ArticlePDF Available

Organizational Memory Management: Technological and Research Issues

IGI Global
Journal of Database Management
Authors:
Sree Nilakanta at Iowa State University
Sree Nilakanta
Leslie L. Miller
Leslie L. Miller
Leslie L. Miller
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
Dan Zhu at Iowa State University
Dan Zhu
Download full-text PDF
Read full-text
Download citation

Abstract

As new information technologies are available to the design and implementation of organizational memory and as organizations continue to automate their business processes and collect explosive amounts of data, researchers in knowledge management need to confront new opportunities and new challenges. Some of the core issues of organizational memory management include organizational context, retention structure, knowledge taxonomy, ontology, organizational learning, and so forth. In this article, we review the literature of organizational memory management. We further present a basic framework of the technological components and their applications in organizational memory systems and discuss a number of important research issues.
Content uploaded by Sree Nilakanta
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Sree Nilakanta on Feb 07, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Organizational Memory Management: Technological and Research Issues
Nilakanta, Sree;Miller, L L;Zhu, Dan
Journal of Database Management; Jan-Mar 2006; 17, 1; ABI/INFORM Global
pg. 85
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
... On the other hand, tacit knowledge is harder to express, represent and communicate as it is intuitive, unarticulated and cannot be verbalized [32]. Previous works suggested that innovation is closely related to the concept of ''knowledge creation'' that is due to an important role of organizational knowledge not only in overall performance, but also in the competitiveness of an organization [18], [19], [47]. Knowledge sharing requires active-consultancy with colleagues to learn from their experiences. ...
... This study also emphasize that knowledge is a key building block for the innovation process [41]. Mutually sharing knowledge among of individuals across the boundaries of the organization plays an important role not only in the overall performance, but also in the competitiveness of an organization and in particular for innovation management [47]. The findings in this research are momentous for firms intending to adopt supplier development based on knowledge sharing activity by mentorship mechanism in agroindustry companies. ...
Supplier Development Program Though Knowledge Sharing Effectiveness: A Mentorship Approach
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2021
The market in which firms compete magnifies the need for buying firms to effectively manage and develop their supply chain. One of the important notions in the management and development of the supply chain is the implementation of supplier development program. Previous extensive literature review has identified various types of activity in the supplier development program, which categorized as low involvement activity to high involvement activity. Further, extensive literatures on supplier development program implementation and its implication on supplier’s capability are also available. However, there is still limited empirical research for investigating the determinants of knowledge sharing effectiveness in supplier development programs. Aimed at bridging that gap, this study attempts to investigating the role of supplier’s organizational culture, information and communication technology (ICT), and perceived behavioral control as the determinants of knowledge sharing effectiveness by mentorship in the supplier development program (SD). A survey questionnaire was employed to collect data from 200 suppliers after conducting mentorship training at the suppliers’ site. The data were analyzed using bootstrap resampling method (with 5,000 resamples). The bootstrap samples are used to estimate the Partial Least Square (PLS) path model. The results of path analysis indicated that all variables are significantly associated with knowledge sharing effectiveness with mentoring mechanism (p-values< 0.05) except collaborative culture to knowledge sharing effectiveness which was insignificant. It was also observed that ICT and perceived behavioral control affected the effectiveness of knowledge sharing by mentorship in the SD program.
View
... Com base nas condições de ambiente expostas no início desta introdução, obter, estocar e recuperar informações acerca da tomada de decisão no que tange à prevenção, resposta e recuperação aos riscos aparenta ser aspecto crítico para garantir que o fluxo das operações não seja drasticamente afetado por futuros riscos e incertezas (Labib, Hadleigh-Dunn, Mahfouz, & Gentile, 2019;Levitt & March, 1988;Ponomarov & Holcomb, 2009;Scholten, Scott, & Fynes, 2019;Walsh & Ungson, 1991). Sendo a memória entendida como a experiência acumulada de um sistema, ela fornece o contexto e fontes para a renovação, recombinação, inovação, novidade e auto-organização após perturbações (Folke, 2006), portanto, sua utilização pode ser considerada como fator chave para reagir aos desafios do ambiente (Cegarra-Navarro & Martelo-Landroguez, 2020;Martelo-Landroguez & Cegarra-Navarro, 2014;Nilakanta, Miller, & Zhu, 2006). ...
