Plastics in marine ecosystem: A review of their sources and pollution conduits

Abstract

Oceanic marine plastic contamination was an increasingly global issue due to increased demand. This has a significant effect not only on marine biodiversity, but also on public safety and numerous infectious diseases found in both aquatic and human species. A huge amount of money was spent worldwide on plastic waste. In the 1940s, plastics development began and is increasing massively. This crucial analysis intends to accomplish goals such as defining plastic materials, origins, detecting aggregation, and validating appropriate techniques to analyze plastic abundance spatio-temporal trends. This further addresses the possible impacts of plastics on marine species, humans, and future chemical emission control strategies together with advice. Plastics are primarily distributed along the coasts and mid-ocean vortex in large amounts. The broad variety of plastics, as eaten by aquatic animals finds their way to the human body through the food chain. Research articles should help learn the origins, deterioration mechanisms, and harmful effects of plastics on both the human body and the ecosystem. Until recently, the science community and politicians have generally ignored plastic waste, but ecological implications, as well as plastic pollution’s economic/health effects, have now gained greater global interest.

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Please cite this article as: Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al., Plastics in marine ecosystem: A review of their sources and pollution conduits. Regional
Studies in Marine Science (2020) 101539, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2020.101539.
Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Regional Studies in Marine Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rsma
Plastics in marine ecosystem: A review of their sources and pollution
conduits
Md. Simul Bhuyan a, Venkatramanan S. b,c,∗, Selvam S. d, Sylvia Szabo e,
Md. Maruf Hossain a, Md. Rashed-Un-Nabi f, Paramasivam C.R. g, Jonathan M.P. h,
Md. Shafiqul Islam a
aInstitute of Marine Science, Faculty of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
bEnvironmental Quality, Atmospheric Science and Climate Change Research Group, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
cFaculty of Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
dDepartment of Geology, V.O. Chidambaram College, Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu, India
eDepartment of Social Welfare Counseling, College of Future Convergence, Dongguk University, 14620 Seoul, South Korea
fDepartment of Fisheries, Faculty of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
gDepartment of Surveying Engineering, Bule Hora University, Ethiopia
hCentro Interdisciplinario de Investigaciones y Estudios sobre Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo (CIIEMAD), Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Calle 30
de Junio de 1520, Barrio la Laguna Ticoman, Del. Gustavo A. Madero, C.P. 07340, Ciudad de México, Mexico
article info
Article history:
Received 16 April 2020
Received in revised form 4 November 2020
Accepted 9 November 2020
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Plastics
Plastic trash
Environmental pollution
Marine environment
Pollution
abstract
Oceanic marine plastic contamination was an increasingly global issue due to increased demand. This
has a significant effect not only on marine biodiversity, but also on public safety and numerous
infectious diseases found in both aquatic and human species. A huge amount of money was spent
worldwide on plastic waste. In the 1940s, plastics development began and is increasing massively.
This crucial analysis intends to accomplish goals such as defining plastic materials, origins, detecting
aggregation, and validating appropriate techniques to analyze plastic abundance spatio-temporal
trends. This further addresses the possible impacts of plastics on marine species, humans, and future
chemical emission control strategies together with advice. Plastics are primarily distributed along the
coasts and mid-ocean vortex in large amounts. The broad variety of plastics, as eaten by aquatic animals
finds their way to the human body through the food chain. Research articles should help learn the
origins, deterioration mechanisms, and harmful effects of plastics on both the human body and the
ecosystem. Until recently, the science community and politicians have generally ignored plastic waste,
but ecological implications, as well as plastic pollution’s economic/health effects, have now gained
greater global interest.
©2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
More than 7.5 billion people worldwide are increasingly de-
pendent on the oceans for fuel, products, and leisure (Steffen
et al.,2011;Chatterjee and Sharma,2019;Egessa et al.,2020).
The demand for ocean resources, poses huge challenges in terms
of effective management systems, the sustainable use of renew-
able resources and the identification of various factors frequently
affecting the human health of the ocean (Jackson et al.,2001;
Bond et al.,2018;Bellasi et al.,2020;Fu et al.,2020). The chal-
lenges that hinder the sustainable use of ocean resources are pol-
lution, eutrophication, ocean acidification, and overfishing (UN-
ESC,2017). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) explicitly
∗Corresponding author at: Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet
Nam.
E-mail address: venkatramanan@tdtu.edu.vn (Venkatramanan S.).
describes the protection and conservation of sustainable devel-
opment use of coasts, seas and marine resources (UNESC,2017).
Increasing quantities of micro plastics (MP) contaminants were
observed on a marine landscape (Lusher,2015;Ganesan et al.,
2019;Gao et al.,2019) and noticeable particulate matter that
could escape a 500 µm sieve, but which could be filtered with
a 67 micron-sieve (0.06–0.5 mm of diameter) (Gregory and An-
drady,2003;Kang et al.,2018;Koelmans et al.,2019;Kumar et al.,
2018). Particles of size smaller than 5 mm are often known to be
MPs (Selvam et al.,2020;Arthur et al.,2009;Fendall and Sewell,
2009;Betts,2008;Moore,2008). MPs of size 1 µm to 500 µm
(5 mm) are normally found in seawater (Ng and Obbard,2006;
Barnes et al.,2009) and synthetic organic polymers are synthetic
by nature and they have been derived from petrol or gas (Derraik,
2002;Rios et al.,2007;Thompson et al.,2009b). ’Bakelite’, in
1907, began mass-producing plenty of lightweight, durable, inert
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2020.101539
2352-4855/©2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
plastics and corrosion-resistant plastics in the 1940s (Plastics Eu-
rope,2010). Such mass production increased the use of plastics
(Andrady,2011;Li et al.,2020;Meng et al.,2020), with about
230 million tons of plastics manufactured worldwide in 2009
(Plastics Europe,2010;Mintenig et al.,2020;Shruti et al.,2019).
In the 1970s, microplastics appeared in the marine and coastal
settings, but the term plastics was not used. These included
additional additives including flame retardants, antioxidants, an-
tistatic and weakening agents (Carpenter et al.,1972;Carpenter
and Smith,1972;Fowler,1987;Colton and Knapp,1974;Mato
et al.,2001;Takada et al.,2012;Bond et al.,2018;Fu et al.,
2020;Uurasjärvi et al.,2020). MPs derived from land and sea-
based sources (Magnusson et al.,2016) as well as the wider use of
plastics have increased their bulk presence in the marine environ-
ment in the following decades. Unlimited fishing, recreational and
maritime usage of seas, synthetic nylon equipment (Klust,1982;
Timmers et al.,2005;Watson et al.,2006;Hinojosa and Thiel,
2009;Ganesan et al.,2019;Gao et al.,2019;Selvam et al.,2020),
coastal migration, beach beds, and sea transportation are still
not thoroughly reported (Gregory,1996;Ribic et al.,2010;Doyle
et al.,2011;Ogata et al.,2009). Ocean gyres (Moore et al.,2001a),
seas, and marine sediments have been used for collections of
larger plastics (Barnes et al.,2009). van Sebille et al. (2012) have
recorded plastics accumulation in 2014 in the world’s oceans
and 15 to 511 012 tons of particulate matter weigh between 93
and 236103 tons, representing approximately one percent of the
plastic content in the marine environment.
1.1. Recent trends in MPs route
MPs are frequently consumed in large amounts by recent
developments in marine ecosystems, depending on their compo-
sitions, and environmental factors (Lusher,2015). Often marine
biota interacts directly with plastics, and plastics are eaten by sea
bowels, sharks, turtles, mammals, and invertebrates (Bugoni and
Krause,2001,?;Cadee,2002;Mascarenhas et al.,2004;Tomas and
Guitart,2002;Rios et al.,2007;Environmental Health Net,2008;
Mallory,2008;Lusher,2015;Meng et al.,2020). Plastics intake is
the first step in the occupation of the food chain, the root cause of
pollution. It eventually causes damage, mortality, and injuries in
aquatic animals as a result of plastics ingestion and intermingling
(Derraik,2002;Lozano and Mouat,2009;Sutherland et al.,2010;
Teuten et al.,2009;Wright et al.,2013a,b).
