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Chapter 34
Legumes for improving
socio-economic conditions
of farmers in rainfed
agroecosystem
Sindhu Sheorana, Pritam Kumaria, Sandeep Kumarb, Chetan Kumar Jangirc,
Seema Sheoranb, Manoj Kumar Jhariyad, Arnab Banerjeee, Shish Ram Jakharf
aDepartment of Entomology, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana,
India, bICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Regional Station, Karnal, Haryana, India, cNational
Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, dDepartment of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru
Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India, eDepartment of Environmental Science, Sant
Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India, fDepartment of Soil Science and
Agricultural Chemistry, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
34.1 Introduction
Rainfed agroecosystems are vibrant, dynamic, unstable,
and dangerous, necessitating regionally tailored explora-
tion and production policies. Due to the volatility of rains
and eroded soils, attaining higher agronomic performance
in these rainfed regions is a major challenge. The rest of the
world’s poor live in Asia and Africa’s developing econo-
mies, mostly in rainfed regions. Deprivation, water short-
ages, land exhaustion, and poor infrastructure prevail in
these areas. Agricultural production will still be the finan-
cial center. Over 95% of the cultivated land in Sub-Saharan
Africa is rainfed, compared to nearly 65% in East Asia, 60%
in South Asia, 90% in Latin America, and 75% in the Near
East and North Africa (FAOSTAT, 2005). For example,
India’s dry zone spans around 12% of the country’s entire
geographical area. A total of 32 million hectares of hot
desert land are found in Rajasthan (61%), Gujarat (20%),
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka (10%), Punjab and Haryana
(9%). The other 7 million hectares are cold and arid and
are located in Jammu and Kashmir’s Ladakh region and
Himachal Pradesh’s Lahaul-Spiti region. The Indian desert
is home to about 20 million people, roughly twice the popu-
lation of Haryana. Aside from the human population, there
are 23 million livestock in the country (Sharma etal., 2003).
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85797-0.00020-3
With a world population of 7.5 billion and expected to reach
11 billion by the end of the 21st century, an additional 70%
of grain may be needed. With such a tremendous increase
in population and more area under such rainfed conditions,
in order to satisfy the world’s population’s dietary require-
ments, decent agronomic practices, as well as proper crop-
ping pattern; notable legumes in the cropping system, are
most important. Using legume vegetation to provide doz-
ens of services; in accordance with sustainability standards
may play a significant role in this situation (Jhariya etal.,
2021, 2021a). Since legumes generate 5–7 times lesser
greenhouse gases (GHGs) than some other crops, they
also serve as GHGs mordents; while also ensuring a broad
source of high-quality foodstuffs. They also encourage the
sequestering of carbon in soils and the reduction of fossil
energy inputs into the system (Rani etal., 2019, 2020; Punia
etal., 2020; Raj et al., 2021). As legumes have the poten-
tial to be successful crops with ecological and economic
rewards, they may be used in modern farming systems to
raise crop diversity and lessen the use of external inputs
(Stagnari etal., 2017). Because of their power to fix nitro-
gen (N) from the atmosphere and their function in cutting
GHGs emissions, legumes play a vital role in the production
line (Lemke etal., 2007). In the ambience of keeping the
sustainability of consumption to be central, legumes play
680 SECTION | VI Economic importance
little water from the natural system in the form of soil mois-
ture, runoff, or groundwater recharge, and daily ET rates are
quite low. As a result, only low-water-use and short-duration
crops are cultivated during the rainy season, and just a small
fraction of the land is irrigated the following season. The
two scenarios described above are diametrically opposed.
By permitting redirection of resources to regions where the
interventions would actually function, a good characteriza-
tion of “rainfed areas” will enhance resource allocations per
unit area of land over the current practice of thinly distribut-
ing the available resources.
Rainfed agriculture has often played and will continue
to play, an integral role in global agricultural production,
with rainfed agriculture accounting for roughly 58% of the
total food basket (Wani et al., 2009). Rainfed crops cover
48% of the land used for food crops and 68% of the land
used for nonfood crops.
Rainfed agriculture supports around 70% of India’s pop-
ulation. In India, the rainfed regions have the highest con-
centration of destitute people. Furthermore, these areas are
projected to be the hardest hit by climatic variability (e.g.,
natural disasters such as frequent droughts, floods, and other
natural disasters) and, as a byproduct, productivity. As a result
of the saturation of output in the green revolution regions,
it provides promise for future food security. The hot desert
region is defined by a lack of natural resources as well as
an unfriendly climate. Rainfall is sporadic and unexpected,
ranging from less than 100 mm to 400 mm. Temperature
ranges (-2 to 48°C), lengthy days of sunshine, high wind
speeds (35–40 km hr–1), and hence substantial evaporation
characterize the region. Groundwater is saline in around
41%–85% of cases (salt concentration: 8–60 ppt). Main crops
grown under rain-fed or limited-irrigation circumstances
include pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), cluster bean
(Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia),
mung bean (Vigna radiata), sesame, and mustard (Brassica
spp.). Rainwater is a crucial input in determining output in
all of these areas, but the inability to handle unpredictable
and deficient rainwater through efficient collecting methods
has long been a barrier to productivity improvement. Major
and minor/micronutrients are in short supply in soils. The
wind erosion of topsoil is a prevalent issue. Because crops
are not certain and secure option, livestock is the people’s
main means of survival (Behera and France, 2016).
The complexities and concerns of an increasingly bur-
geoning population, water shortage for irrigation, global
climate change, and arable land depletion are all driving
up demand for better grain production from rainfed fertile
farmland (Prakash etal., 2020). Biradar etal. (2009) esti-
mate that the international rainfed crop landmass is 1.132
billion ha, or 2.78-fold the world’s total irrigated area (407
million ha or M ha). (http://www.iwmigiam.org/info/main/
aboutGMRCA2.asp). Unirrigated agroecosystems often
play a central role in the agriculture sector, accounting for
a significant role (Voisin et al., 2014) at the food-system
standard, as a generator of plant proteins for both man
and livestock; and with growing importance in maintain-
ing human health (Tharanathan and Mahadevamma, 2003).
Furthermore, legumes play a prominent role in breaking the
cycle of insects and pathogens, as well as contributed to the
consolidation of plant protein supply shortages in various
regions of the globe (Jensen etal., 2010; Köpke etal., 2010;
Nemecek etal., 2008; Peoples etal., 2009; Westhoek etal.,
2011).
Grain legumes are an important component of field crops
that contribute to crop productivity, nutrition, and revenue
for smallholder farmers all over the world (Kebede, 2020).
Grain legumes, as the third-largest export commodity
after coffee (Coffea arabica) and sesame (Sesamum indi-
cum), contribute to smallholder crop production, nutri-
tion as a cost-effective source of protein accounting for
about 15% of protein intake, and income as a high-value
crop accounting for about 15% of protein consumption
(Getachew, 2019). For resource-poor and smallholder farm-
ers, increased legume production can generate chances for
local value-added processing, drive domestic demand, and
provide off-farm employment, sources of income, and an
enriched diet (Getachew, 2019). As a result, promoting
legumes that are adaptable to diverse parts of the country, as
well as legume-based production technologies, would help
to boost agricultural productivity and improve the nutrition
of people in the country, particularly smallholder farmers.