... O papel das tecnologias de informação para a construção da memória e aplicação do conhecimento com eficiência já era apontada, por exemplo, nos trabalhos de Cross e Baird (2000), Day (1994), Huber (1991, Olivera (2000), Nilakanta, Miller e Zhu (2006) e Stein e Zwass (1995). De modo geral, entende-se que a geração, o processamento, o armazenamento, o compartilhamento e a aplicação do conhecimento na tomada de decisão são influenciados pelo uso de ferramentas analíticas (Barbosa et al., 2017;Cao et al., 2015;Côrte-Real et al., 2016;Nilakanta et al., 2006;Oliveira & Handfield, 2019;Stein & Zwass, 1995). ...
Como Memória e Abordagem Analítica Interagem na Relação entre Resiliência da Cadeia e o Desempenho da Cadeia? Uma Discussão Teórica
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Oct 2020
Tendo em vista a diversidade de riscos inerentes às cadeias de suprimentos, o presente ensaio teórico tem como objetivo discutir como a memória e a abordagem analítica interagem para aumentar a velocidade e adequabilidade da prevenção, resposta e recuperação aos riscos, garantindo melhor desempenho para os membros das cadeias. Argumentou-se que a relação entre a resiliência e o desempenho das cadeias pode ser melhor compreendida por intermédio de processos condicionais, como por exemplo, a partir de uma moderação-moderada, em que a memória da cadeia atua como moderador da relação principal e, o seu efeito moderador é simultaneamente moderado pela abordagem analítica. Teoricamente, a principal contribuição do artigo é a proposição de um modelo a ser testado futuramente. Para a prática, o artigo evidencia a necessidade de lembrar e aprender com interrupções como aquelas causadas pelo COVID-19, apoiando-se na abordagem analítica, a fim de estar mais preparado para evitar ou superar futuros eventos disruptivos.
View
... Several scholars have highlighted the contribution of knowledge to firms (Voelpel and Han 2005;Nilakanta et al. 2006;Kamaşak and Bulutlar 2010). Some state that the "Sum of knowledge acquired externally and internally constitutes a sustainable resource for maintaining competitive advantage" (Kamaşak and Bulutlar 2010, p. 307). ...
Organizational Practices’ Role in Managing Open Innovation and Business Performance
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2024
Given the ever-changing world of technological advances, and due to the fact that business entities strive for efficiency and cost reduction, open innovation (OI) has become the focus of academic and scholarly discussions. Furthermore, to increase their competitiveness, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have started implementing OI practices. This study aims to investigate the impact of SMEs’ internal organizational practices on OI and the impact of the latter on SMEs’ business performance. This quantitative study, which was based on gathering insights from SMEs, sought to answer two research questions related to the effects of organizational practices on the adoption and management of OI processes in SMEs and the role of OI in accelerating the business performance of SMEs. The findings revealed that not all SMEs’ internal organizational practices have a positive impact on both OI and SMEs’ business performance. This study is among the earliest studies in the UAE and GCC region to explore the impact of specific internal organizational practices on SME OI adoption and its business performance. The present study contributes theoretically and practically to OI literature and assists SME managers in evaluating their internal organizational practices’ suitability for OI adoption.
View
... As mentioned before, talking about those experiences and sharing knowledge within the organization, with suppliers and customers, as well with competitors, also emerged as a way of learning. As expected from the theory, our qualitative results also reinforced that memories about unwanted events and the respective lessons learned are documented in written procedures and are stored, accessed, and shared through information systems (Barros et al., 2015;Nilakanta et al., 2006). Notwithstanding this convention, more importantly for practice, valuable lessons have to become routines to be kept alive (M. ...