The world’s coastal population faces unprecedented plastic
waste (Guern,2017). Plastics are used and exposed close to a va-
riety of economic and health factors impacting people worldwide
(Rinkesh,2009). Coastal populations (Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh)
and industries (tourism, transportation, fishing, fish farming, and
coastal agriculture) are among those most affected (Guern,2017).
Cleaning the beaches of Bohuslan on the western coast of Sweden
in just one year in 2009 amounted to at least SEK 10 million (USD
1.55 ×106).
In 2006 study on plastic debris in World Oceans, Greenpeace
revealed that at least 267 separate species were found to be
plastic waste sufferers (Guern,2017). Bisphenol (BPA) made from
plastic can increase the risk of heart diseases, diabetes, and abrupt
liver enzyme levels in the children of two years old, especially
women (Guern,2017).
Until recently, the research community and policymakers have
largely ignored plastic waste. Nevertheless, the global and na-
tional focus has expanded to ecological implications, as well
as the economic, and health impact of plastic contamination
(Derraik,2002;Ryan et al.,2009;Thompson et al.,2004). The
sudden occurrence in the North Pacific gyre of plastic debris
(Moore et al.,2001a,b,2009;Moore,2008) has contributed to
a marine biological investigation movement (Derraik,2002;Page
and McKenzie,2004;Arthur et al.,2009). Many plastic studies
have reported on marine mammals (Laist,1997), cetaceans, and
other animals (Erikson and Burton,2003) in net fragment debris,
and on the dilapidated gear in the benthic regions (Bullimore
et al.,2001;Tschernij and Larsson,2003).
A thorough analysis helps to clarify the source, manufacturing
processes, and the harmful effects of plastics both on the human
body and on the environment. This will also support researchers’
interest in plastic sand its pollution-related aspects. Mitigation
steps are the key highlights of this plastic waste analysis and
record the following features.
•Finding general properties and plastic origins
•Finding plastic pathways for generation in the marine envi-
ronment
•Analyzing general plastic abundance spatio-temporal trend
•Localizing the possible effect of plastics on aquatic species
and human health
•Finding possible plastic emission reduction steps
2. Pathways for the supply of plastics to the oceanic ecosystem
Many sources of plastic waste demonstrate the pathways to
the marine environment. In the aquatic environment, plastics are
spread by haphazard dumping of waste material into or around
numerous rivers along the coast (Fig. 1) (Lozano and Mouat,2009;
Ryan et al.,2009). Land sources include almost 80% of marine
plastics (Andrady,2011). As 50% of the global population lives
within 50 miles of the coast, terrestrial plastic waste reaches
the coastal region through many waterways (Thompson,2006;
Moore,2008).
Cosmetic and air-blasting plastics are dissolved in water by
different drainage schemes (Derraik,2002). In addition, plastics
and small plastic particles are often stuck in wastewater treat-
ment plant filtration systems (Browne et al.,2007;Fendall and
Sewell,2009;Gregory,1996). Plastic products found in the root
of the river to sea join large flows of freshwater systems (Moore
et al., 2002; Browne et al.,2010). In the rivers of Los Angeles
(California, USA), Moore (2008) counted plastic remains of less
than 5 mm (diameter). The findings indicate that 2 billion plastic
particles reach the aquatic ecosystem within 3 days of these two
rivers and become worse during severe weather (Thompson et al.,
2005;Barnes et al.,2009). The overflowing of river reservoirs also
leads to a large litter of plastic and floating debris can be seen far
from the mouths of the river (Moore et al., 2002). Derraik (2002)
and Lattin et al. (2004) indicate that the key sources of plastics
which contaminate the marine environment are coastal tourism,
fishing activities, marine activities (e.g., aquaculture, oil rigs).
Fishing gears are a type of plastic debris that, if discarded
or lost, often causes trouble for marine biota, known as ghost
fishing (Lozano and Mouat,2009;Andrady,2011). Nearly 23,000
tons of plastic packaging materials were discarded by marine ves-
sels since the 1970s (Pruter,1987). The international agreement
(MARPOL 73/78 Annex V) for the prohibition of aquatic waste
disposal vessels at sea, which failed to comply with the ban and
has produced almost 6.5 million tons of plastics continuously
disposed of in the open ocean at the start of the 1990s (Derraik,
2002;Lozano and Mouat,2009).
The primary cause of plastic waste was the cycle of plastic
production and the waste industries (Pruter,1987;Mato et al.,
2001;Ivar do Sul et al.,2009). Production of plastics increased
in the American continent alone from 2.9 million pellets in 1960
to 21.7 million pellets in 1987 (Pruter,1987). In the marine
habitats worldwide, including the Mid-Ocean Islands, these resin
pellets were found (Pruter,1987); (Ivar do Sul et al.,2009) and
a difference in the pellet proportion was seen in studies carried
out in the New Zealand over 18 km2, and in the Sargasso Sea over
2

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 1. Microplastic pathway in ocean and land environment.
3500 km2, during the 1970s and 80 s (Pruter,1987). Moreover,
unintended dumping, misuse of packaging products, and pollu-
tion from industrial plants pollute marine environments (Lozano
and Mouat,2009).
3. Types of polymers in day to day life
Today’s polymer-forming plastics debris is transformed in
everyday use and annual production in 2018 exceeded 380 mil-
lion tons. Generally, these Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP),
Polystyrene (PS), Terephthalate polyethylene (PET), Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), Polyurethane (PU), and Nylon are used in the
manufacture of plastics.
(a) Polyethylene (PE): polymerization of the ethylene gaseous
substance (ethane) gives chemically stable and extremely resis-
tant soft plastics. Due to its low density (0.4–0.5 g/gm3), PE floats
in water and various synthesization processes change material
density in such ways as: HDPE (High-density PE), LLDPE (Linear
low-density PE), and LDPE (Low-density PE) (Kothari,2008).
HDPE usage: boxes for beverages, cans, urns and vials, caps,
packages; LDPE and LLDPE: goods packaging, carry cases, wiring
cover, and tubes.
(b) Polypropylene (PP): is formed by polymerizing gas propane
at temperatures of 45-808◦C and is manufactured in fibers. Be-
cause of its low density, it floats in water, and like LDPE; PP
is stable, chemical-resistant, and also resists high temperatures
(Kappler et al., 2018). These properties usually lead to the same
use in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
Application: Food wrappers, domestic appliances, car spares,
structural engineering, garden equipment, artificial lawns, pocket
coverings, toolkits, and cosmetics for medical use, carry bags.
(c) Polystyrene (PS): The colorless liquid styrene is used to
produce Styrofoam molded. PS is shiny, but its toughness and
fragility cause stress cracks, and this foam is mostly used as heat
insulation. The carcinogenic compounds are generated where
processing is very dangerous, and where the process of recycling
is repetitive.
Application: CD, jewel boxes, insulators (electronic, thermal),
electronic appliance enclosures, food containers, and packaging
material.
(d) Terephthalate polyethylene (PET): PET polycondensate,
composed of terephthalic acid, and ethylene glycol. PET is clear,
lightweight, tear-resistant, water repellent and chemical-
resistant, making it a popular option for soft drinks and water
bottling. PET is processed as synthetic fibers (primary plastic par-
ticles) and thus retains a very strong sense of recycling (Kappler
et al.,2016).
Application: PET bottles, food and cosmetic packaging, home
appliances, mechanical engineering, protective belts, and medical
implants.
(e) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): PVC is composed of a gas called
vinyl chloride, chloroethene. Once plasticizers are applied to PVC,
they lose their rigidity and become elastic, and the phthalates
are the most common plasticizers for PVC that can be used up
to 70 percent. Pipes and window profiles developed using PVC
are also made with this PVC for their robustness and high fire
resistance. Furthermore, the advantage is that when it is burned,
the carcinogenic organisms found in raw materials are released
into the atmosphere.
Application: Flooring, piping, templates, seals, piping, infant
goods, bathing rings.
(f) Polyurethane (PU): the isocyanate (ester) and diol poly-
merization process produce foam polyurethane (PU). The dura-
bility and hard-shape retention feature make it a good choice
for furniture and construction stuffing. It is also an ingredient
in the manufacturing of paints, adhesives, and clothing elastic
fibers. PU processing is more of routine and releases burned toxic
isocyanates and hydrocyanic acids.
Application: mattresses, car seats, domestic sponges, thermal
insulators, void rust automotive, furniture coatings, walls, paints,
and textiles.
