Recent Advancements in Additive Manufacturing (AM) Techniques: A Forward-Looking Review

Abstract

We witness noteworthy developments in multifunctional materials progress through additive manufacturing techniques, enhanced by the revolution of Industry 4.0 and Internet of Things. Still, in specific circumstances, the performance of used materials is sometimes limited. Among the various existing techniques, the additive manufacturing (AM) process has gained much popularity over the last two decades and is one of the most revolutionary manufacturing techniques. In this comprehensive review, we have addressed the fundamentals of various Additive Manufacturing processes, including binder jetting, fused deposition modelling, Stereolithography, selective laser sintering/melting, direct energy deposition. Furthermore, recent advancements and emerging new technology in AM domain named electrochemical additive manufacturing is highlighted in this review as a major part. These processes’ capabilities, advantages, limitations, and applications are also discussed. In the concluding sections of this work, future trends are offered and discussed.

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Metals and Materials International
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12540-022-01380-9
Recent Advancements inAdditive Manufacturing (AM) Techniques:
AForward‑Looking Review
NetrapalSingh1,2· HafsaSiddiqui2· BhavaniSrinivasRaoKoyalada2· AjayMandal1,2· ViplovChauhan3·
SathishNatarajan1,2· SatendraKumar1,2· ManojGoswami1,2· SurenderKumar1,2
Received: 9 November 2022 / Accepted: 25 December 2022
© The Author(s) under exclusive licence to The Korean Institute of Metals and Materials 2023
Abstract
We witness noteworthy developments in multifunctional materials progress through additive manufacturing techniques,
enhanced by the revolution of Industry 4.0 and Internet of Things. Still, in specific circumstances, the performance of used
materials is sometimes limited. Among the various existing techniques, the additive manufacturing (AM) process has gained
much popularity over the last two decades and is one of the most revolutionary manufacturing techniques. In this compre-
hensive review, we have addressed the fundamentals of various Additive Manufacturing processes, including binder jetting,
fused deposition modelling, Stereolithography, selective laser sintering/melting, direct energy deposition. Furthermore, recent
advancements and emerging new technology in AM domain named electrochemical additive manufacturing is highlighted
in this review as a major part. These processes’ capabilities, advantages, limitations, and applications are also discussed. In
the concluding sections of this work, future trends are offered and discussed.
Keywords BJT· FDM· SLA· SLS· SLM· ECAM
1 Introduction
1.1 AM processes
Fabricating any physical object, manufacturing processes
always play a crucial role in human life. The existence of
manufacturing techniques in our life is from ancient times
when our ancestors used stones to prepare several tools. Var-
ious manufacturing methods exist, such as casting, mould-
ing, machining, forming, joining, AM, etc. Among the dif-
ferent existing techniques, the AM process has gained much
popularity over the last two decades and is one of the most
revolutionary manufacturing techniques. AM, as the name
implies, adds requisite material in layer upon layer fashion
to obtain a final three-dimensional (3D) product. Rapid pro-
totyping, 3D printing, additive layer manufacturing, addi-
tive fabrication, layer manufacturing, additive processes, and
freeform fabrication are other names that AM is known in
the scientific community [1].
In the AM process, we transform a computerized 3D
solid model (computer-aided design- CAD) into a final-
ized product with satisfactory geometric accuracy without
using additional fixtures or cutting tools, like the conven-
tional subtracting manufacturing processes [2, 3], though
sometimes there is a need of post-processing. Thus, in that
sense, AM has a better ability to handle the raw materials,
as there are fewer chances of waste, and it opens up the
possibility of forming more complex geometrical com-
ponents [3]. Figure1 shows the steps involved in the AM
process to transform the element from the digital world to
the real world. The AM process broadly applies to various
materials such as ceramics, metals, polymers, composites,
etc. [1]. Multiple AM approaches are available these days
for processing this wide variety of material; some of these
techniques are SLM, SLS, DED, and FDM [4]. The work-
ing principle applied in these techniques varies from type
Netrapal Singh and Hafsa Siddiqui have been contributed equally to
this work.
* Surender Kumar
surenderjanagal@gmail.com; surender@ampri.res.in
1 Academy ofScientific andInnovative Research (AcSIR),
Ghaziabad201002, India
2 CSIR-Advanced Materials andProcesses Research Institute
(AMPRI), Bhopal462026, India
3 Department ofPhysics, Institute forExcellence inHigher
Education, Bhopal462016, India

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to type. In SLM and SLS, the metal powder is melted or
sintered selectively using a high-power laser [5]; on the
other side, in FDM, the polymer is fed as a filament, which
is extruded from heated nozzle followed by deposition [6].
For metallic materials recently, Wire Arc AM (WAAM)
is also gained colossal attention; the WAAM process is
very much similar to the polymer-based FDM technique,
where polymer wire is extruded from a heated nozzle.
Apart from the heated extruder, in WAAM, the metallic
wire is melted using a laser beam that is highly directed
[7]. However, an in-depth discussion of these methods is
beyond the scope of this review. Regarding polymer AM,
some other techniques are vat photopolymerization. In vat
photopolymerization, we use a light-sensitive polymer liq-
uid or resin [8]. SLA is one of the commonly used vat
photopolymerization methods, in which a coherent beam
of light (generally of the ultra-violet spectrum) is used
for photopolymerization. Due to this, the resin becomes
solidified in layer by layer manner for fabrication of the
end product [8]. Material jetting, BJT, continuous liquid
interface production, digital light processing, laminated
object manufacturing, two-photon and multiphoton polym-
erization, drop-on-demand process, DED [9], and inkjet
printing [10] are other various commercially available
AM techniques. Besides, ECAM is a very recent form
of the metal AM process. Here, we can create metallic
structures using the electrodeposition phenomenon in a
localized manner. The key benefit of the process lies in
its applicability to an extensive range of materials and
alloy deposition ambient conditions [11]. All the above-
discussed techniques have pros and cons [12] and are dis-
cussed in detail in Sect.2.
1.2 About theReview
This review aims to initiate AM research and gather infor-
mation on the working modes of different commercially
used AM technologies. Current overview of BJT, FDM,
SLA, SLS, SLM and ECAM processes, including structure-
property relationships, dimensional control and engineering,
interfaces and some theoretical and modelling studies along
with future scope are presented. A key interesting aspect
of AM processes is the recognition of the realities of inter-
disciplinary research between various fields of mechanical
engineering (power-generating machines) as well as physics,
chemistry, industrial, and commercial applications such as
automotive and aerospace industry, medical industry, con-
struction and the jewellery industry.
2 Recent Advancements inAM Techniques
A brief introduction to various AM techniques is given in
Sect.1. This section aims to provide a detailed insight into
selected AM methods, including BJT, FDM, SLA, SLS,
SLM, and ECAM processes.
Fig. 1 Schematic representation
of AM Process