So, proper production practices and important knowledge
gaps must be addressed in order to increase grain legume
yield and productivity and expand their presence in small-
holder agricultural systems.
34.2 Rainfed agro-ecosystems -
Anoverview
The Indian government divides agricultural land into two
categories: rainfed and irrigated. Rainfed areas are those
where irrigation is less than or equal to 30% of the net sown
area, whereas irrigated regions are those where irrigation
is greater than 30% of the net sown area (National Rainfed
Area Authority, 2012). In comparison to “irrigated” areas,
these “rainfed” areas have low agricultural productivity in
terms of crop yields (Joshi etal., 2005; National Rainfed
Area Authority, 2011, 2012). According to the concept, an
area could be categorized as rainfed for two unique reasons
in India’s agro-climatic circumstances: (1) The area receives
a large amount of precipitation, or rather the precipitation is
more or less consistent throughout the growing period, and
the proportion surpasses the evapotranspiration (ET) rates
of crops, allowing them to mature without irrigation, while
a large amount of water remains in the natural system as
runoff, groundwater, or both, or in situ moisture; or (2) Due
to low rainfall and severe aridity, the area receives relatively
Legumes for improving socio-economic conditions of farmers in rainfed agroecosystem Chapter | 34 681
et al., 2007). Drought is described differently in different
parts of the world, depending on the natural weather condi-
tions, farming techniques, accessible water supply and eco-
nomic and social operations of the continent (Prasad, 1998).
34.3 Constraints and challenges
ofrainfed farming
Cultivating legumes is one of the most important roads to
wealth for impoverished people suffering from hunger, mal-
nutrition, extreme poverty, and environmental degradation
in locations where the Green Revolution has failed. As a
result, legume farming has emerged as a viable option for
combating land degradation, restoring the environment, and
preserving soil resources. But there are various challenges
faced in legume cultivation under rainfed areas, some are
shown below in Fig. 34.1.
● Rainfed farming has several constraints, including that
most of the farmers are resource-poor, soils deteriorate,
and precipitation is uncertain in both time and space,
resulting in low and unreliable agricultural output.
● Rainfed crop production has remained poor in most
cases, which is one of the great obstacles of rainfed
farming. Rainfed crop yield in underdeveloped nations
averages 1.5 t ha–1, compared to 3.1 t ha–1 for irrigated
yields (Rosegrant etal., 2002).
● Repeated droughts present a major challenge to rainfed
agriculture. Prolonged water stress; especially at criti-
cal stages of development; leads to reduced productiv-
ity. Starvation, deprivation, and water shortages all
are connected (Falkenmark, 1986). Rainfed farming is
the dominant source of nutrition in the savannas and
steppes, where water is an integral part of crop develop-
ment (SEI, 2005).
approximately 57% of the net cultivable land and represent-
ing 80 M ha in arid, subhumid and semiarid climate areas.
India possesses 17% of the people in the world; 15% of the
world’s animals, but it only has 2.5% of the world’s acre-
age, 4.2% of freshwater supplies, 1% of forest areas, and
0.5% of pastures (Srinivasarao etal, 2011).
Arid and semiarid areas cover virtually 40% of the
world’s soil profile and are home to nearly 2 billion inhabit-
ants (ICRISAT, 2010). Rainfed locations are primarily seen
in arid, sub-humid and semi-arid climates where droughts are
common, resulting in some or all crop loss. Rainfed produc-
tivity in developing countries are on aggregate 1.5 t ha–1, cer-
tainly compared to 3.1 t ha–1 for irrigated returns (Rosegrant
etal., 2002), and the expansion in rainfed grain production
has primarily arisen from the land extension. Coarse grain
cereals (85%), pulses (83%), oilseeds (70%), and cotton
(65%) have always been the most widespread rainfed crops
in India. Grain production demand is projected to fall as our
kingdom’s population continues to grow, ending in a 43.1Mt
deficit (Chand, 2007). Either way, to check the quality of
food and the nutritional value of India’s population growth,
food production is expected to increase by 5 Mt each year
over the next 25 years (Kanwar, 2000). Rainfed sites, which
account for nearly 60% of all agricultural land in India, would
contribute to more of the country’s food cravings (Kanwar,
2000). A study of the transformation of massive rainfed crops
observed that from 1998–1999 to 2008–2009, there have been
substantial increases in output, owing primarily to improve-
ments in yield per hectare. However, in the vast majority of
situations, the rate of inflation in demand has not exceeded
population growth, with serious consequences for food secu-
rity (Venkateswarlu and Prasad, 2012). Rainfed farming in
India is characterized by drought conditions and starvation.
Drought is a term that refers to a condition in which rainfall
is scarce, that is, less than the area’s “natural” level (Bhandari
Lack of water resources
Lack of sufficient transport
and communication
Flooding of plains
Technology gaps in
agriculture & animal
Undependable and highly
variable pattern
Rainfed agriculture
Deforestation and shifting
cultivation
Soil erosion and
degradation of hills
Low water quality for
irrigation
Poor socio-economic
system of farmers
FIG. 34.1 Main constituents of rainfed agriculture.
682 SECTION | VI Economic importance
instability, or the presence of a large difference between
a producer and consumer pricing, is also a major source
of concern (Mahendra Dev, 2011). The dilemma of
market accessibility and price volatility exacerbates the
problem of local produce pricing that is inappropriate,
and judgement is complicated.
● Poor organization is another constraint of the market-
ing system in most villages, including lack of proper
regulation and lack of profitability. These sectors are
dominated by intermediaries and defined by dubious
marketing platforms. (Dixit etal., 2013).
● Due to the high frequency of pests and diseases, yield
declines of many other rainfed crops, especially pulses,
are significantly greater. In certain instances, a cata-
strophic infestation results in the loss of the entire crop.
Due to the sheer economic implications, technical, and
managerial options are seldom used.
● One of its major constraints is the lack of a targeted train-
ing programme aimed specifically at rainfed territories.
34.4 Legumes in rainfed farming
34.4.1 Scope of legumes in rainfed agriculture
Apart from addressing human protein and energy demands,
legume plants are likely to play a major role in increas-
ing indigenous N production (particularly in low-rainfall
areas). In addition, legumes can withstand drought con-
ditions found in rainfed and dry habitats. In addition to
boosting soil fertility, certain legumes have the potential
to solubilize otherwise inaccessible phosphate by excret-
ing organic acids from their roots. When utilized in rota-
tion with nonleguminous crops, legumes help to restore
soil natural matter and reduce insect and disease problems.
According to research, the organic N fixation technique is
the most environmentally benign way to provide the mas-
sive amounts of N required by legumes in order to gener-
ate high yielding crops with high protein content (Yuvaraj
etal., 2020).
Because of their association with N-fixing (i.e., rhi-
zobia) bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhiza, legumes are
unusual in their ability to withstand drought (Antolin etal.,
1995). Although some researches have demonstrated that
a lack of water may limit N2 fixation (Serraj etal., 1999),
Several lines of evidence have demonstrated that species
exhibit genetic variation, which could explain their vary-
ing resistance to water stress (Smith etal., 1988; Devries
etal., 1989).
