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Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol 2 , No. 3, 2 01 2
1
Adoption of Modern Agricultural Production
Technologie s by Farm Househo lds i n Ghana: Wha t Factors
Influence their Decisions?
Mamudu Abunga Akudugu
1*
Emelia Guo
1
Samuel Kwesi Dadzie
2
1. Centre for Continuing Education and Interdisciplinary Research (CCEIR), University for
Development Studies (UDS), P. O. Box TL 1350, Tamale, Ghana.
2. Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast,
Ghana.
* E-mail of the corresponding author: abungah@gmail.com
Abstract
Low adoption of modern agricultural production technologies amongst farmers in Ghana has been
identified as one of the main reasons for the low agricultural productivity in the country. This paper
examines the factors that influence farm households’ modern agricultural production technology adoption
decisions in Ghana. Household questionnaires were administered to 300 farmers the Bawku West District
of Ghana; and the logit model was estimated to ascertain the factors. The results showed that farm size,
expected benefits from technology adoption, access to credit and extension services are the factors that
significantly influence technology adoption decisions of farm households in the study area. It is concluded
that farm households’ agricultural technology adoption decisions depends on their socio-economic
circumstances and institutional effectiveness. We recommend that policies should be formulated to take
advantage of the factors that positively influence farmers’ adoption of modern agricultural production
technologies and to mitigate the negative ones.
Key words: Agriculture, Farmers, Household, Logit Model, Ghana, Technology Adoption
1. Introduction
The economy of Ghana is basically agrarian. This is against the backdrop that agriculture contributes about
35 percent to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country (ISSER, 2010). Besides, agricultural
activities constitute the main use to which Ghana's land resources are put. The agricultural sector is the
major source of occupation for about 47 percent of the economically active age group of Ghanaians (Wayo,
2002). Despite the fact that the country covers an area of approximately 239 thousand square kilometres of
which agricultural land forms about 57 percent of the total land area, only about 20 percent of this
agricultural land across the different agro-ecological zones is under cultivation. This means that Ghana is
yet, to fully utilise its natural resource base, particularly land for agricultural production.
The country’s ability to fully utilise its agricultural production potential depends on the innovativeness of
actors in the agricultural sector, particularly farmers. The capacity of farmers and actors along the
agricultural value chain to innovate in their production activities is contingent on the availability of
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ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol 2 , No. 3, 2 01 2
2
technology. The Green Revolution in Asia as demonstrated in the empirical literature (see for instance
David and Otsuka, 1994; Datt and Ravallion, 1998a, 1998b; DeJanvry and Sadoulet, 2002; Evenson and
Gollin, 2003; Moser and Barrett, 2003; Minten and Barrett, 2008; among others) is an indication that
improved technology adoption for agricultural transformation and poverty reduction is critical in modern
day agriculture. Technical change in the form of adoption of improved agricultural production technologies
has been reported to have positive impacts on agricultural productivity growth in the developing world (Nin
et al, 2003). Promotion of technical change through the generation of agricultural technologies by research
and their dissemination to end users plays a critical role in boosting agricultural productivity in developing
countries (Mapila, 2011). The availability of modern agricultural production technologies to end users, and
the capacities of end users to adopt and utilise these technologies are also critical. Unfortunately, the
Ghanaian agricultural sector is characterized by low level of technology adoption and this according to
Ghana’s Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2010) contributes to the low agricultural productivity in the
country. This is worrisome given that numerous interventions by successive governments have been
implemented to promote technology adoption among farmers. Unravelling the reasons for low technology
adoption among farmers requires that the factors that influence their decisions to adopt or not to adopt
modern agricultural production technologies be identified.
This paper therefore examines the different factors that influence the adoption of modern agricultural
production technologies among peasant farmers in the savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana. Apart from
the background, the paper presents the literature review in section 2; the methodology employed for the
analysis which includes the survey process and analytical framework in section 3; the results and
discussions in section 4; and finally, the conclusions drawn from the findings and recommendations made
in section 5.