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2.1 Binder Jetting (BJT)
BJT is an AM technique invented at the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology (MIT), United States of America (USA),
in 1993. It was developed very early in AM process evolu-
tion [13]. BJT is used for making sand moulds for casting
and metal and ceramic components. BJT is depicted sche-
matically in Fig.2. The procedure begins with a powder
re-coater system, which typically consists of rollers, spread-
ing a thin layer of required powder. After that, a liquid ink,
called the binder, is selectively jetted using an inkjet nozzle,
according to a 3D CAD model of the desired component.
The binder is then evaporated using a lamp-based heater,
releasing the stacked particles behind [14, 15]. Heaters may
be used in some systems for moisture-controlling and cur-
ing purposes, but it is still not mandatory. After completion
of the first layer, the building platform lowers by a distance
equivalent to the height of the sliced layer, and this proce-
dure is repeated until the three-dimensional part is built.
Thus, an obtained body, called the green body, is immersed
in unbound powder and needs sequential post-processing
steps to improve its mechanical properties and a finalized
usable product [15]. Since the material to be printed is fed
in the form of powder, then choosing the suitable powder is
very important. Flowability, bulk density, morphology, size
and distribution of particles are vital factors that should be
considered when selecting a material powder. Otherwise,
they will primarily affect the final properties of the compo-
nent [16]. Flowability, in some sense, predicts printability as
we need to spread the powder uniformly over the bed, which
directly relates to flowability.
If we have a powder with poor flowability, it would not
be spread evenly and smoothly and hence, cause defects in
the printed 3D object. Fortunately, it is easy to control the
flowability of the powder using spray granulation and addi-
tives [16–18]. Flowability of the powder also shows a high
dependence on shape of the powdered particles. Particles
having a spherical shape tends to flow more than others.
The size of the particles also plays a key role; for example,
the system will experience issues if the powder particle size
is greater than the thickness of the sliced layer. Generally,
powders of particle size between 0.2 and 200μm are used
[19, 20]. Finer particles (with a size < 20μm) do not possess
good flowability, while the coarser one (with a size > 20μm)
flows better [21–23]. Binder is the material that binds the
powder particles of the material to be printed; thus, the
selection of a suitable binder is essential. The binder should
be low viscous, stable against the stresses generated during
the printing process, economical, environment friendly, and
should not block the nozzle. Besides, a binder must interact
well with the powder particles [15, 24]. After selecting a
suitable powder and binder, one must form an ink for print-
ing. The formulation process includes engineering according
to the print head’s viscosity and surface tension checking
its stability and redispersion behaviour, and reformulation
if needed [21]. After the formulation of ink, the printing
process is initiated. The density, fineness, and strength of
the printed object [16] are all affected by the layer thick-
ness, which is measured as the elevation of a layer along the
z-direction, the speed at which powder is dispersed onto the
printing bed, the printing speed, binder concentration, and
printing direction [25–30].
Printed binder jetting products are generally not up to the
mark in terms of their mechanical strength and need further
treatment to strengthen them and make them ready for the
final application. The green body is a sinter to densify the
product, providing the required mechanical strength [31, 32].
The appropriate time and temperature selection for sinter-
ing are significant to ensure proper sintering and diffusion
between particles. Depowdering is another post-process that
the green body undergoes. In depowering, the extra powder
around the green body is removed [16]. Therefore, the de-
powdering process should be carried out carefully to avoid
the printed parts’ breakage.
The precise printing nature of the BJT has opened a new
revolution in medicine and pharmaceutical. The printing of
biomaterials as scaffolds in bone tissue engineering, fabrica-
tion of ceramic materials for dental applications, the printing
of implants and various tools for medical applications and
manufacturing of pharmaceutical dosage is very commonly
used applications of BJT [33, 34]. Also, BJT is among the
few AM processes used for food 3D printing. Researchers
have 3D printed the sugar and starch mixtures using BJT
[35]. Moreover, the ability of BJT to print multi-materials,
Fig. 2 A schematic of a typical binder jetting 3D printing process

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electrically conductive devices, and construction industry
materials such as cement, mortar, sand, gypsum etc., sets
it apart from other AM techniques and indicates its broad-
ranged applicability [36, 37].
Though the BJT offers applications in a broad spectrum
of fields, some significant issues still need rectification.
The selection of proper-sized powder particles, binder and
optimum printing parameters is substantial. The agglomera-
tion of small-sized powder particles also creates printing
defects. Moreover, post-processing is the biggest concern
with BJT. Since the as-printed 3D objects are not up to the
mark, they require proper infiltration and heat treatment to
get the desired mechanical strength. This makes the printing
process very slow and increases the net cost of the printed
parts [37].
2.2 Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
Stratasys Inc., a United States based company, was the first
to invent an FDM 3D printer. It is one of the most popular,
commonly used and rapidly expanding AM processes [38].
Thin wire of thermoplastics is utilized as the raw material in
FDM and is extruded from a heated nozzle. The motion of
the nozzle is guided by the combination of stepper motors;
the movement of the nozzle is according to the Gcode as
per the 3D CAD model of desired component. FDM is gen-
erally used for thermoplastic polymeric material only, like
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC),
polylactic acid (PLA), Nylon, polyphenyl sulfone (PPSF),
PC-ISO, PC-ABS blends etc. [39]. However, after continu-
ous scientific input and advancement in this technology,e
fascinating materials such as carbon, glass and Kevlar fibre
composite [40, 41] and metal powder-reinforced polymer
composite [42] can also be printed by the FDM process. The
mechanical properties of these composites are comparable to
several metallic materials [43]. Therefore, FDM technology
is widely used to fabricate parts with applications in elec-
tronics, mechanical systems, aerospace, and the automobile
industry. Otherwise, FDM was primarily used for prototyp-
ing purposes only [38].
In FDM, the extrusion nozzle is heated to soften or melt
the material. The temperature of the nozzle depends upon
the material to be deposited. For example, the nozzle tem-
perature is generally kept at 240–250°C and 190–200°C for
ABS and PLA, respectively. The extruded material solid-
ifies and takes the desired shape by cooling as the build
platform’s temperature is shallow compared to the nozzle
(~ 70°C for PLA). When the very first layer of the polymer
material is deposited, the build surface moves in a vertical
direction, a height equals the thickness of the layer [38, 39].
The thickness of a single deposited layer may vary from 0.06
to 0.4mm, depending on the system and settings used. The
vertical motion is of two types: the build platform moves
downward, or the extruder moves upward, depending upon
the machine being used. The subsequent material layer is
added at top of the preceding layer, and process is repeated
until the desired final structure is achieved. Sometimes, sup-
port structures are needed for complex geometries or hang-
ing parts [38, 44]. A diagram of the FDM machine is shown
in Fig.3.
The final printed product’s quality depends on a vari-
ety of factors, like the solidification process of the poly-
mer used, the thermal gradients between the print head and
build chamber, the crystallization process of polymers, the
viscoelastic properties of the material, shrinkage effect, and
generation of residual stress during the printing process
[45–48]. These days, we can now produce real-time usable
products [48]. Biomedical [49, 50], electronics [51], tool-
ing and machining [52], and aerospace [53] are some of the
areas which are using FDM for various purposes. The key
benefits of this technique lie in the availability of a wide
range of feedstock materials [54]. This provides additional
flexibility to the users [55].
Despite being among the most widely used and useful
AM processes, FDM still has some serious challenges.
Surface roughness, the need for the support structure, the
requirement of post-processing, low resolution, low print-
ing speed, low dimensional accuracy, generation of resid-
ual stresses because of the temperature gradient between
the build platform and the print head, lack of high-quality
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of a typical FDM-based 3D printer