To face the challenges ahead, a policy process must be
developed in which the long-term viability of output and
consumption patterns is prioritized. Indeed, legumes play
a prominent role in this sense (Voisin et al., 2014). As
legumes are a valuable source of protein, minerals, and
fiber for both animals and humans, they further play a very
important role in biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), which
● Optimal soil conditions are rarely found under rain-
fed conditions. Although, the availability of N can be
slightly improved by growing legumes; and by includ-
ing leguminous crops in the rotation.
● Degraded soil with an increased danger of increased ero-
sion, culminating in the removal of productive ground
soils and soil organic carbon (SOC), are still major con-
straints. Depending on the type of soil, landscape, and
topography, soil degradation ranges from 5 to 150 Mg
ha–1 year–1. Wasteland areas have been systematized
using remote sensing data mapping and geographic
information systems for various environments (Maji,
2007). Soils in arid areas are extremely polluted and
also have a low SOC level; due to this high oxidation
frequency and triggered desertification. Moreover, low
biomass consumption and advanced surface soil erosion
under heavy precipitation are some of the other impor-
tant factors that lead to lower SOC levels (Srinivasarao
etal., 2011).
● The management of land, soil, and crops in traditional
rainfed farming was not good. Some rainfed crops are
grown more for convenience as farmers’ priority is to
adopt subsistence farming. There has been blind use of
land because of the continuously rising demand for crops
and pasture. Eventually, marginal farms were being used
for agricultural production, coupled with low returns
and, in many of these cases, crop failure. Conventional
rainfed farming demands almost no investment because
producers only use indigenous seeds and equipment,
and no costly inputs are used. Local varieties are usu-
ally long-duration and struggle from water deficit after
the monsoon season ends. The Desi plough is primar-
ily used by rainfed farmers for all tilling and seeding
activities. In short, formal rainfed farming seems to be
quite troublesome and leverages almost nothing of soil
prospects and rainwater.
● In rainfed crops, resources including fertilizers, high-
quality plant species, irrigation, insecticides, and weed
killers are used less frequently. As a consequence, the
performance of rainfed crops has suffered setbacks.
Rainfed soils are multinutrient impaired, even though
healthy use of these nutrients in rainfed crops is uncom-
mon. Around 30% of rainfed peasants in many isolated
parts of India never use any chemical fertilizers or chem-
icals (Venkateswarlu, 2008). Micronutrient deficiencies,
chiefly zinc (Zn) and boron (B) are far more prevalent in
rainfed crops. These are some of the fastest increasing
barriers to rainfed agriculture’s long-term crop produc-
tion (Srinivasarao and Vittal, 2007).
● Due to the dominance of subsistence farming in devel-
oping countries, the surfeit field harvest is only mar-
keted if household demands are addressed. Furthermore,
individual families work on their own, finding it chal-
lenging to develop goods for a competitive market. Price
Legumes for improving socio-economic conditions of farmers in rainfed agroecosystem Chapter | 34 683
N-fertility in the soil, boost soil physical conditions, and
maintain ecological quality (Courty etal., 2015). Among
the so many potential societal benefits of legumes, their
contribution to climate change mitigation has received
little attention. When compared to agricultural systems
focused on mineral N fertilization, legumes can minimize
GHGs emissions such as nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) (Angus et al., 2015; Kumar et al., 2017,
2017a, 2017b, 2020). Therefore, by minimizing energy
consumption, GHGs emissions and maintaining a positive
soil carbon balance, growing pulse crops will significantly
reduce agriculture’s contribution to climate change.
Food legumes with high insoluble and soluble,
oligosaccharides, phenolics, and essential nutrients
including antioxidants, vitamins, and bioactive com-
pounds can offer humankind and cattle, a variety of health
benefits (Shimelis and Rakshit 2005; Meena etal., 2015a).
The per capita net availability of food grains in India is
shown in Fig. 34.3. Water stress, salinity, temperature,
high CO2 concentrations, and contamination of heavy
metal are all factors that affect the development, yield,
and quality of the produce (Wani et al., 2007). Cooper
etal. (2009) used a modelling method to estimate that a
3°C heating rate would reduce the existing average peanut
yield in Zimbabwe by 33% and pigeon pea production in
Kenya by 19% due to the reduced growing periods and
early maturity. Owing to the quick disturbances induced
by multiple agricultural activities while developing, soil
health in an agroecosystem confronts a series of obstacles
as compared to that of a natural ecosystem (Yadav etal.,
2021, 2021a). To maintain soil physical, chemical, and
biochemical properties in an agro-ecosystem, a compre-
hensive framework is taken, against which diminished soil
interventions in terms of tillage practices and maintain-
ing an organic soil cover has proven beneficial (Meena
etal., 2015b). This can be accomplished by incorporating
a legume crop into an agroecosystem because it can thrive
with less tillage and can also be used as an organic cover.
Because legumes can fix N, they can be grown on small
farms with a limited supply of macro and micronutrients.
It can also support its own growth and production in low
fertility soil.
Legumes have features that make them useful as a
growing crop or as crop residue in conservation agricul-
ture and sustainable cropping systems. Few leguminous
species have deep root systems that facilitate nutrient solu-
bilization through root exudates and their absorption and
penetration into deeper soil layers (Kumar et al., 2022).
Conservation agriculture is now used in many countries.
Brazil has developed soybean-based conservation agri-
culture systems. In Australia, Turkey, and North America,
pulses such as lentils, chickpeas, peas, and field beans
(Vicia faba) are critical to conservation agriculture. Grain
legumes can serve to minimize malnutrition and satisfy
helps to sustain soil fertility (Sharma etal., 2019; Sheoran
etal., 2021; Singh etal., 2021). Legumes aid in the solubili-
zation of nonsoluble phosphorus (P) in soil, as well as opti-
mize the physical health and microbial biomass of the soil.
They also have a weed-smoothing effect. Legumes are now
recognized among the most necessary elements of farming
systems because of their pivotal roles in raising soil quality
and their excellent adaptability to marginal environments.
In marginal lands, legume crops can be used to mitigate
poverty, famine, malnourishment, and destruction of the
environment by replacing cereal crops. The transition of N
from legume grain to the following crop, whether during
crop senescence or in an intercropping scheme, is critical.
In terms of production, grain legumes rank third after
cereals and oilseeds, but their importance in agriculture
and the environment is greater, due to their ability to aug-
ment protein (Fig. 34.2) to livestock and humans, as well
as their responsibility to fix atmospheric N (Mantri etal.,
2013). At the same time inflating the world’s population
to 11 billion by the end of the twenty-first century, there
would be a 70% increase in food demand. Grain legume
cultivation can play a major role in ensuring the food secu-
rity of this booming population. Legumes are grown in a
variety of climates, from semi-arid to subtropical, as well
as temperate regions. Various grain legume genetic vari-
ants have been described, all of which have the potential
to reduce stomatal conductance as soil dries, making them
ideal for growing in water-scarce conditions (Zaman-
Allah et al., 2011; Devi et al., 2009). All of these fac-
tors necessitate a focus on improving the production of
grain legumes. Mung bean, chickpea (Cicer arietinum),
common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), grass pea (Lathyrus
sativus), lentil (Lens culinaris), urd bean (Vigna mungo),
pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), soybean (Glycine max)
and pea (Pisum sativum) are the key sources of dietary
protein among grain legumes. Though abundant in pro-
tein; and often referred to as “poor man’s meat,” certain
grain legumes, such as groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
and soybean, are also excellent sources for vegetable oil
(Bellaloui etal., 2013; Meena and Yadav, 2015). Because
of its capability to fix N, the legume crop is an essential
component of the cropping sequence in order to preserve
Protein content in seeds (%)
22.5
40.0
27.0 25.0 20.9 22.1 20.1 22.5
Broad
bean
Winged
bean
Jack
bean
Rice
bean
Pigeon
pea
French
bean
Cowpea Peas
FIG. 34.2 Protein content of some indigenous legumes. (Data source:
Sharma etal., 2003).
