The Use of Biosand Filter as an Alternative for Safe Rural Water Supply

Abstract

Adequate and easily accessible water that meets safety standards is paramount for safeguarding public health, regardless of its intended use. However, ensuring access to a reliable and safe water supply remains a considerable challenge, particularly in developing countries, especially within rural regions. In these areas, individuals often source water from unprotected reservoirs and utilize it without proper treatment, exposing themselves to significant health hazards. To address this pressing issue, the study employed the Biosand Water Filter (BSF) as a solution to examine its effectiveness in providing portable and safe water. The study involved treating water samples from three distinct sources-Stream, Hand Dug Well, and Borehole-using three different BSF systems. The subsequent assessment encompassed the analysis of both untreated and treated water samples using established standard methods. The results of the study are compelling. Notably, there was a complete removal of Escherichia coli from all three water sources. Additionally, the elimination rate of total coliforms was 100% in the Borehole water source and approximately 97% and 98.21% in the Stream and Hand Dug Well sources, respectively. Further analyses revealed a complete removal of various particulate matters, including color, turbidity, and iron, from the Borehole water source. Conversely, the average percentage removal of color was 97.23% and 91.05% for the Stream and Hand Dug Well sources, respectively, while turbidity showed removal rates of 96.45% and 98.85%, respectively. Nevertheless, the study noted an increase in the concentration of certain parameters. The average pH values experienced an increment of 6.19%, 11.31%, and 11.58% for the Stream, Hand Dug Well, and Borehole sources, respectively. Similarly, the average electrical conductivity (EC) values displayed increments of 68.71%, 43.64%, and 70.41% for the Stream, Hand Dug Well, and Borehole sources, respectively. The average total dissolved solids (TDS) values also saw increases of 69.01%, 43.52%, and 52.15% for the Stream, Hand Dug Well, and Borehole sources, respectively. In contrast, average total alkalinity values showed increments of 71.69%, 40.22%, and 52.15% for the Stream, Hand Dug Well, and Borehole sources, respectively. These increases in parameter concentrations could potentially offer health benefits to individuals with gastrointestinal conditions within the targeted population. Based on the study's findings, the Biosand Water Filter (BSF) emerges as a promising alternative for providing safe water supply within rural areas. The study underscores the potential of this solution to effectively mitigate health risks associated with untreated water, especially in regions where access to clean water remains a challenge.

Full text

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION 11(3), SEPTEMBER, 2023
ISSN: 2277-0011; Journal homepage: www.atbuftejoste.net
*Corresponding author: Ahmed Salisu Hassan
hassanahmed6691@gmail.com
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department, national Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
© 2022 Faculty of Technology Education, ATBU Bauchi. All rights reserved
1
The Use of Biosand Filter as an Alternative for Safe Rural Water Supply
Ahmed Salisu Hassan, Dogara Salamatu Bashir
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department,
National Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
ABSTRACT
Adequate and easily accessible water that meets safety standards is
paramount for safeguarding public health, regardless of its intended use.
However, ensuring access to a reliable and safe water supply remains a
considerable challenge, particularly in developing countries, especially
within rural regions. In these areas, individuals often source water from
unprotected reservoirs and utilize it without proper treatment, exposing
themselves to significant health hazards. To address this pressing issue,
the study employed the Biosand Water Filter (BSF) as a solution to
examine its effectiveness in providing portable and safe water. The study
involved treating water samples from three distinct sources—Stream,
Hand Dug Well, and Borehole—using three different BSF systems. The
subsequent assessment encompassed the analysis of both untreated
and treated water samples using established standard methods. The
results of the study are compelling. Notably, there was a complete
removal of Escherichia coli from all three water sources. Additionally, the
elimination rate of total coliforms was 100% in the Borehole water source
and approximately 97% and 98.21% in the Stream and Hand Dug Well
sources, respectively. Further analyses revealed a complete removal of
various particulate matters, including color, turbidity, and iron, from the
Borehole water source. Conversely, the average percentage removal of
color was 97.23% and 91.05% for the Stream and Hand Dug Well
sources, respectively, while turbidity showed removal rates of 96.45%
and 98.85%, respectively. Nevertheless, the study noted an increase in
the concentration of certain parameters. The average pH values
experienced an increment of 6.19%, 11.31%, and 11.58% for the Stream,
Hand Dug Well, and Borehole sources, respectively. Similarly, the
average electrical conductivity (EC) values displayed increments of
68.71%, 43.64%, and 70.41% for the Stream, Hand Dug Well, and
Borehole sources, respectively. The average total dissolved solids (TDS)
values also saw increases of 69.01%, 43.52%, and 52.15% for the
Stream, Hand Dug Well, and Borehole sources, respectively. In contrast,
average total alkalinity values showed increments of 71.69%, 40.22%,
and 52.15% for the Stream, Hand Dug Well, and Borehole sources,
respectively. These increases in parameter concentrations could
potentially offer health benefits to individuals with gastrointestinal
conditions within the targeted population. Based on the study's findings,
the Biosand Water Filter (BSF) emerges as a promising alternative for
providing safe water supply within rural areas. The study underscores the
potential of this solution to effectively mitigate health risks associated with
untreated water, especially in regions where access to clean water
remains a challenge.
INTRODUCTION
The significance of access to safe
water and effective sanitation is fundamental for
any developmental transformation and
contributed to the overall achievement of the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and is
requisite for the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs). Water Quality is a requisite and
ARTICLE INFO
Article History
Received: June, 2023
Received in revised form: August, 2023
Accepted: August, 2023
Published online: September, 2023
KEYWORDS
Slow sand filter, Biosand Filter (BSF), rural
water supply, access to safely managed
water, water quality parameters, raw water
sources, treatment efficiency, and rural
context.