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finishing, etc. are some the major challenges related to the
fused deposition modelling [54, 56–58].
2.3 Stereolithography (SLA)
This is a resin-based polymer AM technique, in which raw
material is used in form of resin. This technology works on
the principle of the photopolymerization technique. In this
process, photo polymeric polymer resin is used as a raw
material, solidifying gradually in a layer-by-layer manner
on light exposure with a specific wavelength. An ultra-violet
(UV) light source is typically used [59, 60]. It takes only a
few milliseconds to a few seconds (depending on the quality
of the resin) to solidify the resin. UV light source is allowed
to move in accordance with the given CAD model; after
the layer has fully hardened, the build platform is moved
lowered by the thickness of a single layer, after which fresh
resin contacts the layer that has already solidified and is
then scanned by a UV light source [61, 62]. This step will
be repeated again and again until the entire geometry is com-
pleted [59, 61]. Figure4 represents the schematic of the
SLA system. Finally, the printed object is removed from
the build surface and cured in the chamber for a specific
time to strengthen it. SLA process spans a broad spectrum
of fields, including industry and engineering, soft robotics,
smart composites, flexible electronics, medical and biomedi-
cal, superhydrophobic 3D objects, prosthetics and orthotics,
jewellery, sports equipment, etc. Recent studies have pro-
jected the massive potential of the SLA process in nano 3D
printing and 4D printing [8].
Post-processing is the major area where the SLA process
lacks. Various materials, particle sizes, or solid loadings
introduce diversity during post-processing, ranging from
the delicacy of green parts during support removal to the
ultimate shrinkage, porosity, and deformities of the sintered
component. Green parts are base polymerized parts obtained
through SLA 3D printing. They are the solid suspension of
the desired material and polymer in the polymer matrix. The
delicate nature of the green parts further leads to the compli-
cation of removing the printed objects from the build plat-
form. Properly optimizing the positioning of parts and sup-
port structures on the build platform can ease this process.
Removing the support structures can also cause damage to
the final product and hence are to be taken care of properly.
Moreover, some printed objects may also require sintering
to obtain the desired mechanical strength [63].
2.4 Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
The SLM process is helpful for metals only. Here, the raw
material is used in as the power particles. This technique
is among the most widely used AM technologies in manu-
facturing industries for the fabrication of highly efficient,
lightweight and complexly designed end-user components
to be used in automobile, aerospace as well as defence sec-
tors [64, 65]. Figure5 depicts the basic principle of the SLM
process: a very thin layer of metal powder is first placed on
the building surface through a powder recorder setup. Then,
in a confined space, a powerful laser is used to melt this thin
metal powderlayer as per the provided CAD model of the
desired component [66, 67].
Before melting, the substrate (build platform) is also
heated at a specific temperature (depending on the type
of material used) to minimize thermal stresses in the final
component and avoid peeling off the component. Also,
everything is placed inside the closed chamber filled with
high-purity argon, so that oxidation of metal powder during
melting can be prevented. A small molten pool was formed,
which solidified rapidly with a solidification rate of 106 to
108K/s [67, 68]. The laser restarts the melting process once
a layer is completely melted; a subsequent layer of the fresh
powder is dispersed over the recently deposited layer utiliz-
ing the recording system. The process is continued until the
last complete component is built. The part is then left for
the cool-down process, typically needed to lower the tem-
perature of the whole component so that it can be handled
easily and exposed to the open environment. Finally, the part
is removed from the build chamber, loose powder is appro-
priately cleaned, and secondary operations are performed if
necessary [64, 67].
Although significant achievements have been made in
understanding the SLM technique and manufacturing a wide
range of materials utilizing this technology, commercial
uses are still minimal. Some of the critical obstacles hidden
in this approach that prohibit it from creating functioning
components are limitations associated with printing multi-
materials, insufficient expertise on the optimal processing
parameters for innovative materials, and high porosity on
the parts produced [69]. To overcome these issues and to
Fig. 4 Schematic illustration of stereolithography 3D printing