3. Literature Review
Different factors determine the adoption of different agricultural innovations and technologies. Much
empirical adoption literature focuses on farm size as the first and probably the most important determinant
(See for instance Shakya and Flinn, 1985; Harper et al, 1990; Green and Ng'ong'ola, 1993; Adesiina and
Baidu-Forson, 1995; Nkonya et al, 1997; Fernandez-Cornejo, 1998; Baidu-Forson, 1999; Boahene et al,
1999; Doss and Morris, 2001; and Daku, 2002). This is because farm size can affect and in turn be affected
by the other factors influencing adoption. The effect of farm size on adoption could be positive, negative or
neutral. For instance, McNamara et al (1991); Abara and Singh, (1993); Feder et al, (1985);
Fernandez-Cornejo, (1996) and Kasenge (1998) found farm size to be positively related to adoption. On the
other hand, Yaron et al, (1992); and Harper et al (1990) found negative relationship between adoption and
farm size. Interestingly, Mugisa-Mutetikka et al (2000) found that the relationship between farm size and
adoption is a neutral one. With small farms, it has been argued that large fixed costs become a constraint to
technology adoption (Abara and Singh, 1993), especially if the technology requires a substantial amount of
initial set-up cost. In this regard, Feder et al, (1985) noted that only larger farms will adopt these kinds of
innovations. With some technologies, the speed of adoption is different for small- and large- scale farmers
which is critical for policy makers and implementers in Ghana in their pursuance of modernisation of
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol 2 , No. 3, 2 01 2
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agriculture. In Kenya, for example, a study by Gabre-Madhin and Haggblade (2001) found that large
commercial farmers adopted new high-yielding maize varieties more rapidly than smallholders.
Age is an important factor that influences the probability of adoption of new technologies because it is said
to be a primary latent characteristic in adoption decisions. However, there is contention on the direction of
the effect of age on adoption. Age was found to positively influence adoption of sorghum in Burkina Faso
(Adesiina and Baidu-Forson, 1995), IPM on peanuts in Georgia (McNamara et al, 1991), and chemical
control of rice stink bug in Texas (Harper et al, 1990). In contrast, age has been found to be either
negatively correlated with adoption, or not significant in farmers’ adoption decisions. In studies on adoption
of land conservation practices in Niger (Baidu-Forson, 1999), rice in Guinea (Adesiina and Baidu-Forson,
1995), fertilizer in Malawi (Green and Ng'ong'ola, 1993), IPM sweep nets in Texas (Harper et al, 1990),
Hybrid Cocoa in Ghana (Boahene et al, 1999), age was either not significant or was negatively related to
adoption.
A number of studies that sought to establish the effect of education on adoption in most cases relate it to
years of formal schooling (Tjornhom, 1995, Feder and Slade, 1984). Generally, education is thought to
create a favourable mental attitude for the acceptance of new practices, especially information-intensive
and management-intensive practices (Waller et al, 1998; and Caswell et al, 2001). According to Rogers
(1983) and Ehler and Bottrell (2000), technology complexity has a negative effect on adoption and this
could only be dealt with through education. Gender issues in agricultural production and technology
adoption have been investigated for a long time. Most of such studies show mixed evidence regarding the
different roles men and women play in technology adoption. Doss and Morris (2001) in their study on
factors influencing improved maize technology adoption in Ghana, and Overfield and Fleming (2001)
studying coffee production in Papua New Guinea show insignificant effects of gender on adoption.
Furthermore, access to funds including credit is expected to increase the probability of adoption. For
instance, it has been reported that most small scale farmers in the country are unable to afford basic
production technologies such as fertilisers and other agrochemicals resulting in low crop yields due to
poverty and limited access to credit (Ministry of Food and Agriculture 2010).
From the foregoing, it is concluded that though a number of studies have been conducted across the world
on technology adoption, there is dearth of literature on the specific factors that influence modern
agricultural production technologies, especially among small scale farmers in Ghana. This is a serious gap
that must be bridged if the problem of low technology adoption among farmers is to be addressed and
agricultural productivity improved.