684 SECTION | VI Economic importance
synthesize (Duranti and Gius, 1997). Legumes account
for 27% of the global single biggest agricultural produc-
tion and 33% contribution of total dietary protein needs
for humans is also fulfilled by legumes only (Vance etal.,
2000). In numerous researches across separate territories,
the protein content of food legumes varies greatly from
26% to 57% in soybean (Iqbal etal., 2006), 16% to 32%
in pea (Costa etal., 2006), 21% to 29% in common bean
(Costa etal., 2006), 22% to 36% in faba bean (Iqbal etal.,
2006), 16% to 28% in chickpea (Iqbal etal., 2006), 19%
to 32% in lentil (Costa etal., 2006), 21% to 31% in mung
bean (Duranti, 2006; Dhakal et al., 2015), 16% to 31%
in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) (Duranti, 2006) and 16%
to 24% in pigeon pea (Duranti, 2006). Globulins (70%)
and albumins (20%) are the most abundant storage pro-
teins in grain legumes, while prolamins–and glutelin are
mild proteins (Duranti, 2006). Crop legumes have a carbo-
hydrate level ranging from 30% (soybean) to 63% (chick-
pea). Peanut as well as soybean, among grain legumes,
are a valuable source of vegetable oils, accounting for
more than 35% of the global refined vegetable oil sup-
ply. Minerals such as P, potassium (K), magnesium (Mg),
Zn and calcium (Ca) are also abundant in grain legumes.
Soybean and lupin intake aided in diabetes management.
Substituting animal products in the diet with plant-based
foods like soybeans has been shown to reduce cholesterol
(Harland and Haffner, 2008).
34.4.2 Role of legume vegetation
on enhancing soil physical properties
Legume plant has the ability to improve soil physi-
cal characteristics by acting as a soil conditioner and
improving physical homes. Leguminous cover crops
have a significant impact on soil physical characteris-
tics in general due to their propensity to produce huge
the nutritional necessities of the widening global popula-
tion due to excellent grain formulation and multinutritional
benefits. In India, the most commonly noticed nutrient
deficiency diseases are; protein-energy malnutrition and
chronic energy deficiency. Legumes are rich in plant pro-
tein and therefore play a vital role in society’s preservation
of food. Malnutrition could be alleviated by the production
of legumes, which are less expensive than animal products
and can be purchased easily by the poor. Food legumes
are the finest sources of dietary proteins, particularly in
developing countries, providing 20%–40% of daily pro-
tein needs (Kudapa etal., 2013). In order to cope with a
projected 40% rise in global population by 2050, agricul-
tural production must increase by 70%. To ensure a steady
supply of food, it is important to embrace sustainable and
improved technology in order to attain sustainable growth
in food production and, as a result, food security (Gruhn
etal., 2000; Landers 2007; Ashoka etal., 2017; Kakraliya
etal., 2017, 2018).
Pulses are already relevant to the vigorous develop-
ment of livestock and dairy products, where cereal crops
are the primary food source, and forage pulses are used as
medicines to keep animals healthy (Wattiaux and Howard,
2001). As a result, legumes have become an indispens-
able part of modern agriculture. They are also high in
carbohydrate, vitamin, and mineral content (Wang et al.,
2011). Grain legumes are a fine source of essential nutri-
ents (macro as well as micronutrients), mineral elements,
vitamins, nice quality dietary fibers, antioxidants, as well
as other bioactive metabolites (Prakash and Gupta, 2011;
Wang et al., 2011). They have numerous health benefits,
including the reduction and prevention of certain cardio-
vascular disorders, overweight, certain cancers, and diabe-
tes mellitus (Goni and Valentin-Gamazo, 2003). Legume
seeds contain 20%–30% protein and a high concentration
of lysine, an essential amino acid that mammals cannot
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 200020102017 20182019 2020
Rice Wheat Other cereals Pulses Food grains
The per capita net availability of food grains (kg/year)
FIG. 34.3 The per capita net availability of food grains (kg/year) in India since 1951. (Courtesy: DES, 2014; DES. 2021-2022).
Legumes for improving socio-economic conditions of farmers in rainfed agroecosystem Chapter | 34 685
profitability; to actually accomplish food safety in the
undeveloped nations (Meena etal., 2018a, 2019; Kumar
etal., 2021, 2021a). Legumes are usually grown on acidic
or alkaline soils. Pulse crops lower the pH of the soil in
the rhizosphere, making the micro-environment more con-
ducive to nutrient responsiveness. As a direct consequence
of the residual effects of legumes in subsequent crops, the
supply of nutrients in pulse-cropped fields increases even
more after they are harvested (Ali etal., 2002, Srinivasarao
et al., 2003). The enhancement of the soil N budget, as
calculated by soil reserves of progressively mineralizable
organic N, and microbial biomass, carbon and N, has been
widely documented. The greater access of N is a key factor
in pulses’ potential benefits on the nonlegume crops (Ali
etal., 2002). Table 34.1 shows the BNF figures for India.
Lentil residues have a nearly three-fold higher N content
than cereal residues. Analogously, pulse remnants, that
are recycled after being incorporated into the soil, contain
higher proportions of Ca, K, and S. Legume residues have
a lower carbon to N ratio than cereal residues.
As demonstrated with a variety of grain legumes in
Kenya, the intrinsic soil fertility status is critical to ensuring
good legume yields (Ojiem etal., 2007), with groundnut and
soybean in Zimbabwe (Zingore etal., 2008), with the climb-
ing bean in Rwanda (Franke etal., 2019) and with cowpea,
groundnut, and soybean in Ghana (Kermah etal., 2018). In
more fertile areas with better soil conditions, the amount of
N2 fixed by grain legumes was much higher (Ojiem etal.,
2007; Kermah etal., 2018; van Vugt etal., 2018).
Farmers in rainfed areas lack resources, soils are
depleted, nutrients are scarce, and rainfall is unpredict-
able over time and space, resulting in low yields and crop
amounts of biomass, which provides a substratum for
soil organic material and soil organic matter (Yuvaraj
et al., 2020). In addition, leguminous cover vegetation
is planted to protect the soil from plant nutrient loss and
erosion, while green manure plants are grown to improve
the physical qualities of the soil. Legumes also have an
impact on soil structure due to their aggregation proper-
ties (Meena etal., 2020, 2020a, 2020b; 2021). Because
of the direct effects of the crop residue in soil formation
and aggregation, legume plants generally result in higher
water infiltration (Yuvaraj etal., 2020).
34.4.3 Role of legume crops in improving
soilchemical properties
The pH of rhizospheric soil changes as a result of legume-
based rotation. Legumes’ root exudation, as well as
changes in or releases of organic acids on the epidermal
cell of root surfaces, can all help to increase P availabil-
ity (Yuvaraj etal., 2020). Changes in pH have also been
shown to alter the growth and activity of microbes, both
of which are important parts of nutrient cycle processes.