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determine the ideal operating conditions for the SLM tech-
nique, the most critical SLM process factors, such as laser
power, scan speed and strategy, layer thickness, and build
orientation, should be thoroughly explored [70]. Any form
of imperfection, such as porosity, surface texturing, dimen-
sional inaccuracy, and so on, may occur during the printing
of the objects. That’s why proper post-processing meth-
ods such as thermal treatment, ageing, solution treatment,
chemical treatments, and other approaches should be utilized
in reducing problems associated with the printing process.
Moreover, removing the support from as-printed material
is a complicated process since it may damage the printed
objects; hence, the minimum support structures should be
used [71].
2.5 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
The basic principle and setup used in SLS are the same as
SLM; the only difference in both is the phenomena of pow-
der particle binding. Unlike SLM, SLS powder particles get
sintered together rather than completely melting. Sintering is
used in powder metallurgy to describe the powder particles’
fusion (in solid-state) when exposed to an elevated temper-
ature below the material’s melting point[72–75]. Accord-
ing to the literature, minimizing powder particles’ surface
energy (ES) is the driving factor for solid-state sintering. ES
is proportional to the surface area of a total particle (SA), as
shown in the equation below:
where γs is surface energy per unit area for a particular
atmosphere, material, and temperature. In SLS, when pow-
der particles fuse under the exposure of laser beams, surface
area decreases which finally reduces the surface energy [76].
Because smaller particles’ higher surface area to volume
ratio experiences a larger driving force for necking and
ES
=𝛾
s
×
SA
consolidation, smaller particles get sintered more quickly
and at much lower temperatures than larger particles[77, 78].
This concept emphasizes researchers’ use of finer powder
in SLS. Figure6 shows the steps involve in the sintering
process. When working with SLM and SLS, it’s essential to
be cautious when choosing the required process parameters,
which includs laser scanning speed and power, layer thick-
ness, and hatch spacing. However, these processes consist of
numerous parameters that must be controlled and observed
carefully before starting the machine. Out of all the other
parameters, the mentioned parameters are the most impor-
tant ones, as their combination decides the laser energy den-
sity (Q) value (as shown in the equation below). The final
properties of the build component depend on the value of Q,
and the selection of the process parameters depends on the
type of material needed. The choice of inappropriate process
parameters will lead to formation of unwanted defects like
pores, keyholes, cracks etc. The detailed discussion regard-
ing the defects is out of the scope of the present article.
SLS has many benefits in comparison with other AM
technologies, like lack of support structures and superior
mechanical qualities similar to injection moulded products.
However, numerous shortcomings, such as the highly porous
printed parts and limited availability of SLS powder parti-
cles, continue to limit its capability to deal with materials
[79].
2.6 Direct Energy Deposition (DED)
The DED process has been very commonly used in laser-
based manufacturing industries for a long time. This process
is not a 3D printing process, but its working principle is
Q
=
Laser power
Hatch spacing
×
Layer thickness
×
Scanning Speed
Fig. 5 Schematic representation
of the selective laser melting
(SLM) process

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the same, i.e., layer-by-layer material deposition. Presently,
industries use this process to manufacture new components;
previously, it was used for repairing and joining damaged
components only. It is not a powder bed process like SLM
and SLS; here, the powder form feed from the nozzle on the
build area, where it is get melted with the help of a focused
laser beam. The feedstock nozzle and laser source are
mounted on a motorised robotic arm, which moves accord-
ing to 3D CAD geometry and simultaneously gets deposited
layer-by-layer. Everything is placed inside a sealed chamber
filled with a inert gas to prevent the oxidation process and
control the properties of the material and its qualities [80].
The DED process has several limitations, and advantages
over powder bed AM processes like SLM and SLS. Large
components (up to several meters) can be easily fabricated
using DED, which is currently not possible with the powder
bed fusion process. Also, it offers a higher rate of deposition,
highly efficient DED system can melt several kg of metal
powder per hour [80, 81]. The powder can be changed in
the DED process, or mixing is possible during processing
to make customised alloy or component with multi-material,
which is impossible in SLM and SLS. However, the resolu-
tion of the DED process is much lower. Therefore the com-
ponent fabricated by this process has a poor surface finish
which needs major further post-processing, and the manu-
facturing of more complex geometries, such as overhanging
parts, is not possible with DED due to the restriction in the
formation of a support structure. Despite the considerable
benefits of DED, the research indicates that the most sig-
nificant application is repairing valuable components [82].
2.7 Electrochemical Additive Manufacturing
(ECAM)
Laser-based AM for metals attracts a large audience from
different domains of engineering. But conventionally
available AM systems have several limitations, especially
when discussing the fabrication of components in micro and
nanoscale or even smaller than that. Some reasons behind
these limitations are the post-processing of the final compo-
nent, which is very difficult at the nanoscale, and the inher-
ent size of the metal powder particles used in AM system
is generally in the range of 10–100microns [83]. ECAM
combines the electrochemical process and AM to produce
structures on a conducting substrate at room temperature
from computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/
CAM) modelling files and addresses the stability challenges
that come with it. ECAM offer a substantial benefit over
conventional AM processes. Ionic migration is a powerful
enough factor to influence the entire deposition process and
can also affect the manufactured part’s built quality, similar
to other issues regarding prior practices. The manufactur-
ing or deposition of amorphous metal at room temperature
has several drawbacks, including major residual stress,
porosity, limited choice of material, internal stress, anisot-
ropy, strength, stability, etc. It has been shown in numerous
investigations that when principles of the traditional elec-
trochemical deposition and AM are integrated, the resulting
technique is viable in all key areas [84]. It does not require
any thermal processes, lasers, or metal powders, making it
more cost-effective and user-friendly. It is produced atomi-
cally precise structures with superior quality and stability
[85]. The concept of ECAM is the most mathematically
and technically logical when compared to other prior AM
processes or approaches, as all of the variables that affect
the process—such as the voltage, electrolyte, pulse cycle,
and interelectrode gap’s impact on current density—have
a direct mathematical relationship with one another [11,
86, 87]. There are several characteristics of ECAM that can
be viewed as advantages over the other existing AM tech-
niques, such as the simplicity of doping, the lack of support
structures in ECAM, and the minimization or elimination of
Fig. 6 Sintering process a Closely packed powder particles before sintering, b Necking phenomena occur with the increase in temperature, parti-
cles start diffusing into each other due to which its surface area decrease and free energy minimize, c Pore size decreases with time