Let’s talk about bad experiences instead of forgetting them: An empirical study on the importance of memory for supply chain disruption management
Article
  • Jul 2023
  • INT J PROD ECON
Few studies have been concerned about the role of previous knowledge in supply chain disruption management. Based on the premise that supply chain resilience and robustness impact supply chain performance, this paper aims to expand this knowledge by conceptually and empirically establishing the role of supply chain memory for supply chain disruption management performance. A survey receiving 290 valid responses was conducted with supply chain managers. Quantitative data were analyzed with structural equation modeling. In addition, a mixed-methods approach was conducted to validate and explore the quantitative results. This paper contributes to theory and practice showing that experience, familiarity, and knowledge about dealing with disruptions improve supply chain resilience and robustness efficiency. The moderation effect of memory reveals that high memory leverages the impact of supply chain resilience on supply chain performance. Moreover, it brings important insights into the impact of robustness on supply chain performance since it is conditional to memory levels. The full model was able to explain 37.19% of supply chain performance.
View
... The analytical approach improves the knowledge established in the memory about the disruptions and how to manage them, allowing the application of appropriate actions to avoid or recover from interruptions. The role of Information Technologies in memory was mentioned by Cross and Baird (2000), Day (1994), Huber (1991), Olivera (2000), Nilakanta et al. (2006) and Stein and Zwass (1995), for example. Since the mentioned technologies enable the interconnection between the real and virtual world (Frank et al., 2019;Li et al., 2020), the creation, processing, storing, sharing, retrieval and application of knowledge are improved by them (Barbosa and Vicente, 2018;Côrte-Real et al., 2016;Oliveira and Handfield, 2019). ...
The impact of using digital technologies on supply chain resilience and robustness: the role of memory under the covid-19 outbreak
Article
  • Jan 2023
  • SUPPLY CHAIN MANAG
Purpose This paper’s main aim is to check the mediating effect of supply chain memory in the relationship between using digital technologies and both supply chain resilience and robustness. In addition, the impact of the COVID-19 disruption was tested as a moderator of the impact of supply chain memory on supply chain resilience and robustness. Design/methodology/approach Altogether, 257 supply chain managers answered the questionnaire, and data were analysed through structural equation modelling. Findings This paper contributes to theory and practice by demonstrating that the experience, familiarity and knowledge to deal with disruptions partially mediate the relationship between digital technologies, resilience and robustness. Moreover, our results show that memory is less efficient for the supply chain to maintain an acceptable level of performance in case of a new extreme disruptive event like COVID-19. The full model was able to explain 36.90% of supply chain memory, 41.58% of supply chain resilience and 46.21% of supply chain robustness. Originality/value The study helps to understand how to develop supply chain memory, positioning digital technologies as an antecedent of it. The impact of supply chain memory on supply chain resilience and robustness is proved. Knowledge about the impact of industry 4.0 technologies on disruption management is quantitatively improved. It demonstrates that digital technologies impact resilience and robustness mainly through supply chain memory. The study proves that supply chain memory is less efficient for the chain remains effective when a non-routine disruptive event occurs, but it is still imperative to recover from it.
View
... HR practices such as staffing, training, performance appraisal, and compensation, enable firms toevoke their capability in introducing new products, services, and management systems subsequentlyproduce better level of innovation outcomes (Chen and Huang, 2009). Nilakanta et al. (2006) highlight that knowledge plays a dramatic role in the firm's competitiveness. The preceding arguments in the literature recommend that firms deploy specific HR practices to influence the behaviour and employee's expectation and add more excellent value in developing innovation in firms. ...
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND FIRM INNOVATION: MEDIATING ROLE OF HUMAN CAPITAL
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2022
Firms' ability to innovate becomes a more significant concern over the hypercompetitive and dynamic business environment. Within this context, how to promote innovation in organisations becomes challenging. Many studies far less focused on the role of human resource management in promoting firm innovation. Since the human resource management practices vary from country to country and firm to firm, the findings of the studies limit its application in a diverse context. Sadly, there is bereft of such studies recorded in many developing countries. Consequently, the study aims at investigating the relationship between human resource management practices and firm innovation and the mediating role of the human capital of such relationship. This study deploys PLS-SEM to test the hypotheses in a sample of 127 firms operating in Sri Lanka. The data were collected through a self-reported questionnaire. The result shows that human resource management practices are significantly, positively, related to human capital, which positively affects firm innovation. The findings support that human capital plays a mediating role between human resource management practices and firm innovation. Finally, this study discusses the implications and highlights the future research directions.