3. The Methodology
3.1 The Survey
The study was conducted in the Bawku West District of the Upper East Region of Ghana in 2011.
Multistage sampling was employed in the study. The first stage was purposive selection of the Bawku West
District because of the fact that it has a large population of small scale farmers practicing traditional
farming systems relative to other districts in the country. The district is divided into seven (7) Area/Town
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Councils under the Local Government Structure of Ghana. The second stage was the selection of five (5)
out of the seven (7) Area/Town Councils using simple random sampling. The third stage was to divide each
sampled Area/Town Council into two strata – North and South. The fourth stage was to select one (1)
farming community from each stratum which gave a total of two communities per selected Area/Town
council and ten farming communities in all. The fifth stage was to divide each sampled community into five
(5) strata – North, East, South, West and Central. The sixth and final stage was the selection of three (3)
farm households from each stratum in each sampled community using simple random sampling. This gave
a total of fifteen (15) farm households per selected farming community and one hundred and fifty (150)
farm households in all. In each sampled household, one adult male, preferably the household head and one
adult female, preferably the wife of the household head were interviewed using a household questionnaire.
This gave a sample size of three hundred (i.e. 150 men and 150 women). The pieces of information
gathered from the interviews were the basic inputs for analyses. STATA (Version10) was the software used
for the data analyses.
3.2 The Analytical Framework
Using the logit model, the factors that influence farm households’ decisions to adopt modern agricultural
production technologies were estimated. The use of the logit model for this analysis is consistent with the
literature on adoption (see for instance Griliches, 1957; Lionberger, 1960; Rogers, 1983; Alston et al, 1995)
which describes the process of adoption as taking on a logistic nature. The study used the threshold
decision-making theory proposed by Hill and Kau (1973) and Pindyck and Rubinfeld (1998. The theory
points out the fact that when farmers are faced with a decision to adopt or not to adopt a technology, there is
a reaction threshold which is dependent on a certain set of factors. As such, at a certain value of stimulus
below the threshold, no adoption is observed while at the critical threshold value, a reaction is stimulated.
Such phenomena are generally modeled using the relationship:
(1)
Where Y
i
is equal to one (1) when a choice is made to adopt and zero (0) otherwise; this means:
Y
i
= 1 if X
i
is greater than or equal to a critical value, X
*
and
Y
i
= 0 if X
i
is less than a critical value, X
*
.
Note that X
*
represents the combined effects of the independent variables ( ) at the threshold level.
Equation 1 represents a binary choice model involving the estimation of the probability of adoption of a
given technology (Y) as a function of independent variables (X). Mathematically, this is represented as:
(2)
(3)
Where Y
i
is the observed response for the i
th
observation of the response variable, Y. This means that Y
i
=
1 for an adopter (i.e. farmers who adopt modern agricultural production technologies) and Y
i
= 0 for a
non-adopter (i.e. farmers who do not adopt modern agricultural production technologies). X
i
is a set of
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independent variables such as farm size among others, associated with the i
th
individual, which determine
the probability of adoption, (P). The function, F may take the form of a normal, logistic or probability
function. The logit model uses a logistic cumulative distributive function to estimate, P as follows (Pindyck
and Rubinfeld, 1998):
(4)
(5)
According to Greene (2008), the probability model is a regression of the conditional expectation of Y on X
giving:
(6)
Since the model is non-linear, the parameters are not necessarily the marginal effects of the various
independent variables. The relative effect of each of the independent variables on the probability of
adoption is obtained by differentiating equation (6) with respect to X
ij
resulting in equation (7) (Greene,
2008):
(7)
The maximum likelihood method was used to estimate the parameters.
The implication for applying the logit model in this paper is that, the farmer would decide to adopt modern
agricultural production technologies at a given point in time when the combined effects of certain factors
exceed the inherent resistance to change in him/her. The preference for the probability model (logit) to the
conventional linear regression models, in analysing the factors influencing the decisions of farm
households’ to adopt modern agricultural production technologies is based on the fact that, the parameter
estimates from the former are asymptotically consistent and efficient. The estimation procedure employed
also resolves the problem of heteroscedasticity and constrains the conditional probability of making the
decision to adopt technology to lie between zero (0) and one (1). Logit model is chosen over probit model
in this paper primarily because of its mathematical convenience and simplicity (Greene, 2008) and the fact
that it has been applied in similar studies by Green and Ng'ong'ola (1993); Kato (2000); Boahene et al.