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thermal defects in ECAM [11, 86–88]. The most attractive
aspect of ECAM is its mask-less nature of work; in all previ-
ous deposition versions, the area or pattern to be printed or
deposited follows a concept of masking, where the layer of
deposition masks or covers a specific area of the electrode
[89]. The fabrication method yields noticeably better results,
and in all previous iterations of electrodeposition or AM,
the printed models have low aspect ratios or small ratios of
height to width. Still, if used correctly, the aspect ratio can
be adjusted in ECAM to meet specific requirements [90].
It is preferable over other AM alternatives because of the
shorter manufacturing time and the considerable reduction
in post-processing time [89]. Another intriguing aspect of
ECAM is that 3D models can be printed straight from model
files thanks to its user-friendly interface (UI) [91]. Using
Voxels or volumetric pixels as the foundation of the CAD
design that ultimately results in 3D printed prototypes graph-
ically illustrates the amount of automation in ECAM [92].
Due to its ability to manufacture micro-suspensions of
metal, ECAM stands out from other AM types [93]. Table1
highlights the difference between ECAM and other electro-
deposition techniques [94]. Expanding the library of read-
ily available materials to produce working devices, meta, or
intelligent materials is crucial, which is the practical goal
of ECAM. In principle, any material that can be electro-
plated can also be printed by electrochemical 3D printing,
but this requires a precise composition of electrolytes and
ink. Copper is used as a printing medium in most existing
ECAM-based fabrications. Since copper electrodeposition
is simple, easy to manage, and produces fine features. It is
known that electrochemical deposition (ECD) is widely used
for metals and their different phases, such as binary, ternary,
quaternary, metal composites, alloys, multi-materials, con-
ductive polymers, reduced graphene oxide, etc. Likewise,
there are some reports available on ECAM printed variety
of metals (other than copper), metal alloy, multi-material,
and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) micro/nanostructures
[95, 96]. According to the printing environment, these tech-
niques can be split into two major groups: (1) Pulsed or
direct current (DC) localized electrodeposition (LED) and
(2) meniscus-guided electrodeposition (MGED) and are dis-
cussed one by one as follows.
2.7.1 Localized Electrodeposition (LED)
Principle In ECAM, the LED works on the same principle as
electroplating. Still, in a very accurate and confined way, the
movement of metallic ions under the influence of an elec-
tric field overcoming the negatively directed double-layer
force (if any is present) and deposition on the cathode in a
guided way is localized electrodeposition [94]. The control
it provides over the process is tremendous, i.e., when the
anode move over the surface of the cathode (temporary or
permanent substrate), the deposition only occurs at the point
of contact. As soon as the anode touches the temporary cath-
ode or substrate, the metallic ions receive the electrons that
convert the ions into metal atoms; these metal atoms deposit
around the contact area and can be controlled in every way
needed [95]. In LED, the surrounding medium where the
reaction occurs is liquid, and the anode movement in that
conductive medium reduces the metallic ions in its vicinity.
Advantages LED has several advantages over other AM
regarding microstructure aspect ratio, its ability to deposit
multiple metals, and its compatibility with several types of
material. LED avoid all sorts of heating-associated defects,
i.e., heat defects, because heat is not used to fuse any atoms;
instead, electrical forces are responsible for the deposition
[94, 95]. This procedure avoids masking a substrate, making
it a mask-less process; masking waste metal and formation
in the desired shape beats the purpose of directed AM and
rapid prototyping [89]. It supports various materials, making
it very cost-effective and low maintenance [94, 95].
Disadvantages The process is not optimum for frequent
change in deposition material, as its medium is liquid,
i.e., every attempt to change the material in the midst of
the deposition process will require the modification of the
respective conductive solution; this process is one step pro-
cess because if paused in between it will lead to inaccuracy
and structural errors. If two metallic ions are present in the
solution medium, their selective deposition is not possible
and neither can the composition be controlled. A nanoscale
deposition is complicated in the case of LED because of the
surrounding liquid medium since the electrode tip and the
contact area cannot reach the nanoscale [90] These are some
factors that create a bottleneck situation for the LED process.
Table 1 Common differences between ECAM and other electrodeposition methods
Process The entire component is made
up of the process
After the operation, the
cathode is removed
The geometry of a cathode can differ
from that of an anode
Deposited area
may be local-
ized
Electroplating No No No No
Electroforming Yes Yes No No
ECAM Yes Yes Yes Yes

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2.7.1.1 Localized Pulsed Electrodeposition (L‑PED) L-PED
method enables direct 3D layer-by-layer printing of com-
plicated copper microstructures for various applications,
including electronics, metamaterials, plasmonics, and sen-
sors. As mentioned above, conventional DC-ED commonly
forms nano- or microcrystalline structures. Metals have
reportedly been produced when DC-ED and stirring are
combined. DC-ED is a subtype of PED. In L-PED, the dep-
osition is limited to a very narrow zone, which is in between
the tip of a nozzle and the desired metal electrolyte periph-
ery zone [86, 91]. The voltage/current between electrodes is
periodically turned on and off using a potentiostat, as seen
in Fig.7 a. It employs a large off-time (Toff) and a small
on-time (Ton). As a result, during brief Ton periods, a high
current density and, as a result, a higher deposition rate can
be achieved, whereas during OFF periods, recovery of the
consumed ions is happened, and this leads to the placement
of a higher ion concentration on cathode surface while there
are ON periods [91, 92, 97].
Advantages (1) L-PED significantly increases the limit-
ing current density by supplying ions in the diffusion layer
during TOFF. (2) Increased layer density and pore elimination
occur in L-PED. (3) Improved layer qualities such ashard-
ness. (4) Galvanic processes are accelerated more rapidly.
(5) L-PED can use an additional nozzle or channel to print
a support structure if necessary for more complex models.
Disadvantages A few drawbacks exist when ECAM is
done in L-PED modes, such as the sole restriction on pat-
tern size in the L-PED method is the travel distance of the
printing steps. Also, a pulse rectifier often costs substantially
more than a DC unit.
2.7.2 Meniscus‑Guided Electrodeposition (MGED)
Principle In ECAM, based on MGED, the principle of
working is also the same as of electroplating except for the
part where it provides a medium-confined deposition, i.e.,
unlike the LED, in MGED, the medium is used as a confined
controlled path which works as a conductive bridge which
connects the anode to the cathode [11, 95]. The conductive
liquid is filled in a syringe, which was pre-attached with
a micro-nozzle and the liquid containing the metallic ions
is allowed to form a meniscus at the tip of the nozzle. The
meniscus then is allowed to touch the substrate, and when
current is passed via the circuit, metallic ions travel to the
surface of the substrate via that meniscus and electrons are
transferred to the metallic ions at the substrate’s surface.
This reaction occurs only in the meniscus vicinity, which can
be directed using automated commands, and the freedom
of movement is much more significant as the surrounding
medium of the meniscus is non-conductive, i.e., air [94, 96,
98].
Advantages The amount of precision offered by MGED is
its key advantageous factor. The more control over the pro-
cess, the more advances and creativity can be employed. The
composition of 3D printing is easily tweakable according to
researchers’ needs [99] and it is easy to form multi-material
structures [100]. The concentration of material at the tip
of the nozzle can also give us control over the magnetic
properties of some materials, for example, Co2+ and Cu2+,
enabling easy manipulation of the metal composition. The
nanoscale deposition is very optimum in the case of MGED,
and refined structures at nanoscale are obtained [94, 95].
Fig. 7 a Direct current versus pulse current respectively, b Schematic representation of Localized electrodeposition AM approach