(g) Nylon: It is a kind of fiber made using high molecular
weight polyamides. These polyamides consist of a dicarboxylic
acid and a diamine or a self-condensing amino acid. The differ-
ence in the use of acid and amine along with hard or soft products
is also made.
Application: Most widely used for the manufacturing of tents,
clothes, tapestries, tires and textiles.
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4. Assessment of plastics abundance in the marine environ-
ment
Plastics are the key contributing factors to ‘‘sea debris’’ and
other materials such as anthropogenic litter (e.g. glass, metal,
wood) and natural debris (e.g. plants, pumices) are present
(Thompson et al.,2004;Moore,2008;Barnes et al.,2009;Ryan
et al.,2009). The difficulty of measuring plastic fragments (<0–
5 mm diameter), their size, density, and distribution make them
undetermined marine debris (Doyle et al.,2011). However, these
materials enter the open sea through various routes and it there-
fore varies and is difficult to determine the length of the decaying
materials completely (Ryan et al.,2009). The immensity of ocean
currents is also a major challenge for determining the amount
of existing plastic waste relative to the scale of plastics. Oceanic
currents and seasonal cycles contribute to a more detailed study
of spatio-temporal variation (Ryan et al.,2009;Doyle et al.,2011).
Despite several issues with plastics abundance assessments, other
sampling methods, such as beachcombing, sediment sampling,
marine trawls, marine observer surveys and biological samples
have been recently established to plastics abundance in the ocean
environment. The following are brief descriptions: the Beach
Combing Approach is known to be the easiest technique to man-
age only low logistical preparation requirements and is therefore
very cost-efficient (MCS,2010). A methodical approach has been
employed by researchers and environmental education groups
to identify and collect plastic waste along their chosen coastline
(Ryan et al.,2009). This process specifies the plastics and the
resin pellets, but the micro pellets are difficult to classify. Beach
combining data contained both terrestrial and marine litter, but
the exact plastic litter found in the marine area cannot be reliably
indicated (OSPAR,2007). To recognize the setup, frequent beach
combination aids are required to track the plastic debris over time
(Ryan et al.,2009).
The techniques used for sediment sampling to test contami-
nants in beaches, estuaries, and coastal waters (Claessens et al.,
2011). The plastics are extracted by applying saltwater or mineral
salts to sediment samples from the benthic soil. This method
increases the water pressure, separating low-density plastics by
floating. A standard microscope is useful for extracting visible and
heavy plastic pieces from the sediment (Andrady,2011;Thomp-
son et al.,2004). Microscopic methods for distinguishing the
plastics are available by staining with lipophilic dye (for example
Nile Red) (Andrady,2011). The study confirms the existence of
plastics by comparing the sample spectrum to polymers using
Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) (Barnes et al.,
2009;Thompson et al.,2004).
Fine meshes are also used in the water column for the process-
ing of plastics. Surface water experiments also use manta trawls,
mid-water depths, using bongo nets and benthic trawls in sea
beds (Browne et al.,2010;Ryan et al.,2009;Thompson et al.,
2004). The detection of these plastics is carried out with a micro-
scope or the analysis of these evaporated marine residues shows
that plastics are present (Andrady,2011). Heterogeneous plas-
tics, however, exist in the ocean floor and often spatio-temporal
trends help to study different marine environments (Ryan et al.,
2009). Submersible marine monitoring monitors the size, form,
and location of visible plastic waste in the ocean. This system de-
tects plastics in large areas, but most of them are left undetected
(Pruter,1987;Ryan et al.,2009).
The most common use of plastics for biological sampling is
marine organisms and food particles (Blight and Burger,1997;
Tourinho et al.,2010; van Franeker et al., 2011). The gut of
beached marine animals and other seabirds is then classified and
quantified by examining them (van Franeker et al.,2010). An
excessive plastic waste biologic indicator at sea is the Convention
for the Protection of the North-East Atlantic Marine Environment
or OSPAR Convention (van Franeker et al., 2011). Over the years,
ocean foraging seabird migration and movement patterns could
not be linked to plastic load in different areas due to regional
variations (Blight and Burger,1997;Tourinho et al.,2010;van
Franeker et al.,2010).
4.1. Identification of plastics through — µFTIR analysis
In Thompson et al. (2004), Ng and Obbard (2006), and Brandon
et al. (2019) studies, the particles are described by comparison of
the FTIR absorbance spectrum of plastics with the polymer refer-
ence library. The polymer type does not, by comparison, forecast
the origin of the particles, but helps to classify C–H absorption
spectrum. C–H vibrations fall between 3000 and 2800 cm−1in
a hydrocarbon spectrum and are known as polyethylene (Fig. 2,
(Brandon et al.,2019). Polyethylene is also determined by the
characteristics of the wave numbers from 1461 to 1400 cm−1,
with the bending of C–H, and from 2960 to 2926 cm−1, with the
stretch of C–H. Polypropylene is a non-saturated organic com-
pound with C–H bonds and a range of 3150–3000 cm−1showing
just unsaturated (C==C–H) (Coates,2000). In regions 1796 cm−1
and 2957–2853 cm−1with C==O ester bonding, some additional
wave numbers are also found (Coates,2000; Vigneshwari, 2018).
PET is the polyester family with O–C==O as functional group
suggesting the dual bonding ability of a simple ketone structure,
the carbonyl group. The frequency group for carboxylic acid varies
from 1725–1700 cm−1; for ketone from 1725–1705 cm−1and for
ester from 1750–1725 cm−1(Coates,2000). Nylons are aliphatic
or semi-aromatic polyamides that have equivalent amine and
carboxylic acid components. The group frequency ranges from
3510 to 3460 cm−1of primary aromatic amine, and from 3415 to
3380 cm−1of N–H. The spectrum ranges from 1650 to 1550 cm−1
for N–H secondary amine and C-N secondary amine, from 1190
to 1130 cm−1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is obtained by polymer-
ization of the C–Cl (Halogenated Bond) vinyl chloride monomer,
which ranges from 800–900 cm−1.
5. Spatio-temporal variations
The spatial and temporal changes in the world’s plastic waste,
such as floods, wind, and cyclo-crashes, have a significant effect
on natural disasters (Barnes et al.,2009;Martinez et al.,2009;
Ng and Obbard,2006;Derraik,2002;Lozano and Mouat,2009;
Ryan et al.,2009). Such plastic debris are often transported from
remote areas such as the mid-ocean (Ivar do Sul et al.,2009),
poles (Barnes et al.,2010), and deep-sea regions by such reg-
ulatory factors (Lozano and Mouat,2009). Such plastics, which
are plentiful on the coastal lines and mid-ocean gyres, must be
monitored periodically to recognize the variability in volume.
5.1. Plastics accumulation in the marine aquatic system
The marine ecological system’s plastic accumulation of marine
waste along the shoreline contains both land and marine de-
bris. The litter primarily comes from urban areas, tourism areas,
and near river outflows. Currents contribute primarily to the
aquatic waste along the beaches near the coast (Ryan et al.,2009).
Thompson et al. (2004) have confirmed that plastics are present
in the sediment samples obtained from 30 different samples of
estuaries around Plymouth, United Kingdom. Furthermore, in 30
sediment samples in the Tamar estuary (Plymouth, UK), Browne
et al. (2010) have found 952 forms of plastics. The majority of
plastics are rich in large planktonic species found off Alaska and
California in coastal environments (Doyle et al.,2011). In the Bay
of Bengal and other seas, plastic fragments, plastic fibers, and
4

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 2. Micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy peaks in polymers present in sediments samples at Barbara Basin, California (Brandon et al.,2019).
pellets have been reported from the macro plastic debris (Doyle
et al.,2011). The resin pellet found by Ivar do Sul et al. (2009) was
used to pre-produce plastic along the beaches of the archipelago.
On the Mediterranean Sea, Malta has abundantly found the plastic
resin pellets (1.9–5.6 mm in diameter) in circular and cylin-
drical shapes (Turner and Holmes,2011). Many were yellow
or brunette in the color of the high-tide mark due to photo-
oxidative disruption to the marine environment. Plastics on the
shores also dramatically change the physicochemical properties
and properties of the beach sediment (Carson et al.,2011).