(1999); Nkonya et al. (1997); Shakya and Flinn (1985); Feder et al. (1985); and Rogers (1995).
The empirical model for the logit model estimation is specified as follows:
(8)
Where X
i
is the combined effects of X explanatory variables that promote or prevent farmers’ decision to
adopt modern agricultural production technologies.
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The log-odds in favour of farm households’ decision to adopt modern agricultural production
technologies
X
1
...X
i
are factors that promote or prevent farm households’ from adopting modern agricultural production
technologies and are defined as follows: X
1
= Farm size in hectares; X
2
= Cost of technology, dummy (1 =
Affordable; 0 = Otherwise); X
3
= Level of expected benefits, dummy (1 = High expected benefits; 0 =
Otherwise); X
4
= Has off-farm income generating activities, dummy (1 = Yes; 0 = Otherwise); X
5
= Age of
respondent in years; X
6
= Maximum level of education in the household measured as years of formal
schooling; X
7
= Gender of respondent, dummy (1 = Man; 0 = Otherwise); X
8
= Access to credit, dummy (1
= Has access to credit; 0 = Otherwise); X
9
= Access to extension services, dummy (1 = Has access to
extension; 0 = Otherwise).
4. Results and Discussions
4.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
The study results revealed that majority (93%) of farm household heads and their partners in the Bawku
West District of the Upper East Region of Ghana are between 18 and 60 years of age and are presumed to
be driving the households’ decision making processes on the adoption of modern agricultural production
technologies (Table 1). The implication of this finding is that most farm households in the district belong to
the economically active age group and their technology adoption behaviours are critical for the
improvement of agricultural productivity and farm household welfare in the district. Further, 50 percent of
the respondents were men with the remaining 50 percent of them being women. This implies that, the
outcome of the study represents the collective views, concerns and opinions of both men and women with
regards to the adoption of modern agricultural production technologies. Majority of the respondents (52%)
did not have any form of formal education. Besides, 30 percent of the respondents had basic education and
18 percent of them post-basic education (Table 1). This means that the findings are representative of both
literate and illiterate residents of the Bawku West District of the Upper East Region of Ghana. It also
implies that people with appreciable level of formal education seek employment in the non-farm economy.
4.2 Factors Influencing Farm Households’ Modern Agricultural Production Technologies Adoption
The factors influencing farm households’ adoption of modern agricultural production technologies using
the logit model were grouped into three main categories namely economic, social and institutional factors.
The economic factors included farm size, cost of adoption, access to credit, expected benefits from the
adoption and the off-farm income generation activities that farm households engage in. The social factors
included the age of farmers, the level of education and the gender. The institutional factors included access
to extension services. The logit model estimation gave a Pseudo R
2
of 0.6785 (Table 2) which implies that
the variables included in the model are able to explain about 68 percent of the probability of farm
households’ decisions to adopt or not to adopt modern agricultural production technologies. The
Log-likelihood Ratio (LR) was also found to be significant at the 1 percent level (Table 2). This means that
all the explanatory variables included in the model jointly influence farmers’ probability of adoption of
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ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
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modern agricultural production technologies. The model results also gave a predicted probability of
adoption to be of 0.6956. This means that there is about 70 percent probability that farm households in the
Bawku West district of the Upper East Region of Ghana are willing to adopt modern agricultural
production technologies provided some social, economic and institutional bottlenecks that hinder
technology adoption are addressed. Given the foregoing goodness of fit measures, it is concluded the logit
model employed had integrity and hence appropriate.