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION 11(3), SEPTEMBER, 2023
ISSN: 2277-0011; Journal homepage: www.atbuftejoste.net
*Corresponding author: Ahmed Salisu Hassan
hassanahmed6691@gmail.com
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department, national Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
© 2022 Faculty of Technology Education, ATBU Bauchi. All rights reserved
2
vital to the social, health and economic
wellbeing of people. The social, health and
economic wellbeing of people are undoubtedly
dominant factors that determine food security.
Improved water supply, hygiene and sanitation
can boost countries’ economic growth and
contribute greatly to poverty reduction (WHO,
2023). Furthermore, the author reported that
globally 368 million people take water from
unprotected wells and springs and 122 million
people collect untreated surface water from
lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. Water supply
infrastructures are poorly developed or
maintained, or are non-existing in most rural
areas of developing countries (Mangoua-Allali
et al, 2012). Olawale, et al. (2020) stated that
Sub-saharan African countries has inadequate
sustainable water supply systems, due to
widespread water supply infrastructural
mismanagement and continuous breakdowns,
eventually leading to scarcity of safe water. The
author further said, millions of Nigerians
particularly those in rural areas, depends on
unprotected surface water sources for drinking
and domestic use due to inadequate
sustainable safe water sources. Sustainable
and equitable access to safe drinking water
remains a challenge in Nigeria, with up to 87%
(179 million) of Nigerians do not have access to
safely managed drinking water services (FMWR
et al, 2021). Access to safely managed drinking
water supply services remains inadequate in the
North, with the Northeast having the lowest
access at 2%, while the Southwest has the
highest at 29%. Access for the rural population
is at 6%, about four times lower than access
levels for the urban population at 27%. There
are also notable differences in access between
the richest and poorest households. The
poorest households has only 2% access and
are about 18 times less likely to have access to
safely managed water services than the richest
households with 37% access.
Typically, people in rural areas collect
water from any available source and store in a
vessel at home for domestic use including
drinking, without treatment and protection from
further contamination (Guchi, 2015). This
attitude subject rural populations to great risk of
ingesting unclean water contaminated with
microbes from human and/or animal faeces
(Guchi et al, 2014). Hence the need of
appropriate technology for remedial action
become imperative. Point-of –use (PoU) water
treatment and safe storage technologies at the
household level offer a solution to consuming
and usage of unsafe water. PoU technologies
allows people with access to only unsafe water
sources to treat water by themselves at their
convenience (Stauber et al. 2006). Several PoU
technologies are used to improve the quality of
water, which includes filtration, distillation,
chemical disinfection, reverse osmosis, sunlight
disinfection and use of water purifiers (Nair &
Mansoor, 2014); Hogarh, et al., (2015). Any of
these PoU technologies can decrease the risks
of water borne diseases transmission (Andreoli
& Sabogal-Paz, 2020).
Filtration process by using fine sand
with low filtration rate removes the turbidity by
physical and biological processes (Fitriani et al.
2014). The most effective removal compartment
of a slow sand filter (SSF) system is the
Schmutzdecke (‘dirt cover’ in German), a
biofilm-like layer developing on top of the sand
filter bed in which more than 90% of pathogen
indicator bacteria and coliphages are retained
(Pfannes, et al., 2015). Biosand Filter (BSF) as
the most promising PoU filtration technology, is
a household scale, intermittently operated SSF.
A single BSF integrates several of treatment
technologies (sedimentation, filtration and
disinfection) into a single unit. This integration
improves and provide the best water quality
possible within an affordable and sustainable
means (Janjaroen, 2016). The BSF is an
adaptation of the traditional slow sand filter,
which can be used for community water
treatment. Pathogens and suspended solids are
removed through a combination of biological
and physical processes that take place in the
biolayer and within the sand layer. These
processes include: mechanical trapping;
predation; adsorption and; natural death
(CAWST, 2012a). BSF is one of the commonly
used household purification technology in rural
areas of developing countries, currently used in
60 countries (CAWST, 2012b). Health impact
studies in different countries have shown that
the use of BSF results in 20–50% reduction in
diarrhoeal diseases (Nair, et al., 2014). BSF is
suitable for use in rural areas because it is
cheap to construct and maintain, requires no
energy and/or chemical to operate and gives
visibly clear treated water (Mahlangu, et al.,
2011); O'connell, et al., (2023). A water

