the functionality

of vital equipment and the grid’s general stability. Solar PV, wind, fuel

cells, diesel gensets, and combined heat and power (CHP) are a few of

the energy sources that are frequently used in microgrids [361]. Dif-

ferential problems including voltage swings, harmonics, and transient

events may compromise the quality of energy supplied to end consumers

in solar PV, wind, fuel cells, diesel gensets, and combined heat and

Table 7

Literature review citing the compensators applications in MG and other power

system network.

Application Field Major Objective of Compensator

Implementation

Grid-Tied Photovoltaic Inverters

[252]

✓ Determination of the capability curves of

a multifunctional inverter during harmonic

current compensation

✓ Identication of main system parameters

that affect the inverter’s capability to

provide harmonic current compensation

Distributed generation based islanded

MGs [253]

✓ Active resonance damping and harmonics

compensation

MG [254] ✓ Improvements in Bidirectional Power-

Flow Balancing and Electric Power Quality

Low voltage secondary distribution

system [255]

✓ Design of a micro compensator to be

installed and maintained by an electric

utility for improved power quality

MGs [256] ✓ Formation of a consensus-based

distributed control scheme, augmented by

the conservative power theory for

compensating imbalance and harmonics at

the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

5-node power system network [257] ✓ Proposing a novel expert system that

automatically suggests the most

appropriate and cost-effective solution for

compensating reactive, harmonic, and

unbalanced current through a careful

analysis of several power quality indices

and some grid characteristics.

Utility grid with solar energy

penetration [258]

✓ Harmonic mitigation and power quality

improvement

Wind energy [259] ✓ Optimization of the extracted wind power

Low inertia power systems and

battery energy storage [260]

✓ Mitigation of frequency stability issues

Electric Vehicles (EVs) [261] ✓ Finding a solution based on the reactive

power

✓ generation capability of PV systems to

address the problem of increased voltage

drop that will arise due to high EV

penetration.

Multilevel inverter in Uninterruptible

Power Supply (UPS) systems [262]

✓ Using the inverter cells as the VAR-

compensator

Table 8

Literature review citing the APCs applications in MG and other power system

network.

Application Field Major Objective of APC Implementation

Radial distribution systems [263] ✓ Design of an enhanced technique for optimal

location and size of the APCs for power quality

enhancement distribution systems

Radial distribution systems [264] ✓ Design of a method for optimally placing

APC for voltage prole improvement and

minimization of total harmonic distortion and

total investment cost using an improved

discrete rey algorithm (IDFA)

Industry [265] ✓ Mitigation of PQ problems

MG [266] ✓ Propose a three-phase back-to-back APC

with dc-link voltage control strategies for the

regulation of frequency and voltage to achieve

high stability

Electried railway systems [267] ✓ Use of APC to compensate power quality

problems in single-phase 25 kV, 50 Hz railway

traction substation

Wind energy systems [268] ✓ Mitigation of PQ issues

MGs [269] ✓ Harmonic power market framework for

compensation management of DER

Power system network with 15 bus

and six nonlinear loads [270]

✓ Optimal siting and sizing of multiple APCs

for minimizing network harmonic distortions

considering Harmonic Couplings

Solar Inverters [271] ✓ Harmonic Compensation for Nonlinear

Loads

Fig. 9. (a) CSI based UPQC (b) VSI based UPQC.

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

power (CHP) modules. To minimise equipment downtime, ensure a

steady and reliable power supply, and guard against potential damage,

these problems must be mitigated. It is essential to optimise power

quality in microgrids through the use of sophisticated techniques such as

harmonic lters, smart inverters, and predictive analytics [362]. This

will help to create resilient and sustainable energy systems that can meet

the needs of contemporary applications. Table 11 describes the major

PQ issues and their causes that occur in common energy sources such as

Solar PV, Wind, Fuel Cell, Diesel Gensets and Combined Heat and Power

(CHP) of microgrids as well as its probable PQ mitigation techniques.