Metals and Materials International
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Disadvantages One of the drawbacks of MGED is its very
low compatibility towards rough surfaces; it cannot print
conformal structures on rough surfaces without a template,
and even in the case of a template, it deforms the structural
parameters a bit. Another disadvantage is its time-consum-
ing procedure which fundamentally beats the purpose of
rapid prototyping; again, one issue is its limited and selected
compatible materials, most of the work is done on metals
along with its derivatives and conductive polymers, but the
deposition of natural polymers is a far-fetched idea in case
of MGED. This process needs a constant supply of ionic
motifs, which becomes an issue because even a slight change
in ionic concentration can affect the deposition rate[95]. One
functional issue reported in the case of nozzle-based models
is that their ionic solution sometimes blocks the passage
due to the large aggregation of ions at the tip, which is the
reason for the constant stirring of solution in experiments
with small tips [96].
2.7.3 Design andMethodology
As mentioned above, the ECAM technique has two types,
i.e., LED and MGED. An ultra-sharp electrode is submerged
in the electrolyte at the conductive substrate, where deposi-
tion happens in the LED method, as shown in Fig.7b. A
voltage is then applied between the tip of this ultra-sharp
electrode and the conductive substrate to deposit micro
and nanostructures on the conductive substrate [89]. Com-
pared to the meniscus-constrained method, LED demon-
strates higher deposition rates [89, 91, 94, 95]. Lin etal.
[97] observed that voltage and duty cycles have a great
significance on the surface morphologies and the micro/
nanostructures. Higher voltage and larger duty cycles show
more porosity in the structure, and rough surface, whereas
lower voltages and low duty cycles result in more dense and
finished structures. The main drawback of the LED approach
is the inconsistent deposition through localized depletion of
species due to a minimal gap between the electrode tip and
the substrate [94, 95, 101].
In the MGED approach, as represented in Fig.8, a print
head is filled with electrolyte with a suspended electrode
rod inside it act as an anode. With this, a very fine liq-
uid meniscus of electrolyte is established on the tip of
the dispensing nozzle in the proximity of the conduc-
tive substrate acting as a cathode and the film of metal
is deposited on the substrate by reducting metal ions in
solution [102, 103]. However, many challenges are there
in the way of ECAM as it is still in the infancy stage, and
numerous factors are to be researched and studied. The
most significant obstacles in the MGED approach are to
control the crystallization of metal salt out of solution as
a cause of evaporation near the liquid meniscus, which
causes blockage at the tip of the pipette because at the low
humidity conditions (< 35%) [104]. Metal concentration
ions at the meniscus also vary due to evaporation, affecting
the deposited structures’ morphology and density. Current
density is lower for a lower concentration of electrolyte,
which slows down the deposition rate but gives smooth
surface morphology, whereas higher concentration leads to
high current density, in turn, fast deposition rates but gives
rough deposition surface morphology [87]. The meniscus
stability is essential in the uniform deposition of the mate-
rial, which depends on the size of the dispensing nozzle
and the retraction speed. The meniscus has better stability
as the diameter of the dispensing nozzle is decreased, and
the evaporation rate is also lowered [105]. Voltage and
current are one factor that defines the uniform morphology
of the deposited material through electrochemical deposi-
tion 3D printing. Suryavanshi and Yu [106] demonstrate
10 × 10Cu wire array deposition using a glass pipette
aperture of 500nm. A constant voltage of 0.4V is applied
between the anode and cathode, and retraction speed is
250nm s−1 and the ionic current measured is 2nA. This
experiment demonstrated the uniform deposition of Cu
wire of diameter 650nm of the top cylindrical portion with
a base diameter of 950nm with no porosity and consistent
morphology. This study shows that constant voltage and
current accordingly play a role in deciding the morphol-
ogy of the deposited material. Chen etal. [11] deposited
dots and lines using CuSO4 with voltages ranging from
1 to 6V, SEM images were taken for the deposited Cu
dots and bars, and it is observed that of all the voltages
between 1 and 6V, 1V potential gives the most ideal
morphology with the dense structure whereas 2V shows
a faster growth rate of dense structure but the deposition is
more on the centre thus exhibits convex shape, at 3V the
porosity in the structure increases giving the structure of
the dendrite, this is because of the mass transport limita-
tions. At 4V, Cu deposition becomes dendritic but with
fine morphology. This study shows that as go for higher
Fig. 8 Schematic representation of MGED ECAM approach