It raises the sediment’s permeable value and reduces the heat
absorption that eventually affects marine biota. The rise in per-
meability, for instance, immediately raises the likelihood of dry-
ness in sedimentary animals, although decreases in the average
temperatures influence the sex determination in turtle eggs di-
rectly. The floating debris finishes with the ocean mostly due to
anti-cyclone and sub-tropical ocean currents. Satellite ‘‘drifters’’
were used by Martinez et al. (2009) to chart the average target
of ocean current, drift, and eddies overtime in the South Pacific
Ocean. Some trackers have been detected in near-shore currents,
although most of them are targeting the South Pacific gyre (Mar-
tinez et al.,2009;Law et al.,2010;Goldstein and Goodwin,2013).
Lagrangian drifters have shown that a large proportion of floating
marine plastic waste is generated by sea gyres (Maximenko et al.,
2012). In addition, some sixty percent of the plankton includes
plastic products contained in over six thousand plankton tows in
the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea between 1986
and 2008 (Law et al.,2010). Across subtropical latitudes, the
exposed material has the highest concentrations (83 percent of
the overall plastic sampled). The plastic fragments of approx.
334,271/km2reported in the majority of the tows attracted media
attention (Moore et al.,2001a,b) and the North Pacific gyre was
called ‘‘plastic soup’’.
5

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 3. Growth in global plastic production from 1950 to 2016 (millions of
tonnes, adapted from Plastics Europe 2017 & Plastics Europe Market Research
Group (PEMRG)/Consultic Marketing & Industrieberatung GmbH).
5.2. Spatio-temporal changes of plastics abundance within marine
ecosystem
In the early years, plastic waste had been dispensed indiscrim-
inately and gradually. However, there were growing numbers of
plastic debris that polluted the maritime environment as well
as production levels increased during the 1940s (Moore,2008;
Ryan et al.,2009;Barnes et al.,2009). The more people who are
subjected to plastic scrubbing and the removal of immense plastic
waste, the more plastics are deposited in the oceans (Barnes et al.,
2009). Thompson et al. (2004) highlighted this fact that the plastic
level in the years 1980 and 1990 was still higher than in the years
1960 and 1970. It indicates a slight shift in plastic waste from the
1980s to the 1990s. No observed variations in plastics were found
in plastic abundance in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean over a 22-
year period (Law et al.,2010). In the past two decades, however,
Claessens et al. (2011) have registered a steady rise in plastic
concentrations. This quantified at 335 million tons in 2016 (Fig. 3)
and the annual compound growth rate (CAGR) was approximately
8.6 percent between 1950 and 2015 (Plastics Europe,2017).
6. International spread of marine litter
The major contributors to the vast amount of pollution in
the oceanic environment are the anthropogenic factors. As a
result, through waste processing, the global amount of plastic
materials has risen and is different from country to country
(Galgani et al.,2015). The litter residues on the beaches, the
water floor, and the seabed make up to 95% of plastic (Galgani
et al.,2015). Plastic bottles, fishing net, gear; food and beverage
containers account for over 80% of litter on beaches (Topfu et al.,
2013;Thiel et al.,2013). Because 90% of the litter captured in
the seafloor is plastic in some form (Galil et al.,1995;Galgani
et al.,1995,2000;Ramirez-Llodra et al.,2013), most of these
substances cannot be bio-degradable. Many countries in recent
decades have been interested in sea-shore surveys to obtain
marine litter spatio-temporal data (Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel,2015).
The dramatic growth of cities, the misuse of the sea, hydrody-
namics, and maritime activities are key drivers for plastic litter
production. Accumulation levels in the northern hemisphere are
relatively high compared to the southern portion, according to
previous studies (Galgani et al.,2015). The Mediterranean Sea
or the Black Sea harbors have a large quantity of seabed and
seafloor to more than 100,000 km−2(Galgani et al.,2000) (Fig. 4).
The deposition of plastic particles on water surfaces has risen
exponentially over the past few decades.
The volume of plastic microparticles in the North Atlantic
tends to have been better abolished during the last decade (Law
et al.,2010). The aggregation pattern of debris is yet to be dis-
covered in the deep sea. But deep-sea waste densities tend to be
declining in some places, such as Tokyo Bay from 1996 to 2003
and the Gulf of Lion from 1994 to 2009 (Kuriyama et al.,2003;
Galgani et al.,2011a,b). On the contrary, a significant amount
of debris have risen significantly over the past eight years in
deep waters around Greece (Koutsodendris et al.,2008). The same
phenomenon has also been observed for approximately ten years
under the deep Arctic seabed of the HAUSGARTEN observatory
(Bergmann and Klages,2012).
6.1. Litter distribution on coastlines
Free marine scrap sources, easy to reach, and a few esthetic
causes are causing marine waste on coastlines and coastal bodies
to be concentrated (MacGranahan et al.,2007). On the rocky
shores were found glassware and fragile plastic products (Moore
et al.,2001a). Fast shore winds are weaker and blow off the
litter strands offshore (Galgani et al.,2000;Costa et al.,2011).
Every area on a beach plays a major role in plastic litter growing
(Claereboudt,2004). High tidings or storm-level lines along the
shores are also higher in marine litter (Oigman-Pszczol and Creed,
2007). Besides, beach topogrpahy and patchy follow a specific
pattern of distribution of smaller and lighter materials (Debrot
et al.,1999).
Due to population densities, hydrographical, and geological
conditions, the rate of accumulation of litter in different coastal
areas is technically difficult to compare. More plastics are found
in the vicinity of urban areas, and tourism areas are mostly built
(Barnes et al.,2009). Most of these studies can show compar-
isons of litters in items/m2or even larger areas (Table 1). A
high amount of 37000 items per 50 m (78.3 m−2) of the beach
lines were found in Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea (Smith,
2012). While typhoon (3227 items m−2; (Liu et al.,2013) or
inundating (5058 items m−2; (Topfu et al.,2013) especially play
a regulatory role. Older data shows that the quantity per linear
distance is problematic as the findings are correlated with the
beach size/width. The most prominent components of marine
litters in the California area are different beaches (68%) (Rosevelt
et al.,2013), 77% in the South-east of Taiwan (Liu et al.,2013),
86% in Chile (Thiel et al.,2013), and 91% in the South Black Sea
(Topfu et al.,2013).
6.2. Marine floating debris
Wind currents are the biggest contributor of floating debris
on the seafloor and is a fraction of the debris in the marine
environment (Galgani et al.,2015;Meng et al.,2020). The floating
waste begins to sink into the seafloor or to decay overtime on the
coast (Andrady,2015;Kang et al.,2018). While floating marine
plastics have been accumulating around the world (Venrick et al.,
1972;Morris,1980;Kumar et al.,2018;Koelmans et al.,2019),
they have recently attracted international attention (Moore et al.,
2001b). The densities of floating marine beds (>2 cm) range from
0 to beyond 600 km−2and the North Sea German Bight has
provided an average of 32 articles km−2(Thiel et al.,2011). The
litter density of 25 km−2in the White Bank area, 28 km−2around
6

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 4. Hotspot of global plastic materials.
Source: Plastics Europe (2017); Modified by
Abdun Nun Tusher.
Table 1
Comparison of mean litter densities from recent worldwide data (non-exhaustive list).
Source: Adopted from Galgani et al. (2015).
Region Density (m2) Density (linear m−1) Plastic (%) References
SW Black Sea 0.88(0.008–5.06) 24 (1.7–197) 91 Topfu et al. (2013)
Costa do Dende, Brazil n.d. 9.1 75 Santos et al. (2009)
Cassina, Brazil n.d. 5.3–10.7 48 Tourinho and Fillmann (2011)
Gulf of Aqaba 2(1–6) n.d. n.d. Al-Najjar and Al-Shiyab (2011)
Monterey, USA 1 ±2.1 n.d. 68 Rosevelt et al. (2013)
North Atlantic, USA n.d. 0.10 (0.2) n.d. Ribic et al. (2010)
North Atlantic, USA n.d. 0.42 (0.1) n.d. Ribic et al. (2010)
North Atlantic, USA n.d. 0.08 (0.2) n.d. Ribic et al. (2010)
South Caribbean, Bonaire 1.4 (max. 115) n.d. n.d. Debrot et al. (2013)
Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea 15.3 (1.2-78.3) n.d. 89 Smith (2012)
Nakdong, South Korea 0.97-1.03 n.d. n.d. Lee et al. (2013)
Kaosiung, Taiwan 0.9 (max. 3,227) n.d. 77 Liu et al. (2013)
Tasmania 0.016-2.03 n.d. n.d. Slavin et al. (2012)
Midway, North Pacific n.d. 0.60–3.52 91 Ribic et al. (2012a)
Chile n.d. 0.01–0.25 n.d. Thiel et al. (2013)
Heard Island, Antarctica n.d. 0–0.132 n.d. Eriksson et al. (2013)
Helgoland island and 39 km−2in the East Frisian part of German
Bight were recorded. More than 70 percent of products reported
by these surveys as plastics were expected. An aerial marine
mammal survey was modified from 2002 to 2006 to measure
floating debris. Studies indicate that litter concentrations found
in coastal waters tend to be lower than in offshore waters (Herr,
2009).