Technical and economic aspect

As discussed in this article, the numerous methods for mitigating PQ

issues have their own merits and demerits that need to be dealt with very

seriously. Recently, lters have been made more technical developed

with reduced cost, size, and losses for delivering efcient supply to

critical loads [50]. However, they suffer from some shortcomings, such

as the resonance effect, and do not provide load compensation. On the

other hand, controllers play a signicant role in maintaining the sys-

tem’s overall dynamic stability. Nevertheless, the use of controllers is, in

fact, costly and makes the system more complex. The FACTS devices

deliver superior reactive power and load compensation and have the

highest power rating of converters, but the overall cost of implementa-

tion is extremely high [142]. OTs have proved to be a viable option for

determining PQ issues; however, the cost of implementation is high

[216]. Compensators ensure low current harmonic distortion and gen-

eration of enhanced power quality, but their overall cost is very high

[252]. The enhancement in the PQ delivered to electrical load equip-

ment is brought about by Conditioners. Still, the major disadvantage lies

in its high cost of operation and lower power rating of power converters

[263,272]. MLTs play a primary role in monitoring the event of the

presence of PQ issues; however they suffer from many demerits such as

1) the need for massive data for operating, 2) requires high time and

more resources, 3) choosing a particular feature is a key challenge that

needs development of necessary tools in areas such as statistical anal-

ysis, machine learning, or data mining and 4) highly prone to errors

[301]. So, the study of all PQ mitigation techniques regarding technical

and economic aspects is essential. In this context, Table 12 highlights the

Technical and Economic Aspects of various PQ improvement

techniques.

Discussion and future scope

Although there have been numerous methods reported for the

Mitigation of PQ disturbances the scope for future research work to be

conducted on more efcient mitigation of PQ issues are many. It is

Table 9

Literature review citing the UPQCs applications in MG and other power system

network.

Application Field Major Objective of UPQCs Implementation

Solar-fed grid network [276,277] ✓ For supplying a part or full reactive

power required by the load and

compensating the sag, swell, supply

voltage unbalance and distortions.

✓ Shunt part for extracting power from PV

array and series part for compensation of

the grid side power quality problems such

as grid voltage sags/swells

Three-Phase Solar PV and Battery

Energy Storage System [278,279]

✓ To mitigate the power quality problems

that existed in the grid and the harmonics

penetrated by the nonlinear loads

✓ Designing a multi-objective planning

approach for the optimal allocation of PV-

BESS integrated open UPQC

MG system with Solar energy [280] ✓ To eliminate the sags and harmonics in

the micro-grid system caused by the power

electronic devices employed by the

renewable sources

Energy storage system [281,282] ✓ Voltage sag mitigation

✓ Enhancement of the electric power

quality by compensating the source

voltage sag

Hybrid Renewable Energy System

(HRES) consisting of PV/ Wind/

Battery [283,284]

✓ Atom Search Optimization (ASO) was

employed with UPQC to solve the PQ

issues

Wind Energy System [285–287] ✓ Power quality enhancement viz. Voltage

sag, Voltage swell on the source voltage,

and current harmonics mitigation on the

source current.

Hybrid fuel cell and wind energy [288,

289]

✓ Enhancement of power quality

Electric Vehicle [290,291] ✓ Improvement of the PQ problems caused

by electric vehicle charging equipment

Multilevel Inverter [292–295] ✓ Power ow control and power quality

analysis in the power distribution system

✓ For increasing the number of sub-

modules at a medium voltage level

✓ Power quality conditioning

Fig. 10. Machine learning tools for monitoring PQ events.

Table 10

PQ issues and its possible PQ mitigation methods.

PQ Issue Types Some Possible PQ Mitigation Methods

Voltage Sag [38] ✓ UPS

✓ DVR

✓ Filters

✓ UPQC

Voltage Swell [39] ✓ Power Conditioners

✓ UPS

✓ Filters

✓ UPQC

Voltage Unbalance

[40]

✓ Protective Schemes

✓ UPQC

Voltage Spike [41] ✓ Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors

✓ Series (blocking) connected Low Pass Filters.

✓ Parallel (shunting) connected Voltage Clampers and

Voltage Clippers.