Metals and Materials International
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voltages, the porosity of the structure is increasing, and a
non-uniform structure is obtained; however, the deposi-
tion rate is increased, but the stability of the meniscus
decreases.
2.7.4 Mathematical Model oftheSystem
Various research groups have carried out mathematical
modelling and simulation studies of ECAM systems to
understand the logic of the process. For example, Kamaraj
and Sundaram [91] developed a mathematical model for
the deposition rate and layer height of the ECAM system,
which showed that the ECAM deposition rate varies from
1 to 3mm s−1 at scan rates of 0.1–2mm s−1. A tool with
a diameter of 250mm. At large inter-electrode distances,
the pulse duty cycle significantly affected the layer height.
Ren etal. [107] have investigated the Localized-ECAM tech-
nique based on FluidFM to present a mathematical model
for pressure-pulse flow in a novel localized fluid transfer
process. They also investigated complex, volumetric, linear,
and large surface structures in AM.
3 Research Limitations, Implications,
andFuture Direction
Since the early 2000s, researchers have been working on
directly printing 3D nanostructures with controllable micro-
structures using the ECAM technology [108]. Only a few
industrial nations have considered leveraging the links
between digitization and manufacturing, theoretically and
experimentally. The United States (US), Germany, the
United Kingdom (UK), Japan, China, and South Korea
[109–112] are some of the emerging players with the highest
number of patents related to this technology. These countries
have responded instantly and are actively engaged in the
deposition at the macro and nanoscale and their characteri-
zation. Some of the innovative works are summarized below:
As shown in Fig.9, the Suryavanshi and Yu [106], reveals
that the vertically aligned individual polycrystalline Cu
nanowire is deposited via the probe-based electrochemi-
cal method, whereas the growth rate is adjusted by applied
potential, temperature, and chemical additives. They found
that the small diameter of Cu wire can be formed using the
nanotube pipette. Similarly, the study of the automated wire-
bonding process to the meniscus-confined 3D electrodeposi-
tion has been well explored for its essential properties and
potential applications in microscale and nanoscale devices
[103].
Fig. 9 a SEM picture of cop-
per wires with 200 to 250nm
diameters and lengths of 10µm.
b SEM image of a copper wire
from an isometric perspective
c copper wire SAED pattern
d Ionic current versus deposi-
tion time graph demonstrat-
ing current fluctuation during
deposition. And e Current
versus voltage graph of a 10µm
long copper wire (reproduced
with permission from ref. [106].
Copyright 2006, AIP Publish-
ing)

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They (Fig.10) described a connected metal wire grown
on the substrate with the nozzle end closed, allowing the
electrolyte meniscus below the nozzle to protrude and sub-
merge the wire termination and the region of contact on
the substrate surface. To accomplish the wire-tie process,
they fanned 20 interconnects out from a central bonding pad
(Fig.10b) and also realized that with (Fig.10b) or with-
out (Fig.10c) multilayered interconnection overlap wiring,
the diameter of the Cu wires was found ~ 800nm with the
shaped bonds was ~ 3mm.
Kim etal. [102] described the manufacturing of nanow-
ire-based dense arrays using a simple and versatile electro-
deposition approach and analyses of variable fabrication
factors like viscosity, evaporation rates, and solvent type.
Chen etal. [11] performed optimization of ECAM printer
deposition parameters like applied potential and electrolyte
concentration and found that they have profound effects on
the morphology of deposited copper. A schematic repre-
sentation of the physical process of copper ion reduction
has been shown in Fig.11, along with the different deposi-
tion potentials ranging from 3 to 6V. It is observed that the
deposition potential increased the resultant surface thickness
finish, as highlighted in the micrographs. Kim etal. [113]
observed the freestanding rGO nanowires have been grown
by an electrochemical 3D printer (Fig.12); they found a
similar function as mentioned above, that the GO meniscus
occurs at the tip of the nozzle, which is reduced via chemi-
cal treatment.
The obtained properties confirmed the manufacture of
components in electrical devices. In another report, Seol
etal. [87] utilized the MGED-ECAM to create freestanding
3D Cu microarchitectures. For the first time, a hollow atomic
force microscope (AFM) scanning probes-based single-step
approach for 3D metal printing was presented by Hirt etal.
[114]. Controlled in-situ growth was visible from the hol-
low cantilever’s real-time deflection. Morsali etal. [104]
investigated the impact of water evaporation from the liquid
meniscus at the tip of the nozzle on the deposition of free-
standing copper microwires in the MGED-ECAM method.
They used multi-physics finite element modelling. Chen
etal. [115] described a multi-metal ECAM that was able
to create bimetallic geometries with temperature-dependent
behaviour, and these printed bimetallic strips have been used
in the LED application, as shown in Fig.13.
They demonstrated that the building up rates are three
orders of magnitude higher in compare with the equivalent
systems, which is due to the improved mass transport char-
acteristics provided by a mechanical electrolyte entrainment
mechanism. Their study outlines the ECAM technique’s
potential and opens the prospect for smarter 3D printed
structures. Ambrosi etal. [100] have shown how electro-
chemistry may be used to drive multi-material printing
Fig. 10 a 20 electrodeposited
interconnects with sub-micro-
metre widths branching out
from a 50μm by 50μm central
pad. Zoom view of first and sec-
ond bonds’ consistent quality. b
multilayered connectivity across
three 5μm high stages and c
overlap interconnects across
5μm height increments (repro-
duced with permission from
ref. [103]. Copyright 2010, The
American Association for the
Advancement of Science)

Metals and Materials International
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selectively by simply choosing the proper deposition poten-
tial. They combined a desktop 3D printer’s 3D patterning
capability with simultaneous control of the electrochemical
process. According to Li etal. [94] ECAM is based on the
conventional mask-based electrodeposition process, which
has been widely used to fabricate large-scale and precised
two-dimensional (2D), and the quasi-three-dimensional
(quasi-3D or 2.5D) metallic micro-sized designs and geom-
etries by inversely replicating photoresist through the masks
etched lithographically. Several ECAM techniques have been
developed to satisfy a wide range of applications, and several
have already been commercialized.
Moreover, Siddiqui etal. [116] used an ECAM technique
to print a copper electrode for nitrate detection. Large-scale
functional structures with complicated geometries cannot be
produced by current ECAM systems, e. g. LED and MGED,
which require further modifications. However, at a higher
deposition rate (19,677μm3 s−1) [11], the ECAM 3D printer
can create complex mono- and multi-metal 3D and 4D struc-
tures. There are some issues with this nascent technology
that must be addressed to improve the system and aid in
future research directions:
• All the reported ECAM printers are currently in the
prototype stage of proof of concept. To fully automate
the system, further work could be done on temperature
and voltage control in software, along with an improved
meniscus stability control [117].
• The simple mechanical procedure of removing the end
product from the substrate can provide a barrier in scal-
ing up and limit component design complexity. Basic
research on ECAM has shown that metallic, bimetallic,
multi-materials, and graphene structures can be fabri-
cated, opening the door to the fabrication of the sacri-
ficial support structures and facilitate the end product
removal the substrate using the well-known chemical
removal techniques. However, this still requires further
investigation in future works.
• Many electrochemical deposition processes can produce
different types of metallic, bimetallic, alloys, multi-mate-
rials, graphene, and polymer. Future research could focus
on the deposition of those materials by ECAM.
• Meniscus stability is difficult when using the meniscus-
controlled method to locate the deposit, as crystal depos-
its from a residual liquid in the meniscus track would
damage the print and result in poor print quality. Other
techniques could be explored to increase the durability of
localized deposition, such as electrohydrodynamic redox
printing, FluidFM electrodeposition, andodified LECD
processes [94].
• The moisture management during the ECAM process
significantly impacts the growth and deposition rate and
geometric and design uniformity of the deposits. Future
developments could include precise humidity control
systems, which have not yet been considered but have a
significant impact.
Fig. 11 a SEM magnification top and side view, b cross-section view of Cu depositions at 3V to 6V potentials (reproduced with permission
from ref. [11]. Copyright 2017, John Wiley and Sons)