Studies of visual observations on seven oceanographic cruises
in Southern Chilean fjords from 2002–2005 report 1–250 objects
km−2and particle size > 2 cm (Hinojosa and Thiel,2009;Hinojosa
et al.,2011;Thiel et al.,2013). Typical densities in northern
areas ranged between 10 and 50 items km−2and 0.5 items km−2
recorded in northwest Hawaii waters near the so-called Pacific
waste patches compared to 9 items km−2recorded in Southeast
Asia (Matsumura and Nasu,1997). The density of plastics waste
was 0.9 to 2.3 km−2, mean 1.5 km−2in the waters of British
Columbia in Canada (Williams et al.,2011). Lecke-Mitchell and
Mullin (1997) reported 1.0–2.4 km−2parts in the Gulf of Mexico
(Table 2).
6.3. Marine litter on the seafloor
The seafloor has yet to discover more than marine surface
patterns and coastlines. The key factors limiting this study are
cost, ability to reach, and sample acquisition for deep-sea explo-
ration (Takada et al.,2012;Galgani et al.,2015;Fu et al.,2020).
50% of the plastic litter materials sink into the seafloor and even
low-density polymers (for example, polyethylene and propylene)
may lose their booming strength because of foulness. Deep-sea
surveys therefore constitute a very significant concern (Engler,
2012;Bond et al.,2018). Broad rivers have a large contribution
of seabed debris (Lechner et al.,2014;Rech et al.,2014;Fu et al.,
2020). Due to its high flow rate and high currents, marine waste
can be transported offshore through rivers (Galgani et al.,1995,
1996,2000;Bond et al.,2018). Tiny rivers and estuaries, on the
other hand, may also serve as sinks for the garbage, as sluggish
currents intensify waste disposal at shores and banks (Galgani
et al.,2000;Bond et al.,2018;Fu et al.,2020). Recently, deep-sea
surveys have been performed with remotely operated vehicles
and towing camera systems (e.g. Pham et al.,2014;Newman
7

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Table 2
Comparison of mean litter densities on the sea surface from worldwide data (non-exhaustive list).
Source: Adopted from Galgani et al. (2015).
Region Density (item km2) (max) Size range (cm) Plastic (%) References
North Sea 25–38 >2 70 Thiel et al. (2011)
Belgian coast 0.7 n.d. 95 Van Cauwenberghe et al. (2013)
Ligurian coast 1.5–25 n.d. n.d. Aliani and Molcard (2003)
Mediterranean Sea 10.9 ^52 (194.6) >2 95.6 Suaria and Aliani (2014)
North Sea 2(1–6) n.d. n.d. Herr (2009)
Kerch Strait/Black Sea 66 n.d. n.d. BSC (2007)
Chile 10-50 (250) >2 >80 Hinojosa and Thiel (2009)
West of Hawaii 0.5 0.08 (0.2) n.d. Matsumura and Nasu (1997)
British Columbia 1.48 (2.3) n.d. 92 Williams et al. (2011)
South China Sea 4.9 (0.3–16.9) <2.5–10 68 Zhou et al. (2011)
North Pacific 459 2 95 Titmus and Hyrenbach (2011)
Strait of Malacca 579 >1–2 98.8 Ryan (2013)
Bay of Bengal 8.8 >1–2 95.5 Ryan (2013)
Southern Ocean 0.032–6 >1 96 Ryan et al. (2014)
et al.,2015). The seabed is dominated by the various forms of
plastic (Fig. 5a-h, taken from the seafloor in the Bay of Bengal).
Though deep Antarctican waters remain rare (Barnes et al.,
2009), vast quantities of plastic are found on the seabed from all
seas and oceans (Galil et al.,1995;Galgani et al.,2000;Barnes
et al.,2009;Uurasjärvi et al.,2020). Van Cauwenberghe et al.
(2013) and Fischer et al. (2003) identified some plastic fragments
from the southern Atlantic and Kuril-Kamchatka trench areas
in deep-sea sediments. Widespread work into distribution and
density of seabed debris is more prevalent in other areas (Gal-
gani et al.,2000). The abundance of plastic waste is deorbiting,
with mean densities ranging from 0 to over 7700 items km−2
(Table 3). Big Mediterranean density funds owe a mix of a densely
populated seaside, shipping in coastal waters, and negligible tidal
flows. In comparison, the Mediterranean Sea is a locked bay with
an insufficient flow of water across the Gibraltar Strait (Galgani
et al.,2015;Uurasjärvi et al.,2020).
Marine waste is usually high in coastal seas because of the
extensive reverie input with broad residual ocean circulation
patterns (Lee et al.,2006;Wei et al.,2012). However, due to the
heavy traffic, this debris goes long before it falls to the seafloor.
Few plastic content regions accumulated in coastal areas were
found as well (Galgani and Lecornu,2004;Bergmann and Klages,
2012;Woodall et al.,2014a,b). Shallow subtidal deposition and
distribution patterns can greatly differ from adjacent strandlines
and plastics form an essential part of this waste at sea. The accu-
mulation of low-circulation debris is likely to be small (e.g. coves
and coral reef lagoons rather than in the open sea) (Galgani et al.,
1996;Schlining et al.,2013;Pham et al.,2014). Derelict fishing
equipment accumulates and poses a major threat to shallowwater
species in some regions (e.g. continental shelves) (Lee et al.,2006;
Dameron et al.,2007;Kuhn et al.,2015).
7. Entanglement issues
In 1931 (Gudger and Hoffman,1931) Shark was the first
recorded entangled species in an automotive rubber pipe. En-
tanglement is a natural occurrence in the aquatic world. Entan-
glement has been seen among Arctic Ocean Whales (Knowlton
et al.,2012) and South Coast Fur Seals (Waluda and Staniland,
2013). Gans from Spain (Rodríguez et al.,2013), Japanese pulpits
(Matsuoka et al.,2005), and Virginia, USA crabs were also found
(Bilkovic et al.,2014). Active fishing gear is where many marine
birds, and mammals are killed, although not the number of
animals in the sea litter is reported (Read et al.,2006;Žydelis
et al.,2013;Tanaka et al.,2013).
Fishing gear is called ‘‘fishing people’’ when lost or not used
(Breen,1990) and this could threaten the survival of deep living
environments (Pawson,2003;Good et al.,2010). Size, configura-
tion, and location of the missing nets are the important variables
for interlocking (Sancho et al.,2003). Nets are available to capture
more species in ocean bed systems (Good et al.,2010). The pre-
dicted timing of organ entanglement and killing therefore varies
greatly and is time/space specific (Kaiser et al.,1996;Erzini,1997;
Hébert et al.,2001;Humborstad et al.,2003;Revill and Dunlin,
2003;Sancho et al.,2003;Tschernij and Larsson,2003;Matsuoka
et al.,2005;Erzini et al.,2008;Newman et al.,2011). Catch times
are projected to be between 30 and 568 days for derelict gills and
tram networks (Matsuoka et al.,2005). In certain cases, the ef-
fectiveness of ghost fishing decreases exponentially (Erzini,1997;
Tschernij and Larsson,2003;Ayaz et al.,2006;Baeta et al.,2009).