✓ Parallel (shunting) connected Crowbar devices

Voltage Fluctuation

[42]

✓ SVC

✓ UPQC

Voltage Flicker [43] ✓ Voltage Imbalance Relay

✓ Filters

✓ SVC

✓ DSTATCOM

✓ UPQC

Interruptions [44] ✓ UPS

Harmonics [45] ✓ Active Filters

✓ DSTATCOM

✓ Compensators

✓ UPQC

Noise [46] ✓ Filters

✓ By-pass capacitors

Switching Transients

[47]

✓ SVC

✓ DSTATCOM

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

nearly hard to point out which technique is superior as each has its pros

and cons. All the PQ issues cannot be dealt with a single control method

because the implementation of a particular technique depends upon

many factors such as area of application, type of PQ issue, environ-

mental effect, number of power switches used, power rating, the ef-

ciency of reactive power and load compensation, etc. Some of the major

suggestions to be implemented in the future for hassle-free operation

and implementation of various PQ mitigation methods are enumerated

below.

1. Development of more robust control methods which can mitigate

any type of PQ disturbances irrespective of any factors.

2. Design of robust systems that can implement D-FACTS devices

more efciently into new and existing power markets.

3. More research is to be carried out on the proper cost-benet

economic analysis of all techniques adopted.

4. The optimal location of the control devices, system parameters,

and real-time data need to be studied for the accurate functioning

of the devices.

5. Further development in the power electronic converters used in

the control structures needs to be carried out to enhance ef-

ciency and minimise losses.

6. Future research areas can study the PQ issues incorporating tidal,

ocean, and hydropower systems as generation units.

7. More competent time domain and wavelet domain analysis

methods can experiment to enhance their monitoring capabilities

further.

8. Tracking and detection schemes of PQ issues must be developed

in the future to enhance efcacy.

9. Detection, mitigation, and monitoring of higher-order, inter, and

intra-harmonics are also important considerations that can be

addressed in future research.

10. In-depth research on eliminating PQ issues while integrating MG

to other power systems needs to be carried out.

Conclusion

MG system paves its way to maintain the present-day electrical grid

network’s reliability, stability, and exibility by integrating renewable-

based DERs, energy storage devices, and loads. Nevertheless, the quality

of power generated is adversely affected due to the intermittent gener-

ation of renewable sources, a great demand for nonlinear load, and

harmonic injection due to power electronic interfaces. So, presently

maintaining controlled regulation of PQ and delivering compensation at

all levels of power is a vital issue to be considered. In this regard, a

meticulous survey of numerous PQ mitigation techniques such as Filters,

Controllers, FACTS, OTs, Compensators, Conditioners, and Machine

Learning Tools for enhancing the quality of electrical power delivered to

the distribution systems has been carried out and highlighted in detail in

this article. Further, deep insight into PQ and enhancement in MG have

been enumerated.

Furthermore, a detailed discussion and comparative study among all

PQ improvement techniques from technical and economic aspects have

been projected comprehensively. Further, a detailed study covering

almost all challenges has been cited, and possible solutions in the future

Table 11

Major PQ issues and causes in solar PV with its possible PQ mitigation methods.

Type of Energy Source PQ Issue Types Causes Probable PQ Mitigation Techniques

Solar PV [363–373] Voltage Fluctuations Variations in the amount of clouds and shade

cause the sun’s power output to uctuate quickly.

✓ Smart Inverters with Advanced control algorithms

✓ Voltage Regulators

Harmonics Harmonics are introduced by inverters because of

their switching mechanism.

✓ Harmonic Filter

✓ Advanced Inverter Control

Voltage Sag Abrupt decreases in power output are caused by

variations in sun irradiation.

✓ Predictive Analytics: Machine learning tools

✓ Predictive Analytics through Machine Learning Tools

Wind [374–381] Voltage Fluctuations Variations in wind power output are caused by

variations in wind speed.

✓ Pitch Control Systems

✓ FACTS Devices for voltage control

Voltage Flicker Rapid changes in wind speed result in voltage

icker.

✓ DVR for rapid voltage compensation

✓ Energy Storage Systems for storing excess power during high

wind speeds.

Grid-Resonance Issues Resonance develops from grid interaction with

wind turbines.

✓ Voltage Imbalance Relay

✓ Filters

✓ SVC

✓ DSTATCOM

✓ UPQC

Fuel Cell [382–387] Voltage Fluctuations Quick variations in load or variations in the

availability of hydrogen.

✓ Advanced Power Electronics based on Articial intelligence/

Machine Learning/Deep Learning Algorithms

✓ Hybrid Energy Systems for continuous supply

Harmonic Distortion Harmonic distortion in fuel cells is caused by

power electronic converters.