Leguminous green manure is a well-known source of
organic matter in the soil. Aside from boosting soil N,
green manure also releases P, maintains and renews soil
natural carbon, and enhances soil chemical properties
(Yuvaraj etal., 2020).
34.4.4 Role of legume vegetation
in enhancing soil microbial biomass
Because they are involved in the nutrients cycling both
indirectly and directly through the conversion of inor-
ganic and organic forms of nutrients, soil microbes are an
important link between plant productivity and soil nutri-
ent availability (Kumar etal., 2019, 2020a). Legumes are
one of the components required to promote soil microbial
biomass. Legumes are important in soil microbial biomass
and energetic essential mechanisms such nutrient cycling
and soil organic matter decomposition, improving crop
productivity, and soil sustainability (Graham and Vance,
2000). Microorganisms that interact physically with
leguminous vegetation in the rhizosphere can improve
agricultural productivity by promoting plant growth and
development (Yuvaraj etal., 2020).
34.5 Potential of legumes and their
socio-economic benets in sustainable
and productive rainfed farming
The great potential of legumes in rainfed agriculture
should be exploited through knowledge-based utiliza-
tion of natural resources to strengthen production and
TABLE 34.1 Nitrogen-xing ability of legumes.
Grain legume N-xation (kg ha–1)
Groundnut (Arachis hypogea) 150-200 (Toomsan etal.,
1995)
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) 120-170 (Adu-Gyam
etal., 1997)
Pea (Pisum sativum) 90-128 (Jensen, 1996)
Soybean (Glycine max) 71-108 (Jensen, 1996)
Faba bean (Vicia faba) 23-79 (Danso etal., 1987)
Black gram (Vigna radiata) 16-79 (Hayat etal., 2008)
Mung bean (Vigna radiata) 19-54 (Hayat etal., 2008)
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) 14-35 (Okereke and
Ayama, 1992)
Rice bean (Viga umbellata) 13-30 (Cowell etal., 1989)
Lentil (Lens culinaris) 8-14 (Cowell etal., 1989)
686 SECTION | VI Economic importance
subsequent crop cycles receive little N fertilization (Preissel
et al., 2015). The “break crop effect” includes nonlegume
bonuses include; soil structure refinement, and soil organic
matter (Hernanz etal., 2009), P utilization (Shen etal., 2011),
retention, and abundance of soil water (Angus etal., 2015),
and reduced disease and weed pressure (Angus etal., 2015)
(Robson etal., 2002). Food demand and fertilizer need sta-
tistics illustrate the reliance on fertilizer imports from other
countries for the production of food. Legumes, on the other
hand, do have the expected potential to play a crucial role in
rising native N production. To assess the full potential and evi-
dence of the concepts, a simple underlying academic study
needs to be conducted using public funds.
34.6 Socio-economic benets
oflegumes
34.6.1 Identifying the benets and costs
To begin with, a “benefit-cost ratio” (BCR) is a ratio used
in a cost-benefit analysis to characterize the actual relation-
ship between a planned project’s relative costs and benefits.
BCR can be measured in terms of money or quality. A proj-
ect with a BCR greater than 1.0 is projected to provide a
firm and its investors with a positive net present value (in
our case, farmers). Furthermore, a “cost-benefit analysis” is
a systematic method for determining which actions should
be made and which should be avoided. The cost-benefit
analyst adds up the potential benefits of a scenario or action,
then subtracts the overall costs of pursuing that action.
The BCR is attempted to be explained in this chap-
ter using an example based on a study undertaken for the
European Parliament by the Legume Futures consortium
(Bues etal., 2013). This starts with the identification of the
numerous negative and beneficial effects of legumes in farm-
ing systems, as well as the quantification of these effects –
● The main advantage of cultivating legumes is that they
can fix N in the soil – or, more accurately, they act as
hosts for Rhizobia bacteria that do so.
● Other benefits flow from BNF: the requirement to apply
N via chemical fertilizer is removed or much reduced,
and the N left in the soil reduces the demand for N fer-
tilization for the following crop.
● Reduced N fertilizer application – to the extent that chem-
ical fertilizers are used instead of organic manure – results
in a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions, a reduction in
fossil energy consumption, and a reduction in air pollu-
tion from the manufacture of such chemical fertilizers.
● Using less N fertilizer reduces the amount of surplus
N on fields. This surplus N manifests itself in a variety
of forms, the most notable of which is N2O, a power-
ful greenhouse gas, and nitrate in groundwater, which
eventually becomes a nutrient in surface water, causing
eutrophication.
uncertainty. The development of crop management practices
is critical to the sustainability of rainfed crop production.
Rainfed crop management practices necessitate strategy on
a farmer-by-farmer basis, involving both farmers and input
supply institutions. The State Department of Agriculture is
assisting in the implementation of these program sugges-
tions in rainfed areas through successful demonstrations
and the provision of subsidy-based inputs. Almost all rain-
fed areas now have access to a package of improved farm
management practices. Except for fertilizers and pesticides,
better crop management practices rely on low-cost inputs.
In recent times, there’s been witnessed a steady growth in
rainfed agricultural output; because of adaptation of crop
management practices, especially improved crop varieties
and fertilizer usage (Ladha etal., 2003; Brisson etal., 2010;
Stephens, 2011; Grassini etal., 2013; van Wart et al., 2013;
Kirkegaard etal., 2014).
Rainfed farmers’ economic conditions are improved by
oilseeds and legumes. Since legumes are rich in proteins
and vitamins A and D, they are the cheapest, most reli-
able and most important staples in animal feed. Cowpea,
cluster bean, velvet beans (Mucuna pruriens), moth bean,
horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum), field beans, and other
essential cultivated legumes provide 75–250 q ha–1 of green
fodder. These legumes often contribute 30 to 50 kg of N per
hectare per year to the soil. Stylos, siratro, phasemy beans,
and other pasture legumes are being used as green fodder.
The pasture legumes are either grazed in-situ or cut and pro-
vided to the farm animals.
Rainfed farming will benefit from mixed cropping
of legumes with cereals like; sorghum and pearl millet,
as well as legumes including cluster beans and cowpea.
Some legumes, including cowpea, cluster beans, green
beans, and others can be intercropped with cereals and
oilseed crops and cut for fodder after 30 to 40 days with-
out affecting cereal or oilseed yields. Fertilizers are rich
in N and P boost forage yields by 100%. Due to the sav-
ings in fertilizers (N and P), the potentiality of emission
of N2O from fertile land under cultivation is hindered;
because of the cultivation of legume, as the projected CO2
emission from fertilizer output is around 300 kg year–1
(Jensen etal., 2012). Pulse yield differences are more dif-
ficult to estimate than grain yield differences as they are
more susceptible to a variety of abiotic and biotic factors
(Srivastava et al., 2010). This is especially true in devel-
oping countries, where resource-poor producers may not
be able to integrate established policies into their farming
practices, thereby reducing these constraints. For instance,
in South Asia, the majority of the world’s output occurs,
and there; the national average yields of chickpea are in
the range of 0.5–0.9 t ha–1 (FAO, 2015).