View
Talent Development and Firm Resilience of Hotels in Port Harcourt
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2023
This study explored the relationship between talent development and firm resilience of hotels in Port Harcourt. The study adopted a descriptive research design with a population element of 105 hotel managers, it conducted a census of the managers from 35 hotels in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. After data collection and collation, copies were analyzed using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 21.0). The findings revealed that talent development had a positive correlation with measures of firm resilience: firm robustness and firm agility. Based on the findings, the study recommended that managers of hotels should initiate talent development programs, support, and encourage talent/knowledge sharing among employees to enhance talented staff's ability to handle jobs more efficiently, with adequate funding to enhance their robustness and agility. Amongst the proposals for further studies include the study only focused on the quantitative method of analysis thus, other researchers can explore qualitative methods to adopt QSR Nvivo and other tools to see the level of outcomes and correlations between the constructs.
View
A LITERATURE REVIEW ON ORGANIZATIONAL MEMORY FROM 1991 TO 2021
Conference Paper
  • Mar 2023
Organizational memory has been found among the organization’s characteristics outlined through organizational learning and knowledge management literature in the last three decades. The purpose of this paper is to reveal the nature, the place, and the role of the organizational memory from an examination of the literature starting with the year 1991, when Walsh and Ungson published, in a reference work for researchers, the first major contribution to the development of the concept. Our analysis has found 213 papers that from their title appeared to be dedicated to the study of the organizational memory, revealing three approaches towards the definition of the memory: based on the content, the structure, or hybrid (content and structure).
View
What Can Managers Learn From Professional Poker Players About Decision-Making?
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
This paper aims to investigate how past decision-making experiences can improve future decision-making. Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted with profitable professional Poker players. The results point out that it is the knowledge background of the decision-maker that makes him make sense of the situations he experiences. The research findings allowed the identification of three mechanisms that facilitate and make future decisions faster and more appropriate based on past experiences: (1) memory, (2) reflection, and (3) tools and analytical approach. The research contributes by showing evidence that, when supported by analytical tools, decision-makers can improve the quality and speed of the decision-making process. For organizations and supply chains, the paper highlights the importance of recognizing patterns based on the past to make sense of the future. For operations management, in events like COVID-19, companies can take advantage of memory to enact over unprecedented scenarios, prevent disruptions, and recover.
View
Use of Wikis for Enhancing E-Collaboration in Geographically-Dispersed Environments
Chapter
  • Jan 2011
Information technology has radically altered corporate structures and the way work is transacted in corporate organizations. Firms are seeking to enhance their efficiency by themselves becoming more geographically dispersed and by availing of the benefits of outsourcing. Functional groups are becoming increasingly “virtual” and spatially dispersed; much of organizational interaction is now technology mediated. These trends in turn call for further technology innovations to facilitate communication and collaboration in such situations. Wiki-based systems are an emergent and promising platform for technology mediated interaction. In this study, we describe a Wiki-based system, delineate its major features, and compare it with other available communication technologies. We then examine how the use of Wiki-based systems can enhance communication and collaboration outcomes in the context of a collaborative task, requirements elicitation, chosen for this purpose since it is high value and demands intense interaction across functional domains. We present a model and develop an understanding of the manner in which specific Wiki features enhance three variables – media richness, contextual richness, and organizational memory – which in turn impact communication quality as well as requirements quality in terms of the clarity, completeness, and consistency of a requirements specification. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of our study and of possible future research in this area.
View
Organizational Memory
Article
  • Jan 1991
In this article we argue that the extant representations of the concept of organizational memory are fragmented and underdeveloped. In developing a more coherent theory, we address possible concerns about anthropomorphism; define organizational memory and elaborate on its structure; and discuss the processes of information acquisition, retention, and retrieval. Next, these processes undergird a discussion of how organizational memory can be used, misused, or abused in the management of organizations. Some existing theories are reassessed with explicit attention to memory. The paper closes with an examination of the methodological challenges that await future researchers in this area.