✓ Harmonic lters

✓ Grid-Forming Inverters

Transients Transients are produced when fuel cell systems

start and stop.

✓ Voltage Conditioners for smoothing transients.

✓ Advanced controllers with Articial intelligence/ Machine

Learning/Deep Learning Algorithms

Diesel Gensets [388–394] Voltage and Frequency

Fluctuations

Variability in load variations and combustion of

fuel.

✓ Voltage Regulators

✓ Governor Controllers for stable frequency

Harmonics and

Voltage Distortion

Nonlinear loads when running a diesel generator

set.

✓ Harmonic Filters to reduce harmonic distortion

✓ Active Power Filters to compensate for reactive power

Start-up Transients Rapid acceleration during start-up. ✓ Soft Starters for lowering mechanical and electrical stress.

✓ Voltage Conditioner to reduce transients while start-up

Combined Heat and Power

(CHP) Modules [395–402]

Voltage Fluctuations Variations in power demands and loads ✓ Controller Tuning with robust control algorithms

✓ Voltage Regulators for stabilizing voltage levels

Harmonics and Inter-

harmonics

Complicated power generation and nonlinear

loads

✓ Harmonic Filters for mitigation of harmonic distortions

✓ Advanced Inverter Control through novel techniques based on

Articial intelligence/ Machine Learning/Deep Learning

Algorithms

Thermal Stress Frequent shutdowns and starts. ✓ Load Shedding Systems

✓ Utilising machine learning and predictive analytics, thermal

stress may be anticipated and managed.

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 8 (2024) 100520

for hassle-free PQ improvement have been suggested in detail. There-

fore, this research article is also believed to serve as an excellent plat-

form for providing considerable ideas to beginners, academicians,

researchers, industrialists, manufacturers, and engineers working in this

area.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Subhashree Choudhury: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal

analysis, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Visualization, Writing –

original draft, Writing – review & editing. Gagan Kumar Sahoo:

Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – review &

editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence

the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

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Improvement

Techniques

Level

performance

Overall Cost of

Implementation

Reactive

Power

Compensation

Power

Rating of

Converters

Filters Medium to

low

✓ High (Active)

✓ Low (Passive)

✓ Medium

(Hybrid)

✓ Medium

(Active)

✓ Low

(Passive)

✓ Medium

(Hybrid)

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(Active)

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(Hybrid)

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Dr. Subhashree Choudhury graduated from Biju Patnaik

University of Technology (BPUT), Odisha in Electrical Engi-

neering in the year 2009, obtained Master’s Degree from Siksha

‘O’ Anusandhan University in Electrical Engineering in 2012

and obtained Ph.D degree from Siksha O Anusandhan (Deemed

to be University) in 2017 in the area of Power System Opera-

tion and Control. She has served almost 12 years to technical

institutions. Currently, she holds the position of Associate

Professor in the Department of Electrical and Electronics En-

gineering, Siksha O Anusandhan (Deemed to be University)

Bhubaneswar, India.

Her major research interests include Microgrid control,

Renewable Energy Integration to Microgrid, Energy Storage

Systems and its Control, Multilevel Inverter Technology, Active Power Filters, FACTS

Controllers, Soft Computing Methods and its application to power system planning,

operation, and control. With more than 90 peer reviewed International Journals, Con-

ference Proceedings and Book Chapters her research appeared in top power engineering

journals such as Elsevier, Wiley, MDPI, Taylor & Francis etc. She has published 06 Indian

patents at IPR and have published 01 Book to her credit. She has acted as a reviewer of

many International Journals such as Sustainable Cities and Society-Elsevier, IEEE ACCESS,

MDPI, Control Engineering and Practice-Elsevier, Journal of Hydrogen Energy-Elsevier,

International Journal of Control- Taylor & Francis, Journal of Franklin Institute-

Elsevier, IET Control Theory and Applications, ISA Transactions-Elsevier, LNEE Springer

Book Series and many IEEE conferences.

She is one among the top 2% OF SCIENTISTS BY ELSEVIER B.V. AND STANFORD

UNIVERSITY IN THE ENERGY DOMAIN, according to the report published on 4th Oct

2023. She has served as the Session Chair and core organizing committee for many in-

ternational conferences in India and Abroad. She has been awarded as the YUVA MENTOR

AS A CHANGEMAKER powered by YUVA INCUBATED & K.I.T.E.S EDUCATION in the year

2021. She is a Senior Member of IEEE Kolkata Section, Life Member of Indian Society of

Systems for Science and Engineering (ISSE), Member of IEEE Young Professional, Member

of IEEE Women in Engineering and Member of Smart Grid Community.