For example, during the first three months, Tschernij and Larsson
(2003) observed 80% of catches in the bottom of gill networks
in the Baltic Sea. In addition, the trapping time is determined by
the characteristics of lost fishing gear such as heavy colonization,
density, mesh size, and visibility (Erzini,1997;Humborstad et al.,
2003;Sancho et al.,2003). It takes longer time for ghosts to fish
in deeper waters (Breen,1990;Humborstad et al.,2003; Broad
et al., 2009). Degradable materials can reduce the time of fantasy
fishing impacting the working life of the tool.
Fishing equipment unruly shall be responsible for the inter-
locking of other items such as belts, tubes, plastic bags, and
boards. The 6-pack beverages that contribute to interlocking
(e.g. Plotkin and Amos,1990;Norman et al.,1995;Matsuoka et al.,
2005;Gomer˘
cić et al.,2009;Votier et al.,2011;Bond et al.,2012).
The fishing gear entangles the arms, flippers, and flukes of whales
and dolphins (Moore et al.,2013); (Van der Hoop et al.,2013). The
young scales were wrapped around their necks in manufactured
fishing equipment, package straps, or other bow-shaped material,
resulting in growth later (Fowler,1987;Lucas,1992;Allen et al.,
2012).
Sea birds clogged around the neck, wings, and feet by rope-
like materials properly restrict their flight or hunting (Camphuy-
sen,2001;Rodríguez et al.,2013). Sea turtles, including their
hatchlings on beaches, are also vulnerable to interconnection
with fishing equipment and debris (Kasparek,1995;Bugoni and
Krause,2001;Ozdilek et al.,2006;Triessing et al.,2012). The
derelict traps lying on the seabed (Adey et al.,2008;Erzini et al.,
2008;Antonelis et al.,2011;Anderson and Alford,2014;Bilkovic
et al.,2014;Kim et al.,2014;Uhrin et al.,2014) but often they
escape (Parrish and Kazama,1992); (Godøy et al.,2003). Failure
to escape the trap caused the animals to be killed by no food
(Pecci et al.,1978) and it is a tempting bait to catch new ones
(Kaiser et al.,1996;Stevens et al.,2000;Hébert et al.,2001). The
features of large dimensions are considered essential problems
of interlocking (Shaughnessy et al.,2000;Woodley and Lavigne,
1991). For example, a lost fishing gear plotted a shark to try its
food for large floating foodstuffs (Bird,1978). Prey fish use debris
as a refuge raises the chance of entanglement for their predators
like the sharks (Cliff et al.,2002) and fish (Tschernij and Larsson,
2003).
8

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 5. Litter on the seafloor of the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh [Photo credit: Sharif Sarwar]. (a) Plastic bottle cap (b) Plastic packet of detergent (c) Plastic packet of
biscuit (d) Net(e) Tire of public vehicles (f) Plastic cane of wine (g) Plastic bottle used in drinking water and in Engine boat (h) Plastic packet of chips.
8. Plastics can be consumed by means of organisms
The accumulation of very small plastic in the atmosphere can
be eaten by marine animals (Betts,2008;Thompson et al.,2009a).
The plastic ocean monitoring mechanism for animals, and some
studies on zooplankton, invertebrates, and echinodermic larvae
that eat plastics, have been published (Wilson,1973;Hart,1991;
Bolton and Havenhand,1998;Brillant and MacDonald,2002;
Browne et al.,2008). Nano-plastics have been used by the use
of fluorescent nanospheres in heterotrophic ciliates (Pace and
Bailiff,1987). The indiscriminate feeders are mainly species of a
lower tropical stage that cannot differentiate between plastic and
prey (Moore,2008). North Pacific planktonic organism consumes
as nutritional white and medium shaded plastic (Shaw and Day,
1994). Plastics are most frequently found offshore in the euphotic
zone, making them accessible to planktonic organisms (e.g. larval
stages of a species) (Gregory,1996;Fendall and Sewell,2009).
Plankton concentrations are small in gyres, while plastic rates are
high, ocean currents result in significant accumulation of plastic
(Moore,2008).
Thin plastic fibers in a marine setting of gin have a diameter
of below 1 µm and length of 15 µm making them measurably
9

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Table 3
Comparison of litter densities on the seafloor from recent worldwide data (non-exhaustive list).
Source: Adopted from Galgani et al. (2015).
Location Habitat Date Sampling Depth (m) Density (min–max) Plastic (%) References
Southern China Benthic 2009–2010 4 trawl (mesh not available)/l dive 0–10 693 (147–5,000) items
km−247 Zhou et al.
(2011)
France-
Mediterranean
Slope 2009 17 canyons. 101 ROV dives 80–700 3.01 km−1survey (0–12) 12(0–100) Fabri et al.
(2014)
Thyrenian Sea Fishing ground 2009 6:1.5 ha samples, trawl. 10 mm
mesh
40-80 5,960 ±3,023 km−276 Sanchez et al.
(2013)
Spain-
Mediterranean
Fishing ground 2009 40–80 4,424 ±3,743 km−237 Sanchez et al.
(2013)
Mediterranean Sea Bathyal/abyssal 2007–2010 292 tows, otter/Agassiz trawl.
12 mm mesh
900–3,000 0.02–3,264.6 kg km−2
(incl. clinker)
n.d. Ramirez-Llodra
et al. (2013)
Malta Shelf 2005 Trawl (44 hauls. 20 mm mesh) 50–700 102 47 Misfud et al.
(2013)
Turkey/Levantin
Basin
Bottom/bathyal 2012 32 hauls (trawl. 24 mm mesh) 200-800 290 litter (3,264.6 kg
km−2)
81.1 Guven et al.
(2013)
Azores. Portugal Condor seamount 2010–2011 45 dives 185–256 1,439 items knr2No plastic/89%
fishing gear
Pham et al.
(2013)
Goringe Bank. NE
Atlantic
Gettysburg and
Ormonde seamounts
2011 4 ROV dives (124 h video. 4,832
photographs), total distance of 80.6
km
60–3,015 1–4 items km−19.9/56 fishing gear Vieira et al.
(2014)
US west coast Shelf 2007–2008 55–183 30 items km−223 Keller et al.
(2010)
Slope 2007–2008 1,347 sites (total,
trawling, 38 mm mesh)
183–550 59 items km−2n.d. Keller et al.
(2010)
Slope/bathyal 2007–2008 550–1,280 129 items km−2n.d. Keller et al.
(2010)
Mediterranean Sea.
France
Shelf/canyon 1994–2009
(16 years study)
90 sites (trawls, 0.045 knr/tow,
20 mm mesh)
0–800 76–146 km−2(0–2,540) 29.5–74 Galgani et al.
(2000)
and unpublished
data
Japan, offshore Iwate Trench Jamstek
database
3 dives on 4,861 available 299-400,
1,086–1,147,
1,682–1,753
15.9 items h∼1 42.8 Miyake et al.
(2011)
Kuril-Kamchatka area
(NW Pacific)
Trench/bathyal
plain
2012 20 box cores (0.25 nr) (Agassiz
trawl, camera epi-benthic sledge)
4,869–5,766 60–2,000 plastics m−2(Trawl samples:
mostly fishing gear)
Fischer et al.
(2015)
Fram Strait, Arctic Slope 2002–2011
(5 surveys)
One OFOS camera tow year"1, 5
transects (1,427–2,747 nr)
2,500 3,635 (2002)-7,710 (2011)
items km−259 Bergmann and
Klages (2012)
Northern Antarctic
Peninsula and Scotia Arc
Slope s/bathyal 2006 32 Agassiz trawls 200–1,500 2 pieces only 1 plastic Barnes et al.
(2009)
Monterey Canyon,
California
From margin to
abyssal
1989–2011 ROVs, 2,429 km−2in total 25–3,971 632 items km−233 Schlining et al.
(2013)
ABC islands, Dutch
Caribbean
Sandy bottoms to rocky
slopes
2000 24 video transects, submersibles 80–900 2,700 items km−2
(0–4590)
29 Debrot et al.
(2014)
ingestible by minute planktonic organisms (Frias et al.,2010).
The ingestion of plastic can occur through the consumption of
plastic preys (Browne et al.,2008;Fendall and Sewell,2009). Even
plastics can be eaten by seabirds, crustaceans, and fish. Initially
reported in the 1960s, recurrent plastic litters were estimated
to be less than 25 million tons per year in global plastic pro-
duction (Blight and Burger,1997;Ryan et al.,2009;Thompson
et al.,2009b;Tourinho et al.,2010). Also, there was a record
of manufactured articles entangled in birds and seals (Jacobson,
1947).