View
Organizational memory: Review of concepts and recommendations for management. International Journal of Information Management, 15, 17-32
Article
  • Feb 1995
  • INT J INFORM MANAGE
The notion of corporate or organizational memory has been discussed for over a quarter of a century. A major objective of this work is to review the conceptual foundations of organizational memory drawing from information systems research, management science, economics, systems theory, political theory, organizational behavior, decision making, and communication theory. The paper provides the reader with a working definition of organizational memory, identifies ways to distinguish the contents of organizational memory, and explicates the processes of memory including knowledge acquisition, retention, maintenance and retrieval. Recommendations are made throughout the work regarding ways information managers can assess and control the effects of organizational memory. While this work does not represent the last word on organizational memory, it provides a conceptual road map to the many different and seemingly contradictory perspectives on the topic. As a practical guide, this work is valuable to managers struggling to compete using, and in spite of, organizational memory.
View
Nature, value and pursuit of reliable corporate knowledge
Article
  • Sep 2001
  • J Knowl Manag
To innovate, a firm must create from permutations and combinations of many individual and organizational intellects a differential knowledge that could not spring from a single mind. Shaped by particular time and circumstances and emerging as if from a collective, corporate “mind”, this corporate knowledge can define a unique worldview for the firm. Given its centrality to the competitiveness of any firm, an important issue is the degree to which such collective corporate knowledge can be considered reliable. Ziman described reliable scientific knowledge as the product of a collective human enterprise to which its member scientists make individual contributions that are amended and extended by mutual criticism and intellectual cooperation. Uses an analogy with Ziman’s description of the scientific process to examine the nature and value of reliable knowledge in the corporate environment and the imperatives and possibilities for its creation. As will be described, the hallmark of corporate “reliable” knowledge cannot be its “correctness” but rather its synoptic and emergent nature.
View
Automatic Concept Classification of Text from Electronic Meetings.
Article
  • Oct 1994
Collaborative work groups are now utilizing specialized computer aids known as groupware which have been gaining the admiration of corporations. One of their applications, electronic meeting software, helps improve meeting quality by permitting anonymous comments over networked computer and by encouraging equal membership participation during a meeting. A major advantage of this software is its ability to let meeting participants brainstorm ideas in parallel mode, i.e., they can sit around a table and 'talk' at the same time using their keyboards. However, the overwhelming volume of brainstorming comments from using meeting software creates a burden during idea organization, thus becoming a bottleneck; counteracts productivity gains; and reduces meeting participant satisfaction. With the adoption of Artificial Intelligence, an automatic classification tool for electronic brainstorming output was designed to generate a tentative list of the important ideas and topics represented in meeting comment.
View
Memory Systems In Organizations: An Empirical Investigation Of Mechanisms For Knowledge Collection, Storage And Access
Article
  • Dec 2002
  • J MANAGE STUD
This research examines the concept of organizational memory in the context of multi-unit organizations. It addresses the question: how do organizations collect, store and provide access to their experiential knowledge? I develop a framework for organizational memory in geographically distributed settings based on the concept of organizational memory systems and empirically assess the usefulness of this framework in the context of a multinational, business consulting organization. Multiple memory systems were identified, including social networks, knowledge centers and various computer-based systems. I present and discuss findings with respect to the characteristics and perceived effectiveness of these memory systems.
View
Organizational memory information systems: A transactive memory approach
Article
  • Jun 2005
  • DECIS SUPPORT SYST
Effective management of organizational memory (OM) is critical to collaboration and knowledge sharing in organizations. We present a framework for managing organizational memory based on transactive memory, a mechanism of collective memory in small groups. While being effective in small groups, there are difficulties hindering the extension of transactive memory to larger groups. We claim that information technology can be used to help overcome these difficulties. We present a formal architecture for directories of meta-memories required in extended transactive memory systems and propose the use of meta-knowledge to substitute for the lack of tacit group knowledge that exists in small groups.