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Fig. 12 a Schematic representation of graphene oxide wire manu-
facturing using an aqueous graphene oxide solution and a micropi-
pette (graphene oxide sheet thickness = 0.9 0.1 nm). Field emission
scanning electron microscopic (FE-SEM) picture of rGO wire with
r ≈ 400nm in the circle (bottom right). b Optical sequences depicting
the bending of the reduced graphene oxide nano-arch. FE-SEM pic-
tures of 3D printing of reduced graphene oxide wire structures with
various forms and precise placement are shown in c–g (reproduced
with permission from ref. [113]. Copyright 2014, John Wiley and
Sons)
Fig. 13 A simple electrical circuit activated by the printed bimetallic strip is shown schematically and in pictures (reproduced with permission
from ref. [115], under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY license.)

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Table 2 Different AM technologies, including their underlying principles, advantages, isuues and other common features
Methods Principles Advantages Issues Feature
resolution
(µm)
Typical materials Ref
BJT Binder is fed into the raw mate-
rial powder bed and printed
It is possible to print different
colored parts
Ability to print any material,
which is available in its pow-
der form
Relatively cheaper
As printed parts are very
fragile and have very limited
mechanical properties
Unable to fabricate structural
parts
Post-prosseing in form of cast-
ing or sintering are required
25 Intermetallics, polymers, steel,
solid oxide fuel cells, BaTiO3,
shape memory alloys, mag-
netic materials, and biodegrad-
able alloys
[13–16]
SLA Curing of recurring photo-sensi-
tive resins through an UV-laser
based energy source
1. Ability to print large objects
having surface finish up to
4000 dpi
2. No external support is
required
3. High precision objects can be
printed
Low mechanical strengths
Must needed post-curing
Limited number of materials are
available
50–100 Ceramics hydrogels, Acrylics,
epoxies
[59–62]
Digital light
processing
(DLP)
Similar to SLA but utilizes light
projectors in place of UV
lasers
35–120 Polymers, zirconia, composites,
elastomers
[8, 9]
SLS By atomic diffusion, a laser
beam is used to sinter the
powder particles
Availabilty of a wide spectrum
of materials
Capability to print complex
obects at high deposition rates
Minimal thermal distortion in
polymers
Obects are highly porous and
have poor surface finish
Operational system is very
complex
Very difficult to change the
materials
50–100 Nylon,PLA, polymers, metals,
metal alloys
[72–78]
SLM Similar to SLS, here the high
power laser beam not just
sinter the power particles but
metls them till their fusion
High growth rate
Quality products having excel-
lent mechanical properties
Biomedical application metal
alloys can be printed
High thermal deformation
Instability of molten pool
Slow in fabrication of complex
designs
30–150 Steel, Cp-Ti, cobalt-based
alloys, aluminum, ceramics,
Ti-6Al- 4V
[64–67]
ECAM ECAM produces parts directly
from 3D computer models of
the parts using the electro-
chemical deposition principles
with AM
Simple assembly required
Through-mask plating
Localized electrodeposition
methods
Post-processing is not required
No requirement of heat treat-
ment
Stability issues
Relatively slow in creating 3D
objects
0.050- 10 Metal, metal alloys, bimetal-
lic, conducting polymers,
graphene oxide,
(Metal nanoparticles fabrication
through ECAM process is still
in its early stage)
[11, 89, 90, 94, 95, 97,
99–101, 106, 115,
119]

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This section provided state-of-the-art information on
ECAM, including its fundamental principles, operational
models, process characteristics, benefits and drawbacks,
obstacles, and future direction. While Comparing the other
metal based AM technologies, the ECAM can still produce
low-stress geometries, which are free of voids and cracks
[86, 101, 118–121]. Because of its excellent potential in the
micro- and even nano-metal AM region, ECAM will receive
increased attention. Continued research and development in
this area are expected to produce a helpful nano-metal AM
process.
4 Summary andOutlook
Using a reliable production technique in conjunction with
the low-cost manufacturing process for the fabrication abun-
dant materials would be a viable strategy for the industries
in future. AM is considered one among the most innovative
production technologies to date, and it is gaining widespread
interest owing to its ease of use and versatility in producing
complicated geometrical components. Unlike conventional
manufacturing, such as machining and casting, AM con-
sists of fewer steps and saves material and time in making
any functional component. BJT, FDM, SLA, SLS, SLM,
and ECAM are the five technologies discussed in Table2.
Apart from the general accessibility of AM methods, there
is still space for improvement regarding quality components,
processing issues, and 3D-printed items post-treatment.
Widespread use of AM in business sectors in several cases.
Although the conventional AM techniques had several prob-
lems at nano-level fabrication. To overcome this issue, scien-
tific communities are involved in resolving it by introducing
electrochemistry into the AM system. However, the sub-
stantial quantity of work remains to be entirely understood.
Owing to the nature of the atom-by-atom electrochemical
deposition process, the ECAM process can be scaled down
in size to the nano level. This can be executed both using
molecular dynamics simulation and experimental validation.
Additionally, the process’s scaling-up will be performed to
deposit multiple parts simultaneously, either identical to one
another or with deliberate differences. Tensile testing will be
used to evaluate the output of the Young’s modulus, ultimate
and yield strengths of the part and to validate a strategic
way of achieving isotropy in part using multiple, differently-
oriented electrodes.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the Director, CSIR-
AMPRI, Bhopal, for providing necessary facilities.
Funding This work is supported by the DST (Govt. of India)
Young Scientists and Technologist Scheme (SP/YO/2019/1554).
Netrapal Singh would like to thank the CSIR, New Delhi, India
for their financial support of his fellowship (NET-SRF File No.
31/041(0080)/2019-EMR-I).
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors affirm that they have no known finan-
cial or personal conflicts that would have appeared to impact the re-
search presented in this study.
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