Marine turtles eat plastic bags for being like jellyfish that are
a feed (Carr,1987;Lutz,1990;Mrosovsky et al.,2009;Tourinho
et al.,2010;Townsend,2011;Campani et al.,2013). A dead
marine turtle was found by the ingestion of plastic bags at the
end of the 1950s (Cornelius,1975;Balazs,1985). In 1968, South
African teenage tortoises from loggerhead (Caretta caretta) ate
plastic pellets (Hughes,1970). A large plastic sheet contained in a
leatherback turtle’s intestine (Dermochelys coriacea) during 1970
(Hughes,1974). In addition, filter-feeding crustaceans, includ-
ing goose-barnacles found to have eaten plastics (Mytilus edulis,
Van Cauwenberghe et al.,2012;Leslie et al.,2013;Van Cauwen-
berghe and Janssen,2014). The plastic litters were found to be
eaten by large baleen whales (Laist,1997;Baulch and Perry,
2014). Plastic intake from the North Sea and English Channel is
made of filtering fish such as herring (Clupea harengus) and horse
mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) (Foekema et al.,2013;Lusher
et al.,2013).
In the 1960s, the rate of plastic litter interlocking starts to
increase in marine species. Northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus)
reported sometimes enmeshed in netting and other Bering Sea
objects in 1964. Kenyon and Kridler (1969) confirmed that on
the north-western Hawaiian Islands, Laysan Albatrushes (Phoe-
bastria immutabilis) ingested plastic. Plastic found in the stomachs
of almost 74 out of 100 kidneys destroyed in 1966 (Kenyon
and Kridler,1969). Harvested seals have intertwined with a
gradual increase in 1967 from less than 0.2% of the population
to a high of 0.7% in 1975 (Fowler,1987). In the late 1970s
and early 1980s, the entanglement rate was held at about 0.4
percent (Fowler,1987;Fowler and Merrick,1990). In the early
1980s, however, the interconnection between seal species on
the Farallon Islands off Central California increased (Hanni and
Pyle,2000). Plastic was reported during mid-1970 in stranded
cetaceans (Cawthorn,1985). Plastic discovered in 1962 in New
Discovered Land, Canada, Leach’s storm petrels (Oceanodroma
leucorhoa) (Rothstein,1973). In the non-breeding Atlantic puffins
(Fratercula arctica), collected between 1969 and 1971 (Berland,
1971;Parslow and Jefferies,1972) elastic thread is discovered.
Such elastic threads formed tight balls that fill the gizzard and
partially block the pyloric valve, reported by Parslow and Jefferies
(1972). They also recorded the consumption of rubber and elastics
as food by scavenging birds (e.g. gulls).
Anon (1971), Berland (1971) and Gochfeld (1973) have stated
that this interweaving poses a threat to coastal birds by sea litter.
In 1974, a manatee’s intestine (Trichechus manatus) found fishing
devices that blocked his intestine (Forrester et al.,1975). In 1982,
on average, the Dutch Fulmars ingested 34 plastic fragments per
person (Fig. 6). 35% of the fish captured in the central gyre of the
North Pacific indicated that their guts were made with plastics
10

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 6. Microscopic view of plastic [Photo credit: Selvam]. (a) Nylon (b) Polyethylene (c) polypropylene (d) cellulose.
(Boerger et al.,2010). In fact, in the stomachs of 13 out of 141
mesopelagic fish captured in the North Pacific Gyre, plastic fibers’
fragments and films have been found (Davison and Asch,2011).
The Clyde Sea (Scotland) with about 83% of Nephrops reported to
have plastics in their digestive system, (Murray and Cowie,2011).
Plastic materials intrude on food appendages, block the passage
of food through the intestines (Tourinho et al.,2010) or induce
food-reducing pseudo-satiation (Derraik,2002;Thompson,2006).
Bourne (1976,1977) has claimed that seabirds have been threat-
ened with plastic intake and enclosure that could kill seabirds.
The danger by switch to produce network and other fishing gear
using persistent polymers were also included (Bourne,1977).
9. Impacts of plastics on human and aquatic organisms
Plastics have a significant negative effect both on Earth’s life
and on species in the aquatic ecosystem (Gregory,1996;Barnes
et al.,2009;Ryan et al.,2009). Plastic contamination is increas-
ingly scientific due to the risks of ingestion by marine biota
(Derraik,2002;Thompson et al.,2004;Ng and Obbard,2006;
Barnes et al.,2009;Fendall and Sewell,2009;Lozano and Mouat,
2009). Therefore, the prime focuses on humans because of its
negative effects on human, and aquatic health.
9.1. Impacts on human health
Plastic waste has a direct and indirect effect on human health
(Teuten et al.,2009;Thompson et al.,2009a,b;Gold et al.,2013;
UNEP,2014;Galloway,2015). The body is subjected to oral in-
takes of plastic by tainted plastics (Calafat et al.,2008). There
are no records of accidental plastic ingestion by humans. In the
recent past, the use of microphones and nanospheres in pharma-
ceutical products is highly common, both by nasal, intravenous,
and transcutaneous pathways (Kim et al.,2010), as well as in
nano polymers contaminated from processed foods (EFSA,2011;
Lagaron and Lopez-Rubio,2011). This reaches and exposes the
human body in several ways. The neutral particles present in the
intestine which are ingested by oral intake, for example (O’Hagan,
1996). The ’per sorption’ for starch particles of 150 p.m. by villi’s
tips were observed by Volkheimer (1977). Titanium dioxide risk
(Wang et al.,2007) and carbon risk (Poland et al.,2008) are
predicted by the nanostructure found in the intestines and re-
distributed in the liver, and spleen. Hydrophilic and positively
charged particles exhibit improved diffusion times because of
their surface characteristics.
The resulting ‘corona’ cells and tissues bind with the nano-
polymers to the particle’s toxin level (Lundqvist et al.,2008;
Tenzer et al.,2013). The cytotoxicity level is high when cations
of polymers are stimulated by negative cells (Fischer et al.,2003).
Specific modes of toxicity rely on the kind of particle and cell are
used as a source of oxidative damage, inflammation and accumu-
lation in various types of tissue (Nel et al.,2006,2009;Silvestre
et al.,2011). Chronic exposure to nanopolymers is a concern for
all body parts such as the brain, testis, and reproductive organ
(Jani et al.,1996;Garrett et al.,2012).
Bisphenol A interacts with and therefore suppresses the bi-
ological activity of steroid hormone receptors which represents
both estrogenic, and androgenic activity (Lee et al.,2003;Bonefeld-
Jorgensen et al.,2007;Gold et al.,2013). Other receptor interme-
diated impacts identified in the different models include binding
ERRa (Okada et al.,2008), thyroid hormone disruption (Moriyama
et al.,2002), altered beta-cell pancreatic function (Ropero et al.,
2008) and obesity-promoting effects (Newbold et al.,2008). The
intake of Bisphenol A induced obesity, cardiovascular disease;
multiple reproductive and developmental issues (Lang et al.,
2008;Melzer et al.,2010,2012; Cipelli et al., 2013). Which
include premature development of penis and urethra in people,
the proliferation of hormone-mediated cancers (e.g., breast and
prostate cancers), autism, and precocious puberty of women
(from vom Saal et al.,2007;Hengstler et al.,2010;Rochester,
2013).
Polychlorinated biphenyls, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT) and aqueous metals have adverse health implications and
11

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
are responsible for infections and breeding defects (Teuten et al.,
2009). Marine litter is the cause of the contaminants on the
plastic surface accumulation (EPA,2011). These plastics can, for
example, carry 1 million times PCBs compared to seawater (Gold
et al.,2013;EPA,2013). Wherever the virus and bacteria are
normal, plastics serve as a vector. Lippsett (2013) documented
cholera and gastrointestinal disease caused by plastic samples
which are rich in bacteria. In addition, marine litter crashes at
the local level can cause fatal harm or slaughter to mariners (Gold
et al.,2013).
9.2. Impacts on aquatic organisms
Plastics have been taken from marine foods including aquatic
organisms including turtles, seabirds, fish, shellfish, and worms.