Mr. Gagan Kumar Sahoo graduated from Biju Patnaik Uni-

versity of Technology (BPUT), Odisha in Electrical Engineer-

ing, obtained Master’s Degree and continuing Ph.D degreein

Siksha O Anusandhan (Deemed to be University) since 2021 in

the area of Power System Operation and Control. He has served

more than 15 years to technical institutions. Currently, he

holds the position of Principal in Maharaja Polytechnic, Bhu-

baneswar, India.

S. Choudhury and G.K. Sahoo

Optimization Techniques for Fuzzy-PID Control of CSC-Based D-STATCOM for Power Quality Improvement

Article

Full-text available

May 2024

This study focuses on enhancing power quality using a Current Source Converter (CSC) based Dynamic Voltage Restorer (D-STATCOM) controlled by a Fuzzy Logic-PID (Fuzzy-PID) controller. Power quality improvement is a vital aspect of maintaining reliable and efficient electrical power systems. The integration of fuzzy logic with traditional PID control enables adaptive and precise regulation of the D-STATCOM, addressing voltage sags, swells, and harmonic distortions effectively. The Fuzzy-PID controller dynamically adjusts the control parameters, offering superior performance in compensating for power quality disturbances compared to conventional methods. Simulation and experimental results demonstrate that the Fuzzy-PID controlled CSC-based D-STATCOM significantly improves voltage stability, reduces harmonic distortion, and enhances overall power quality. This approach is particularly effective in managing the nonlinear and time-varying nature of electrical loads, making it highly suitable for industrial power systems, renewable energy integration, and smart grid applications. The proposed system ensures robust and reliable power quality improvement, presenting a promising solution for modern electrical infrastructure challenges.

A Comprehensive Review on Power-Quality Issues, Optimization Techniques, and Control Strategies of Microgrid Based on Renewable Energy Sources

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Microgrids (MGs) are systems that cleanly, efficiently, and economically integrate Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) and Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) to the electrical grid. They are capable of reducing transmission losses and improving the use of electricity and heat. However, RESs presents intermi ent behavior derived from the stochastic nature of the renewable resources available on site. This can cause power-quality issues throughout the electrical grid, which can be solved by different optimization techniques and/or control strategies applied to power converters. This paper offers a detailed review of the literature regarding three important aspects: (i) Power-quality issues generated in MGs both in islanded mode and grid-connected mode; (ii) Optimization techniques used in the MGs to achieve the optimal operating conditions of the Energy Management System (EMS); and (iii) Control strategies implemented in the MGs to guarantee stability, mitigation of power-quality issues, power balance, and synchronization with the grid. It is worth mentioning that in this paper, we emphasize hybrid MGs (HMGs) since they combine the benefits of AC-MGs and DC-MGs while increasing system reliability. As the utility grid moves toward an optimal design of MG structures, this paper will serve as a foundation for future research, comparative analysis , and further development of novel techniques regarding HMGs.

Risk Mitigation & Profit Improvement of a Wind-Fuel Cell Hybrid System with TCSC Placement

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

The incorporation of renewable energy into the existing electrical system is vital in a competitive electrical system. The unpredictable nature of renewable sources is the main obstacle to energy source integration. Since wind energy is unpredictable, integrating it into an existing thermal system requires some additional operating procedures to maintain the economic and functioning sustainability of the system. In a competitive power network, renewable energy uncertainty creates an imbalance cost (IC) which directly affects the system economy. This study investigates system generation costs, voltage profiles, and electric losses in a deregulated power market incorporating wind farms (WF) & fuel cells (FC). The fuel cell has been used here as a reserve generating unit to mitigate the deficit of power in the renewable incorporated system. To check the efficacy of the presented method, two locations in India are chosen at random. To assess the imbalance cost caused by the discrepancy between forecasted (FWS) and actual wind speeds (AWS), several charge rates (i.e. surplus and deficit) were established. The electrical system has been restructured, so consumers are continually looking for efficient and stable economic power which is only possible by reducing the system risk. This paper outlines a strategy for the optimal operation of a Thyristor-Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) and fuel cell in a wind-integrated system to maximize system profit and minimize the system risk. In this work, different algorithms like Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP), Artificial Bee Colony Algorithms (ABC), and Moth Flame Optimization Algorithms (MFO) are used to analyze the economic and functional risk of the system. Additionally, it explains how the fuel cell system is employed to offset the wind farm integration’s deviation in the real-time power market. Value-at-Risk (VaR) and conditional Value-at-Risk (cVaR) have been used for risk analysis. A modified IEEE 14-bus test system is considered to validate the entire study whereas any small, large as well as hybrid systems can be considered to perform this methodology.