Farm size was found to have a positive relationship with the probability of adoption of modern agricultural
production technologies (Table 2). It was found to be significant at the 1 percent level. This finding is
consistent with the literature that large scale farmers are more inclined to adopting new technologies than
small scale farmers (see for example McNamara et al, 1991; Abara and Singh, 1993; Feder et al, 1985;
Fernandez-Cornejo, 1996; and Kasenge, 1998). This presents a serious challenge to policy makers and
implementers in promoting the adoption of modern agricultural production technologies in the study area.
This is because majority of farm households in the district operate on small scale with average farm sizes
hardly exceeding five hectares.
The cost of modern agricultural production technologies was found to be negatively related to the
probability of adoption (Table 2). It was however, found to be insignificant. The finding is consistent with
Caswell et al (2001) who noted in their study that the decision to adopt a new technology presents a shift in
farmers’ investment options. This means that if the technology is costly to the farmer, there is low
probability that he or she will adopt it. Besides, the fear of losing livelihoods is a social cost that farmers
consider in their adoption decisions. For instance, a farmer whose main source of livelihood is maize
farming will hesitate to replace this crop with improved groundnut cultivation for the fear that if the crop
fails his or her livelihood will be greatly affected. In effect, as note by Oster and Morehart (1999),
technologies that are capital-intensive are only affordable by wealthier farmers and hence the adoption of
such technologies is limited to larger farmers who have the wealth (Khanna, 2001). This explains why there
is low adoption of modern agricultural production technologies in the study area and Ghana as a whole
because most of the technologies are not affordable to farm households most of who are small scale
operators. Efforts to encourage the adoption of modern agricultural production technologies must focus on
coming out with technologies that are affordable especially to poor rural dwellers about 90 percent of who
depend on agriculture for their livelihoods.
The expected benefit to be derived from adopting a given technology was found to be positively related to
the probability of adoption (Table 2). This was found to be significant at the 10 percent level. This implies
that if farmers expect benefits from adopting a modern agricultural production technology to be higher than
their current methods of farming, they are most likely to adopt it and the vice versa. This is consistent with
Abara and Singh (1993) who observed that without a significant difference in outcomes between two
options, and in the returns from alternative and conventional practices, it is less likely that farmers,
especially small-scale farmers will adopt the new practice. Off-farm activities though insignificant were
found to have a negative relationship with the probability of adoption. This implies that the higher the
off-farm activities, the lower their probability of adoption of modern agricultural production technologies.
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This is in line with the observation made by Mugisa-Mutetikka et al (2000) that practices that heavily draw
on farmers’ leisure time may inhibit their adoption of on-farm technologies. Also, the age of farmer
assumed a quadratic function which implies that farmers’ rate of adoption is low at both the younger and
older ages (Table 2). It was found to be significant at the 10 percent level. At the younger age, farmers may
not be able to adopt modern agricultural production technologies, especially capital intensive ones because
of the fact that they might not have adequate resources to do so. At an older age, farmers’ volume of
economic activities reduced hence they may be unable to pay for technologies. Besides, older farmers have
accumulated years of experience in farming through experimentation and observations and may find it
difficult to leave such experiences for new technologies. In addition, farmers’ perception that technology
development and the subsequent benefits, require a lot of time to realize, can reduce their interest in the
new technology because of farmers’ advanced age, and the possibility of not living long enough to enjoy it
(Caswell et al, 2001; Khanna, 2001). Elderly farmers often have different goals other than income
maximization, in which case, they will not be expected to adopt an income –enhancing technology
(Tjornhom, 1995).