Furthermore, the latest survey proposed that more plastics should
be taken in marine ecosystems (Setala et al.,2012; Cole et al.,
2013). The plastic polluted food chain is causing unnecessary
biological signs, such as intestinal blocks and energy assimilation
disruptions (Wright et al.,2013a,b).
Entanglement is really harmful to organisms; entangled an-
imals cannot get food from predators and escape. Sometimes
they have to go hungry or drown because they are tangled and
helpless (Laist,1997;Cole et al.,2012). Although animals do not
die from injury, their limited mobility and abridged scavenging
ability affect the interwoven living beings (Arnould and Croxall,
1995;Laist,1997;Moore et al.,2009;Allen et al.,2012). Skin
infections, septic leg removal due to interlock reported in turtles
(Bugoni et al.,2001;Orós et al.,2005;Barreiros and Raykov,
2014). The plastic fiber affects the operculum of a juvenile sea
bream (Pagellus acarne) resulting in fish mortality (Barreiros and
Guerreiro,2014). Waste plastic lines and fishing equipment trig-
ger hunting or surface breathing difficulties (Wabnitz and Nichols,
2010). There has been a reportedly tangled sea snake (Hydrophis
elegans) with a ceramic ring that limits it to swallowing food to
the left with hunger (Udyawer et al.,2013).
The plastic tangling of sharks prevents the mouth and affects
air circulation mechanisms, and scavenging mechanisms (Sazima
et al.,2002). The natural development of a short-finned mako
shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) been found tangled with plastic for a
longer period of time. In addition, lead biofouling reduced its
speed and maneuverability (Sivan,2011;Wegner and Cartamil,
2012). A gray seal (Halichoerus grypus) with an irregular structure
was written down by Lucas (1992).
Smaller marine bodies (for example, crabs, octopuses, and fish)
are usually caught in marine abandoned waste and in extreme
loss of life (Matsuoka,1999;Al-Masroori et al.,2004;Matsuoka
et al.,2005;Erzini et al.,2008;Antonelis et al.,2011;Cho,2011).
Sponges, gorgonians, and corals that are usually caught by con-
tagious fishing services eventually die (Bavestrello et al.,1997;
Schleyer and Tomalin,2000;Asoh et al.,2004;Yoshikawa and
Asoh,2004;Chiappone et al.,2005;Pham et al.,2013;Smith and
Edgar,2014). Entanglement causes substantial deaths of northern
gannets (Morus bassanus) and has affected about a quadrant of
birds recorded in the North Sea for death in 1980 (Schrey and
Vauk,1987), and is still a danger to the life of living things of
today (Barnes,2002;Rodríguez et al.,2013).
10. Possible pathways of mitigation
A broad range of measures to improve the impact of various
plastic types which continuously enter the marine environment
must be challenged (Pruter,1987;Ryan et al.,2009). Shipping can
be the main cause of plastic marine debris and should concentrate
mainly on the plastics industry (Scott,1972;Horsman,1982).
The plastic waste originating from the ground is deposited at
sea. This haphazard disposal of waste materials into the sea
was prohibited (London Disposal Convention, 1972; Lentz,1987).
Nonetheless, pollutants discharged at sea by different kinds of
ships excluded until the end of 1988 are introduced as Annex
V of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships (MARPOL), adopted in 1973 (www.imo.org). In order
to determine the degree to which plastic debris from ships is
funded, monitoring measures were introduced (Coe and Rogers,
1996). MARPOL Annex V accounts for nearly 97 percent of world
shipping’s overall tonnage, but it has been a challenging problem
to achieve (Carpenter and Macgill,2005).
Early mitigation steps were used to monitor chemical pellets
as these are known to be high in the marine environment and
eaten by marine species. Reduced plant growth substantially de-
creases industrial pellets reaching the marine zone (Kartar et al.,
1976). The plastics industries launched enforcement measures
like Operation Clean Sweep, established in the United States in
1992 to regulate chemical pellets, followed by a variety of other
manufactures worldwide (Redford et al.,1997).
Different methods of prevention include reducing and pre-
venting the production of aquatic waste into the ocean (Chen,
2015). Minimization of sources, transformation of waste to en-
ergy, recycling and reprocessing of waste, port reception facilities,
construction of equipment is efficient in managing marine waste.
Eco-design goods are also a significant way to minimize ma-
rine unwanted ocean litter (Chen,2015). Such schemes include
schematic packaging for reuse (e.g. bottles of shampoo) develop-
ment and the development of products that can be stored and
preserved for a long time (e.g. bicycles) and improved products
(e.g. washing detergents) (Vaughn,2009). In addition, several
other approaches are related to minimizing the waste product,
such as the growth of recycled packaging material, the network
of open-push metal drink cans, and drink bottle or chain-based
lids (Gold et al.,2013). The prohibition of the use of plastic
bags is such an important preventive measure to avoid plastic
materials (for example, Bangladesh limited plastic bags in 2002
and achieved fruitful results). Such interventions fall into the fol-
lowing four categories: prevention, mitigation, elimination, and
improvement of behavior (Table 4).
11. Conclusions and recommendations
In the past decade, marine plastics have been widespread in
the oceans and documented data have shown dramatic growth
with time. Marine litter primarily comes from shore, ships, and
other causes that have been accumulated on the sea after trans-
portation to long distances. Failure to identify size and plastic
sampling technology complicates the study of the spatial and
temporal patterns of pollutants. Nonetheless, a systematic ap-
proach is required to accurately measure and classify marine
debris to achieve global solutions. The largest amount of plastic
is found along the coast and mid-ocean gyres, but the future
of plastics is very unclear. The marine species that consume
these plastics face health issues such as mortality, morbidity, and
reproductive complications. The toxic chemicals detected by biota
through plastic ingestion have become a major global problem.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s awareness of the hazards of
marine debris slowly increased among people. Other than al-
ternatives to plastics polluting the aquatic environment is the
rising concern (Law and Thompson, 2014). Throughout the 1970s
and 1980s, the influence of marine waste was noted and played
a significant role in the policy formulation and guidelines for
regulating plastic waste volumes (Chen,2015).
This review paper discusses the growing issue of marine plas-
tics and suggests that the scientific community and policymakers
pay more attention. The knowledge gap in plastics is available to
plastics researchers.
12

Md. Simul Bhuyan, Venkatramanan S., Selvam S. et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science xxx (xxxx) xxx
Table 4
Managing patterns addressing marine litter.
Types Examples of measures
Preventive Source reduction (e.g. eco-design), waste reuse and recycling, waste converted
to energy, port reception facilities, gear marking, debris contained at points of
entry into receiving waters, various land-based waste management initiatives
Mitigating Various debris disposal and dumping regulations, i.e. waste discharged outside
certain distances from land, wastes not containing harmful substances to the
marine environment allowed for discharge, prohibition of waste discharge into
ecologically sensitive areas, prohibition of the disposal of certain types of
garbage into seas
Removing Beach and seafloor cleanup activities, derelict fishing gear retrieval programs,
marine debris monitoring
Behavior-changing Educational campaigns, economic/incentive tools
These are crucial needs to tackle the plastics-related work gaps
in the marine world. (Cole et al.,2011)
i. Set the regular nano, meso, and microplastic sizes.
ii. Improve routine implementation and high performance of
plastic sampling technique in order to correlate findings
well obtained from different areas.
iii. Minute plastics and nanoplastics within the aquatic column
and sediment are detected by appropriate methods.
iv. Publish the characteristics and properties of disintegration
and bio-fouling of plastics in the water column.
v. Effective methods to assess how plastics are consumed by
biota across the foodstuffs network, and expand sentinel
species (e.g. Fulmars) to detect the plastic abundance.
vi. Track and consider the adverse effects on aquatic biota
(i.e. death, morbidity and/or reproduction) of the ingested
plastics within the food chain.
vii. List the effect of leaching plastic additives and adsorbed
waterborne contaminants (i.e. death, morbidity and/or re-
production) in marine biota transferred by microplastics.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Sharif Sarwar (Freelance Underwa-
ter Photographer) for providing underwater photos of plastic. We
thank Mr Abdun Nun Tusher (professional graphic designer) for
his help in redesigning high-resolution hotspot map. This article
is 115th contribution (partial) from the Earth System Science
Group (ESSG), Mexico & India (Participating member: MPJ).
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