A comprehensive review of power quality mitigation in the scenario of solar PV integration into utility grid

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

Solar photo-voltaic (SPV) is a major contributor of renewable energy (RE) sources, which plays an important role in tackling climate change, reducing the cost of energy, improving the reliability of power supply, and providing access to energy. SPV is a major hope for “access to energy” for remote populations which are deprived of the conventional grid due to economical and feasibility issues. These issues are to be tackled in due course of time to enhance the reliability of the supply. The Extension of the grid to these areas weakens the strength of the grid. This results in a scenario of PV integration into a weak AC grid. However, solar integration into a weak AC grid provides power quality (PQ) challenges that limit the penetration levels. The other components which limit penetration levels include non-linear loads, dynamic loads, variable irradiations and partial shading etc. Various DFACTS devices in association with different conventional, adaptive and AI-based algorithms have been proposed in this article to mitigate PQ challenges associated with a weak grid to enhance penetration levels of Solar PV. This article provides a comprehensive review of various power quality challenges associated with SPV penetration and PQ mitigation techniques involving various DFACTS devices and control algorithms such as conventional control, adaptive control, and AI-based control algorithms. More than 130 research articles have been rigorously assessed, categorized, and listed in this article for quick reference for the advantage of engineers and academicians working in this area of research.

Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in Energy Management Systems, Control, and Optimization of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

Environmental emissions, global warming, and energy-related concerns have accelerated the advancements in conventional vehicles that primarily use internal combustion engines. Among the existing technologies, hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles may have minimal contributions to greenhouse gas emissions and thus are the prime choices for environmental concerns. However, energy management in fuel cell electric vehicles and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles is a major challenge. Appropriate control strategies should be used for effective energy management in these vehicles. On the other hand, there has been significant progress in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and designing data-driven intelligent controllers. These techniques have found much attention within the community, and state-of-the-art energy management technologies have been developed based on them. This manuscript reviews the application of machine learning and intelligent controllers for prediction, control, energy management, and vehicle to everything (V2X) in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. The effectiveness of data-driven control and optimization systems are investigated to evolve, classify, and compare, and future trends and directions for sustainability are discussed.

A Unified Linear Self-Regulating Method for Active/Reactive Sustainable Energy Management System in Fuel-Cell Connected Utility Network

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

In fuel-cell-connected utility networks, electrical loads attached to the power network often generate reactive power, which hinders the utility from normal functioning and reduces the system power factor. This condition results in wasted energy, increase demand for electricity, system overload, and higher utility costs for customers. Besides, a power system’s poor power factor is often caused by a large distorted reactive power element because of the widespread use of non-linear loads. Moreover, power outages were brought on by voltage dips resulting from reactive power. In a fuel cell-based network, traditional utilities often use classical filters that are unable to remove harmonic properties, and incapable of compensating for the reactive power. Moreover, power outage compensation is overlooked in most fuel cell-based energy systems. To address this problem, the proposed article provides a novel unified linear self-regulating (LSR) active/reactive sustainable energy management system (SEM) that can adjust the power factor by compensating for power outages and reactive power, and precisely removing harmonics from the electricity network. As a result, the suggested mechanism may avoid power losses and allow users to save money on their power costs. Furthermore, notwithstanding grid availability, the critical loads receive an uninterrupted power supply due to the automatic transition circuit implemented in the SEM. The suggested system’s performance is evaluated under various load circumstances and the findings have shown that the suggested SEM can successfully decrease harmonics from the network while also keeping the power factor of the electricity network near unity.