The maximum level of education within the farm household was found to have a positive relationship with
the probability of adoption and significant at 1 percent level (Table 2). The implication of this is that farm
households with well educated members are more likely to adopt modern agricultural production
technologies than those without. This is because educated members even bring home modern agricultural
production technologies, especially improved crop varieties and livestock breeds for relatives to adopt. This
is consistent with the literature that education creates a favourable mental attitude for the acceptance of new
practices especially of information-intensive and management-intensive practices (Waller et al, 1998;
Caswell et al, 2001). Besides, gender was found to be positively related to the adoption of modern
agricultural production technologies by farm households (Table 2). This was found to be significant at 1
percent level. This means that male farmers are more likely to adopt modern agricultural production
technologies their female counterparts. The reason for this is that men are the people who make production
decisions in the study area and also control productive resources such as land, labour and capital which are
critical for the adoption of new technologies. This finding contradicts those of Doss and Morris (2001) who
in their study on factors influencing improved maize technology adoption in Ghana, and Overfield and
Fleming (2001) studying coffee production in Papua New Guinea show insignificant effects of gender on
adoption. Access to credit was found to have a positive relationship with the probability of adoption. This
was found to be significant at the 1 percent level (Table 2). This means that credit is an important
facilitating factor of agricultural production technology adoption. This is consistent with the view that high
poverty levels among farmers and lack of access to credit make it almost impossible for them to afford
technologies (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2010). This is particularly so given that most modern
technologies are expensive which makes it difficult for many farmers, especially those in rural areas where
poverty is endemic to be able to acquire and utilise them without assistance in the form of supply of
affordable credit and other financial services (Benin et al, 2009).
Access to extension services is critical in promoting adoption of modern agricultural production
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technologies because it can counter balance the negative effect of lack of years of formal education in the
overall decision to adopt some technologies (Yaron et al, 1992). Access to extensions services therefore
creates the platform for acquisition of the relevant information that promotes technology adoption. Access
to information through extension services reduces the uncertainty about a technology’s performance hence
may change individual’s assessment from purely subjective to objective over time thereby facilitating
adoption. Related to this is access to extension services which was also found to be positively related to the
adoption of modern agricultural production technologies and was found to be significant at 10 percent level.
This means that farm households are more likely to adopt modern agricultural production technologies if
they have access to extension services.
5. Conclusion
The factors that influence the adoption of modern agricultural production technologies are broadly
categorised into economic factors, social factors and institutional factors. The economic factors include
farm size, cost of technology or modernization, expected benefits from adoption of the technology, and
off-farm activities. Farm size and the expected benefits are the only significant economic factors that
influence the decisions of farm households in the Bawku West District of the Upper East Region of Ghana
to adopt modern agricultural production technologies. The social factors that influence probability of
adoption of modern agricultural production technologies by farm households include age, level of
education and gender. All these social factors were found to significantly influence the decisions of farm
households in the Bawku West District of the Upper East Region of Ghana to adopt modern agricultural
production technologies. Institutional factors including access to information and extension services were
found to significantly influence farm households’ probability of adopting modern agricultural production
technologies in the Upper East Region of Ghana.
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Table 1: S oc io- demo gra ph ic charact eri stic s of re spo ndents
Age Frequency Percentage (%)
18-45 198 66
46-60 82 27
Greater than 60 20 7
Tota l 300 100
Gender Frequency Percentage (%)
Male 150 50
Female 150 50
Tota l 300 100
Education Frequency Percentage (%)
No formal 156 52
Basic 90 30
Post-basic 54 18
Tota l 300 100
Source: Field Survey Data, 2011
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Table 2: Factors influencing technology adoption by farm households in Ghana
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of observations = 300; LR Chi Square (10) = 180.87; Prob.> Chi
2
= 0.0000; Log likelihood = -42.8544; Pseudo R
2
=
0.6785; Predicted Prob. (Adoption) = 0.6956
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Variable Coefficient Std. Err. z P>|z| dy/dx
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Farm size 1.7326 .7007 2.47 0.013 .3576
Cost of technology -0.7862 .6181 -1.27 0.203 -.1728
Expected benefits 1.1911 .6673 1.78 0.074 .2329
Off-farm activities -0.2459 .6316 -0.39 0.697 -.0516
Age of farmer -0.2435 .1411 -1.73 0.084 -.0516
Age of farmer squared 0.0023 .0012 1.81 0.070 .0005
Educational level of farmer 3.3817 .8153 4.15 0.000 .6837
Gender of farmer 1.7923 .6344 2.83 0.005 .3952
Access to information 2.3523 .6588 3.57 0.000 .4740
Extension services 1.3785 .8390 1.64 0.100 .3086
Constant 0.2723 3.7348 0.07 0.942 -
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Field Survey Data, 2011
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