Grain legumes have two precrop huge benefits: a “nitro-
gen effect” and a “break crop effect.” The “nitrogen effect”
is caused by the N supply from BNF, which is greatest when
Legumes for improving socio-economic conditions of farmers in rainfed agroecosystem Chapter | 34 687
1-year faba bean followed by 3 years wheat (Triticum aes-
tivum) as opposed to 4 years wheat alone; and in pasture-
based farming, a value for modestly fertilized grassland
with 25% clover as opposed to conventional grassland
(Table 34.2).
It’s difficult to say whether the benefits of legumes out-
weigh the cost. At best, it may be claimed that legumes
provide significant benefits and, as a result, policymakers
should pay attention to them. The expenses and advantages
listed here are not set in stone—especially since not all ben-
efits can be quantified. The costs of growing legumes, that
is, the frequently smaller margins, can be reduced by delib-
erate policy efforts: research on raising legume yields and
distributing knowledge on legume cultivation will help to
enhance legume economics. Other trends may contribute to
a reversal of the drop in legumes: the growing popularity of
organic farming, as well as higher fertilizer and imported
soya prices (Bues etal., 2013).
Crops provide a major portion of the human diet, animal
feed, and medication. As a result, agriculture is critical to the
world economic system’s sustainability, development, wel-
fare, prosperity, and advancement (Ram and Meena, 2014).
Growing legumes contribute to a sustainable farming sys-
tem. Legumes can contribute significantly to both advanced
and growing agriculture’s present agricultural practices
(Dhakal etal., 2016). In addition to meeting human dietary
requirements, legumes are needed for robust animal and
milk production, and pasture legumes are needed to keep
animals healthy (Wattiaux and Howard, 2001). The prime
objective of using pulses in a cropping system is to improve
soil quality (Meena etal., 2015b). Fats from legumes can
also be used to make biodiesel, which is a renewable energy
source (Jensen et al., 2012). The tendency of legumes to
turn unavailable P into available form by producing organic
acids via their roots; also contributes to P proficiency in a
cropping system (Jensens, 1996). Undernutrition in ani-
mals is normal in underdeveloped nations, as they are typi-
cally provided cereal crop residues with N concentration
below the critical threshold. About 1.0%–1.2% N content
in cattle feed is required for efficient metabolism; to pro-
mote optimal microbe growth in the rumen of cattle (Van
Soest, 1994). N-rich legume residuals can help livestock
meet their nutrient requirements. Grain legumes also help
to keep pests and weeds at bay. Therefore, more advanced
agronomic practices, such as reduced tillage and organic
farming, grain legume production is growing (Meena etal.,
2016).
Due to reduced soil disturbance, the lower requirement
for tillage in the cultivation of pulses has a beneficial impact
on the farm’s economic output as well as increased car-
bon sequestration (Reckling etal., 2014; Roy et al., 2021;
Meena etal., 2022). Reducing the use of fertilizers and agro-
chemicals aims to minimize GHGs emissions and thereby
global climate change. Legumes may also be converted into
● Furthermore, N2O plays a crucial part in the degradation
of the stratospheric ozone layer, in addition to its involve-
ment in climate change (Ravishankara etal., 2009).
Aside from the changes in N balance, Bues etal. (2013)
cite some other advantages of legumes.:
● They activate phosphate reserves in the soil, lowering
phosphate requirements for the following crop.
● They improve soil organic matter content, reducing
soil erosion, increasing water retention capacity, and
increasing carbon storage in the soil.
● Overall, above- and below-ground biodiversity (including
pollinating insects) is boosted by boosting agro-biodiver-
sity and increasing soil organic matter.
● Rotation reduces the demand for pesticides in the farm-
ing system, resulting in reduced water pollution and
greater biodiversity.
● However, it should be noted that legumes do not always
result in a lower N surplus. Because the crop has a low
C:N ratio, residues left on the land (such as green manure)
contain a lot of N, some of which will be released into
the atmosphere as N2O and a lot of it will be leached into
the groundwater as nitrate (Williams etal., 2014). This
latter consequence is likely the most significant environ-
mental disadvantage of legumes.
However, there are costs associated with legume farm-
ing, which are incurred by farmers. Although there are
instances where legumes can be produced commercially, the
area under legumes is often low (especially in organic farm-
ing), as the revenue from legumes is typically lower than that
of competing crops. There are several reasons for this:
● Grain legume yields are lower than most cereal yields.
This is not a coincidence, but rather a basic feature
of legumes: their high protein content allows them to
devote less energy to carbs and biomass in general.
● The yield is not only smaller but also more variable. This
is owing to the high prevalence of illnesses, fragility to
weather, and the fact that legumes have a difficult time
competing with weeds. Despite their high protein content,
forage legumes produce less energy than fertilized grass.
● As a result of the fall in these crops, many farmers are
unfamiliar with the management of legumes: much infor-
mation has been lost. Furthermore, farmers frequently
lack trust in the ability of legumes to perform adequately.
● For the same reasons, there is frequently a scarcity of
suitable cultivars as well as marketplaces within a rea-
sonable distance.
34.6.2 Quantifying the costs and benets
After moving through various steps, Bues etal. (2013) cal-
culated a tentative value per hectare for the two standards:
in arable agriculture, a value for a rotation consisting of
688 SECTION | VI Economic importance
● Because of the indeterminate habit of plants, the
vegetative growth and reproductive phases are occurring
simultaneously.
Physiological/genetically constraints
● Lack of high yielding varieties
● Low harvest index
● High susceptibility to diseases and insect pests
● Flower drops
● Lack of short duration varieties
● Intermediate growth habits
● Poor response to inputs
● Instabilities in performances
● Complete or partial absence of genetic resistance to
major diseases and pests (e.g., Helicoverpa armigera
under continuous rainfall, wilt and sterility mosaic in
pigeon pea etc.).
● The seed replacement rate is still 2.5% which is lower
than cereals especially wheat and rice Oryza sativa).
Infrastructural constraints
● Singh etal. (2015) thought that rainfall received during
the maturity of kharif pulses causes losses in yields and
grain quality when farmers usually do not have pakka
and covered threshing floor.
● There is a lack of awareness and safe storage of grains
or seeds of pulses among farmers. Even though, many
areas are approachable only during fair weather.
● Warehousing facilities are either inadequate or inacces-
sible (Singh etal., 2013).
liquids, such as milk, yoghurt, and infant formula (Garcia
etal., 1998). Legumes can be ground into flour, which can
then be used to produce crisps and biscuits. Other uses of
legumes include biodegradable polymers (Paetau et al.,
1994), oils, gums, dyes, and inks (Morris, 1997).
34.7 Challenges and opportunities
forlegumes cultivation by smallholders
inrainfed agroecosystem
Given that the situation is a national issue, it is critical to
examine the various restrictions that contribute to low pulse
productivity. These challenges are categorized into agro-
nomic, biological genetic/physiological, and infrastructural
constraints.
Agronomic constraints
These include:
● Improper sowing time
● Low seed rate
● Inadequate inter-culture
● Insufficient irrigation
● Sowing under utera cultivation
● Poor management conditions
● Nonavailability of efficient Rhizobium culture
● Weed infestation
Biological constraints
● The underprivileged awareness about seed treatment
with Rhizobium culture among farmers.