Power quality improvement of a distribution system integrating a large scale solar farm using hybrid modular multilevel converter with ZSV control

Article

Jul 2023

Photovoltaic system is a major source of power generation. Its production is affected by the varying shading conditions that occur due to changing weather and other environmental factors. The modular multilevel converter (MMLC) is a promising selection to achieve high power. However, to achieve more levels of voltages the conventional MMLC requires more cells which eventually increases the complexity and losses. In this paper, the hybrid MMLC is proposed which have fewer IGBT switches for the same number of output level which eventually decreases the losses and improves the voltage output. The production of power is enhanced due to the series and parallel connection of half and full bridge cells in the converter configuration. The power quality issues such as voltage, current, and power are also satisfactorily handled by the converter without using any active or passive filters. However, due to the variation of input irradiation and temperature the output parameters such as Voltage, current and power show disturbance. Mitigation of these unbalances for a grid connected converter is important to stabilize the control and the quality of power injected into the grid. Therefore, zero sequence control (ZSC) is proposed for producing the balanced power during unstable input parameters. For ensuring the balanced power among the phases of the Converter to be fed to the grid zero sequence voltage (ZSV) is injected in each phase of the converter output validating the power balancing among the phases fed to the low voltage grid. Simulation results are presented to assess the output parameters before and after the injection of ZSV in the low voltage (LV) grid connected Hybrid MMLC of a large scale PV system and demonstrate the improved performance. This investigation is verified by simulation results with PSCAD software.

An overview of renewable energy technologies for the simultaneous production of high-performance power and heat

Article

May 2023

Combining heat and power (CHP) technology, which uses renewable energy sources as fuel, will be a promising solution to increase energy security. This report aims to examine CHP technologies based on renewable energy, seek to increase their efficiency and reduce the unsustainable nature of renewable resources, and then examine the existing articles from an economic and technical perspective. Heat and electricity are generated simultaneously in CHP technology; heat is the limiting factor in this issue. Therefore, it should be installed in a place requiring heat and population density because transmission losses are reduced in this case. Among renewable energy sources used as fuel for CHP power plants, biomass has the largest share, and among fossil fuels, natural gas and coal have the largest share in CHP, respectively. The United States, Russia, and China have the largest shares in renewable power plants, respectively. All the articles reviewed mention the need for heat storage for CHP power plants. If regional heating and cooling using CHP technology are used, biomass consumption can be reduced by 31.4% compared to single heating, and this amount can be used more in value-added sectors.

Literature Review and Power Quality Issues

Chapter

May 2023

This chapter presents a comprehensive survey of distributed energy resources (DERs), including their types, their benefits, and the applied methods for assigning their optimal allocations and sizes, and also a comprehensive survey about the distribution flexible AC transmission systems(D-FACTS), including their types, their benefits, and the applied methods for assigning their optimal locations and sizes. This chapter also presents an overview of the distributed static compensator (D-STATCOM), including its topology, benefits, and the methods used for optimal integration of this device. An overview related to photovoltaic-based distributed generation (PV-DG) is presented, including its principal function, benefits, and the applied optimization methods for inclusion optimally. Also, the power quality issues and the power quality disturbances classification are presented comprehensively in this chapter.KeywordsD-FACTSD-STATCOMDistributed generationCapital costsPower qualityPVFACTS devicesPower quality issuesDERsRDN

Wind connected distribution system with intelligent controller based compensators for power quality issues mitigation

Article

Apr 2023
ELECTR POW SYST RES

PV Inverter Based Fair Power Quality Control

Article

Sep 2023

Low voltage distribution networks incorporating solar photovoltaic (PV) panels experience overvoltage and voltage unbalance during periods of low load and high PV generation. Resolving overvoltage by active power curtailment (APC) is an effective and cost-efficient solution. However, current APC techniques result in excessive and unfair power curtailment for prosumers at the sensitive parts of the grid that might induce neutral current. In this work, an analytical approach for fair APC and Reactive Power Control is presented for voltage regulation along with neutral current compensation. The desired power quality is maintained by controlling each phase of the PV inverter independently. The proposed algorithm regulates the voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) within grid limits, eliminates neutral current, and reduces the grid unbalance. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that reducing the neutral current reduces the voltage at the PCC and consequently decreases the power curtailment required for overvoltage regulation.

A Critical Analysis of Different Power Quality Improvement Techniques in Microgrid

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