View
Implementation of a group decision support system utilizing collective memory
Article
  • May 2005
  • INFORM MANAGE-AMSTER
Collective memory has been characterized as a socially articulated and maintained reality of the past—one form being organizational memory. The collective memory concept can also be specialized to a group level and used to support work groups engaged in repetitive decision-making activities. The advantages of capturing collective memory are many, including simplification of the process, codification of decision strategies, carryover of knowledge when group composition changes, etc. While there has been substantial research in group decision-making, the explicit use of collective memory to support repetitive decision-making has received less attention. This paper describes the development and implementation of a collective memory based environment for support of a multi-attribute, iterative decision process. The environment utilized hypermedia, groupware, and Intranet technologies. Results of its use are encouraging.
View
Knowledge warehouse: An architectural integration of knowledge management, decision support, artificial intelligence and data warehousing
Article
  • Jun 2002
  • DECIS SUPPORT SYST
Decision support systems (DSS) are becoming increasingly more critical to the daily operation of organizations. Data warehousing, an integral part of this, provides an infrastructure that enables businesses to extract, cleanse, and store vast amounts of data. The basic purpose of a data warehouse is to empower the knowledge workers with information that allows them to make decisions based on a solid foundation of fact. However, only a fraction of the needed information exists on computers; the vast majority of a firm's intellectual assets exist as knowledge in the minds of its employees. What is needed is a new generation of knowledge-enabled systems that provides the infrastructure needed to capture, cleanse, store, organize, leverage, and disseminate not only data and information but also the knowledge of the firm. The purpose of this paper is to propose, as an extension to the data warehouse model, a knowledge warehouse (KW) architecture that will not only facilitate the capturing and coding of knowledge but also enhance the retrieval and sharing of knowledge across the organization. The knowledge warehouse proposed here suggests a different direction for DSS in the next decade. This new direction is based on an expanded purpose of DSS. That is, the purpose of DSS in knowledge improvement. This expanded purpose of DSS also suggests that the effectiveness of a DSS will, in the future, be measured based on how well it promotes and enhances knowledge, how well it improves the mental model(s) and understanding of the decision maker(s) and thereby how well it improves his/her decision making.
View
Toward a Theory of Knowledge Reuse: Types of Knowledge Reuse Situations and Factors in Reuse Success
Article
  • Jun 2001
This paper represents a step toward a theory of knowledge reusability, with emphasis on knowledge ma nagement systems and repositories, often called organizational memory systems. Synthesis of evidence from a wide variety of sources suggests four distinct types of knowledge reuse situations according to the knowledge reuser and the purpose of knowledge reuse. The types involve shared work producers, who produce knowledge they later reuse, shared work practitioners, who reuse each other's knowledge contributions, expertise-seeking novices, and secondary knowledge miners. Each type of knowledge reuser has different requirements for knowledge repositories. Owing to how repositories are created, reusers' requirements often remain unmet. Repositories often require considerable rework to be useful for new reusers, but knowledge producers rarely have the resources and incentives to do a good job of repurposing knowledge. Solutions include careful use of incentives and human and technical intermediaries.
View
Managing Knowledge in Organizations: An Integrative Framework and Review of Emerging Themes
Article
  • Apr 2003
In this concluding article to the Management Science special issue on ÜManaging Knowledge in Organizations: Creating, Retaining, and Transferring Knowledge,Ý we provide an integrative framework for organizing the literature on knowledge management. The framework has two dimensions. The knowledge management outcomes of knowledge creation, retention, and transfer are represented along one dimension. Properties of the context within which knowledge management occurs are represented on the other dimension. These properties, which affect knowledge management outcomes, can be organized according to whether they are properties of a unit (e.g., individual, group, organization) involved in knowledge management, properties of relationships between units or properties of the knowledge itself. The framework is used to identify where research findings about knowledge management converge and where gaps in our understanding exist. The article discusses mechanisms of knowledge management and how those mechanisms affect a unit's ability to create, retain and transfer knowledge. Emerging themes in the literature on knowledge management are identified. Directions for future research are suggested.
View