● The poor partitioning of photosynthates from source to
sink that’s why the pulses yielded less.
TABLE 34.2 Overview of costs and benets of two legume-supported agricultural systems.
Environmental
impact (benet +,
cost -)
Faba bean/wheat Grass/clover
Unit
per ha Quantity Price (Rs.) Total Value Quantity Price (Rs.) Total Value
Reduction of green-
house gas emissions
t CO2e 1.975 1520−6080 3000−12,000 1.347 1520−6080 2047−8189
Reduction in eutro-
phication
kg Nr -30 to+7 253 −7590 to
+1771
39 253 9880
Reduction in NOx
emissions
kg Nr 0.19 228 43 0.003 228 0.68
Reduction in
ammonia emissions
kg NH313.5 278 3762 15−30 278 4180-8340
P mobilisation kg P2O57.6 32 243 4.5 32 144
Total environmental
effects
−591 to
+17,734
16,214−26,517
Gross margin −4222 −33,780
Legumes for improving socio-economic conditions of farmers in rainfed agroecosystem Chapter | 34 689
(Montgomery, 2007; Solomon, 2010), boosted agricultural
output will have to depend upon better returns in rainfed
areas.
Mung bean and urd bean have been the most common
early maturing legumes in India, and they are raised in a
variety of soil types. They are widely produced as inter-
crops with cereals during the rainy season, or as long-
season crops like cotton and pigeon pea during the dry
season. They are, however, grown individually as a catch
crop to make the field free in time for the following main
season crops. Groundnut is usually planted with cereals
and long-season varieties during the monsoon season as a
rainfed crop. In the postrainy periods and summers, when
irrigation water is available, it is grown as a single crop. In
terms of marketing, small-scale farmers may use a variety
of models, which include self-help organizations, contract
farming, cooperative modeling techniques, small producer
partnerships, Rytu Bazars in Andhra Pradesh, Apni Mandi
in Punjab, and dairy cooperative societies.
34.8 Possible future policy
and action plan
The distribution of rains in a specific area determines the
length of the farming period in that area. A rainfed area’s
crop should be balanced according to the duration of the
growth period. Rainfed crops will last anywhere from 75
to 150 days, based on the area and the type of vegetation.
Traditional crops which are grown for existing economic
and social purposes have local genotypes; with longer
duration, which increases the likelihood of drought con-
ditions. Crop substituents are advantageous under such
cases. Choosing appropriate crops and varieties will greatly
increase cropping intensity and maximize individual crop
yield. Many parameters have been developed for determin-
ing rainfed crop and variety, but the way to generate an
acceptable yield when working with low moisture content
is the most favorable. Rainfed crops should still be short-
lived, high-yielding, and drought-resistant. Rainfed crop
selection is also influenced by soil depth. Likewise, crop
selection, intercropping, activity time frames, weed, and
pest control would all affect the plant’s moisture sorption
ability. Some big aspects of rainfed farming still need to be
changed, so focusing on the most critical aspects of our long
term is imperative.
Hardly very few legume species have piqued research-
ers’ interest amongst many varieties available. As a result,
there will be a clear need in the coming years to investigate
some other legume varieties (both natural and cultured) in
order to reap their many rewards. Grain legumes previously
discovered beneficial attributes should be crossed into the
germplasm in order to provide more healthy food for humans
and animals. Therefore, there is a need for further research
The major challenges for legume cultivation can be
enlisted in detail as follows:
● Pulse production continues to be a concern as neither
area nor outcomes have increased. So cumulative pro-
duction has gone up, maybe slightly, but in India; per
capita pulse production has gone down.
● Pulses are generally short-duration crops, so any change
in climatic parameters will result in a massive reduction
in revenue (Fang etal., 2010).
● Other restraints, in addition to technological ones, com-
prise specific knowledge availability, risk mitigation,
timeously input allocation, fiscal, societal, and business
pressures. With exception of soybean, which has a well-
developed global market (Meynard etal., 2013; Lakhran
etal., 2017), most legume crops have inadequate sup-
plier relationships and market places (Reckling et al.,
2016).
● Reduced and unstable incomes, along with sensitivity
to various biotic and abiotic stresses, have slowed the
spread of legume cultivation.
● Compared to grain crops, pulse yields are remarkably
low because of their shorter life cycle and the need to
convert higher photosynthates into protein.
● Price instability is another big issue for smallholders.
There is a dramatic price difference between supplier
and buyer (Mahendra Dev, 2011).
● Legumes are far more vulnerable to environmental and
biotic stresses than cereals, and they have a greater
production threat and lower performance than cereal
crops.
● Poor links between research and farmers hamper tech-
nology exchange and acceptance. The work of the
International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid
Tropics (ICRISAT) in Africa on Farmer Field Schools
and perhaps the conglomerate approach to decentral-
ized management of community watersheds in Asia, for
example, aims to improve these bonds.
● Legume crops seem to be too much time in the early
development stage and are subject to weed competi-
tiveness owing to reduced soil N utilization throughout
this period, which can lessen productivity by 25%–40%
(Pandey etal., 1998). To tackle climate change, select-
ing stress-resistant pulses is essential.
In both developed and emerging nations, there is still
a significant chance to expand average crop production in
rainfed systems. If the emphasis is on those locations where
food stocks are in short supply, yield improvement analysis
will contribute directly to food and nutrition security. For
instance, grain legumes are in high demand in South Asia,
but local supply is unable to meet it, necessitating imports,
primarily from industrialized economies. Since the deliv-
ery of suitable land and water for irrigation is running out
690 SECTION | VI Economic importance
weather conditions of rainfed areas, particularly rainfall,
continue to show an impact on farmer managerial deci-
sions in both local and global contexts. In reality, climate
variability is often the most important factor in determin-
ing responses to proactive working practices such as plant-
ing density and N fertilizer (Anderson et al., 2011). As
a result, forthcoming agronomic studies should focus on
enhancing farmers’ flexibility to cope tactical manage-
ment in response to seasonal variations. Furthermore, to
facilitate market linkage, a detailed overview of the pro-
duction and consumption scenario, transportation sys-
tems, and easy market access is desired. The plan is to
interfere at each of these points in the supply chain in
order to increase farmers’ contribution of the wholesale
selling price.
Rainfed agriculture as it currently exists does not support
economic growth or sustainable development. The creation
of a new model for land and groundwater management is
crucial. We need to have an intelligent framework that links
all of the required aspects related to natural resource pres-
ervation, production processes, productive usage of natural
resources; and methodologies to enhance income through
value-chain, and motivating measures and also some nec-
essary interventions in rainfed areas. Incorporate the t)
strategy, which combines genetic, social, natural resource
management (NRM) and administrative subsystems with
business connections. Common food grains, prospective
new cash crops, animal and animal feed generation, and
social and economic aspects such as new sources of jobs
and wealth are all examined from a systems approach in the
rural economy. Technology must balance the demand and
expenditure setting, which include seed supply, in addition
to the crop or livestock entity and the surrounding condi-
tions. Breeders and NRM researchers must cooperate both
with government and industry change managers, as well as
key stakeholders, to build cropping systems that can adapt
to business opportunities as they change. In other words,
instead of just relying on a single correct approach, we must
seek out different solutions that are tailored to the needs
of complex settings. To improve living standards in rainfed
areas, the vision should be business-oriented, with profitable
surplus production, differentiated farming methods, mobili-
zation of required resources, and organizational structures.
In addition, as can be seen in ICRISAT’s research on HIV/
AIDS alleviation in India and Southern Africa, there is a
great need to incorporate a gender approach in agricultural
education and training.
34.10 Future perspectives
India is self-sufficient in cereal production and will be able
to meet the expanding population’s future needs. However,
without a pulse, dietary variety is impossible, resulting in
into the use of legumes and their rhizobia for potential value-
added development. Extensive investigations on the manipu-
lation of rhizobia, concerning agricultural biotechnologists,
are needed in order to achieve the full benefits of rhizobia
(Meena et al., 2017b). Also, there is a great necessity to
estimate the overall socio-economic and ecologic implica-
tions that may arise from mass acceptance of legume-based
agriculture, so that producers can make better decisions.
With the rising rate of climate change, it’s more valuable
than ever to breed legume new varieties that can withstand a
variety of abiotic stresses. Future progress like, Global Yield
Gap Atlas project, will direct the hierarchization of poten-
tial grain yield advancement study. It’s likely that transfer-
ring existing expertise to low-yielding regions in developing
nations would pay off more in terms of potential agricul-
tural productivity than research in communities where food
is abundant. Producers would need sufficient funding and
subsidies to introduce and justify the incorporation of pulses
into their current growing system. The Irish Department of
Agriculture launched the Rural Environmental Protection
Scheme as an explanation of such a program. Farmers were
financially compensated for farming in an environmentally
sustainable manner under this scheme. Agronomic and envi-
ronmental consequences should be supported by policies.
The position of legumes in sustainable agriculture and future
environmental impacts must be communicated to regional
and international policymakers.
34.9 Major/broad areas for
yield improvement in rainfed
crops in the future
Breeders should focus on breeding for the stability of yield
(through disease resistance) and revenue stability (through
improved quality) rather than improving genetic yield effi-
ciency. Grain legumes encounter a heterogeneous climate,
similar to rainfed systems, where frequently used culti-
vars are likely to perform poorly in any given situation. A
diverse set of specially adapted plant species is needed to
fully exploit the ecological niches (Sperling etal., 1993).
For heterogeneous systems, such as rainfed conditions; a
client-oriented breeding system is vital (Witcombe etal.,
2005).
Cultivar selection, sowing date, fertilizer rates, fertil-
izer application tactics, planting density, and pest man-
agement techniques are all supposed to be important in
advanced agricultural production (Siddique etal., 2012).
As a result of improvements in cultivars, their approaches
to yield development have changed with time (Anderson
and Smith, 1990), advances in cultivation techniques
(Schmidt and Belford, 1993; Serraj and Siddique, 2012),
early planting (Sharma et al. 2008), and shifts in agro-
nomic practices (Ward and Siddique, 2015). Alterations in
Legumes for improving socio-economic conditions of farmers in rainfed agroecosystem Chapter | 34 691
under-nourishment, habitat destruction, and poverty. This
is due to the prevailing rainfed areas. Rainfed agriculture’s
importance varies across the region, but it produces the
majority of the nutrition for impoverished communities,
especially in developing countries. Although irrigated agri-
culture contributed more to Indian crop production during
the Green Revolution, rainfed agriculture occupies a central
role, accounting for about 60% of total cereal production.
Rainfed areas make a substantial contribution to food grain
products in India, with rainfed areas accounting for 58 per
cent of the total net sown area spread across 177 districts.
Rainfed agriculture provides 40% of the total food products
and assists two-third of the overall livestock population in
these areas. Around 90% of cereal grains, food legumes,
oilseeds, and cotton are grown exclusively in rainfed areas,
with a significant amount of land is devoted to rainfed hor-
ticulture crops. Rainfall uncertainty, frequent droughts, a
decline in the number of rainy days, sudden and unexpected
rainfall, and catastrophic events such as hail storms make
rainfed producers even more resilient, and their severity
has been accelerating in recent times. Since soil and water
maintenance plays a pivotal role in elevating productivity;
and diminishing yield gaps. Rainwater management in-situ,
as well as runoff water harvesting and reprocessing, is criti-
cal for long-term rainfed farming sustainability. Effective
use of land, water, and farm management strategies in an
integrative manner are intended to make rainfed farming
more productive, affordable, and ecological. There is an
urgent need for us to distribute these initiatives through the
Agricultural Technology Management Agencies (ATMAs)
in each of the country’s districts. Several federal and state
government initiatives are also in operation to boost pro-
duction and have a drastic impact. The assessment and
involvement of legume genotypes, which could be suc-
cessfully implemented through different cropping systems,
will be a significant challenge in the coming years. Due to
the extreme growing demand for plant proteins and oils; as
well as intensified financial and ecological impacts on agro-
ecosystems, grain legumes appear to be a key factor of the
future farming system.
Abbreviations
B Boron
BCR Benefit-cost ratio
BNF Biological nitrogen fixation
Ca Calcium
CO2 Carbon dioxide
GHGs Greenhouse gases
ICRISAT International Crop Research Institute for
Semi-Arid Tropics
K Potassium
Mg Magnesium
N Nitrogen
low nutritional security. The following area must be focused
on to improve pulse production:
i. Degraded and barren soils with low production must
be cultivated with pulses. By preventing soil erosion
and contributing to pulse generation, soil fertility and
productivity are maintained.
ii. Drought tolerance pulse crops can be grown in areas
where stress is prevalent. Today, there is a greater need
to focus on the development of arid legumes such as
cluster beans and moth beans in dryland areas.
iii. Rather than solely relying on cereal-based cropping,
using pulses in these cropping systems may be a via-
ble strategy for increasing productivity.
iv. To increase the productivity of changing cultivated
areas, pulse crops must be planted, which not only
prevents water erosion but also maintains soil fertility
by providing organic matter to the soil.
v. Adding short-duration pulses such as rabi pigeon pea,
vegetable peas, rabi green gram, and kidney bean to
the rice-wheat cropping system, which resulted in
increased pulse production.
vi. Look into the possibility of growing pulse crops in
low-lying places where water stagnation prevents
them from growing. Rice+ pigeon pea farming strat-
egy is the solution in this situation. Pigeon pea is cul-
tivated on broad bed terraces in this cropping scheme,
whereas rice is sown in furrows between two broad
beds.
vii. In the summer, most of the farmed land is fallow;
this area could help close the pulse production gap.
If two or three irrigation systems are available, short-
duration pulse crops such as green gram and cowpea
can be grown, serving as a prospective zone for pulse
production.
viii. Underutilized pulse crops such as rice bean (Vigna
umbellate), moth bean, adzuki bean (Vigna angula-
ris), Horse gram, Lathyrus, and Indian bean (Lablub
purpureus) should be the focus of extensive and
comprehensive research priorities so that these crops
become an integral part of the cropping system.
Farmers must also be made aware of underutilized
pulse crops so that they can benefit from producing
and selling them at a good price.
ix. Every year, a large amount of research is completed,
but its reliability and usefulness are not well under-
stood on the ground. As a result, developing and
implementing appropriate policies is a top priority
for improving pulse output.
34.11 Conclusions
The wide yield gap in the two main sections of the globe,
sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, in terms of depri-
vation and water scarcity, is one argument for existing
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