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION 11(3), SEPTEMBER, 2023
ISSN: 2277-0011; Journal homepage: www.atbuftejoste.net
*Corresponding author: Ahmed Salisu Hassan
hassanahmed6691@gmail.com
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department, national Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
© 2022 Faculty of Technology Education, ATBU Bauchi. All rights reserved
3
treatment system capable of removing
contaminants from water in a single filtration
process, cheap and easy to maintain is
considered an alternative for providing safe
clean water in rural areas. Hence in Nigeria, the
indispensable benefits of BSF might make it
appropriate technology for rural water supply
and boosting of access to safe drinking water
coverage.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Installation and Operation of Biosand Filter
Installation and operations of the BSF
were conducted according to the
manufacturer’s specification. Three sets of BSF
systems were installed for the study.
Indigenously developed BSF manufactured by
GEEPEE Industries Ltd with the support of
CAWST was used for the study. The filter
container (plastic cylinder) was cleaned and
clear water was added to check for leakage. The
drainage gravel, separation gravel and filter
media were respectively poured into the filter
container. Addition of 20 litres clean water
between placements was carried out to ensure
layer uniformity, as well as the gravels and the
BSF were well submerged in water. Filter was
recharged with sample water to be treated on
daily basis for 25 days, for full biofilm
development. After full formation of the biofilm,
the three installed BSF systems were operated
with Mando – Rigasa stream water source,
Farin gida community hand dug well water
source and NWRI main borehole water source
respectively on daily basis. After each BSF
operation, raw and treated water were analysed
daily for each water source and results were
recorded.
Figure 1 – 6: Mando – Rigasa stream, Farin gida hand dug well and NWRI main Borehole sampling site
and corresponding BSF system respectively.
Raw and Treated Sample Analyses
Raw and treated water samples were
analysed for physical, chemical and
microbiological parameters related to the BSF
treatment function and values obtained were
compared with the Nigerian Standards for
Drinking Water Quality (NIS-554-2015) and
World Health Organization maximum
permissible guidelines (WHO, 2012). The
analytical methods adopted were based on
international acceptable methods and analytical
application principles. The principles employed
were all based on approved standard methods
for water and wastewater examination (APHA-
AWWA-WEF, 2017) and strictly adhered to.
Summary of procedure used for testing each of
the parameter is given below.
Acidity and Alkalinity Intensity (pH) analysis
was conducted by APHA 4500-H+ B
(Electrometric using glass electrodes Micro 800
Multi-parameter meter). The electrode was
dipped into the water sample at about 2 – 3cm,
stirred once and reading allowed to stabilize.
Calibration of the pH meter was conducted at
three points using pH 4, 7 and 10 standard
solutions before sample analysis.

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION 11(3), SEPTEMBER, 2023
ISSN: 2277-0011; Journal homepage: www.atbuftejoste.net
*Corresponding author: Ahmed Salisu Hassan
hassanahmed6691@gmail.com
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department, national Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
© 2022 Faculty of Technology Education, ATBU Bauchi. All rights reserved
4
Electrical Conductivity and Total Dissolved
Solids were analysed by APHA 2510 B
(Electrometric using glass electrodes Micro 800
Multi-parameter meter). The Conductivity probe
measures both conductivity and Total dissolved
solids (TDS) of sample. The testing were
conducted by submerging the probe into the
water sample in a plastic beaker to minimize any
electromagnetic interference, stirred once and
reading allowed to stabilize. Calibration of the
EC/TDS meter was conducted on a daily basis
using compatible EC standard solution
(12.88mS/cm).
Colour was measured by APHA 2120 B (Visual
Comparison) using Lovibond comparator with
permanent colour disc ranging from 0 to 50
scales. Two sample cells was filled to the mark
with distilled water and sample water
respectively and appropriately placed in the
Lovibond comparator. Calibrated colour disc
was then inserted and rotated to match the
colour.
Turbidity was measured by APHA 2130 B
(Electrometric using Palintest Turbimeter Plus).
The Palintest Turbimeter Plus operates
according to ISO 7027 method for
measurement of turbidity, utilizing two NIR light
sources at 860nm as part of the QuadoptiXT M
optical system. Calibration of the turbidity meter
was conducted using Cal 1: 800NTU; followed
by Cal 2: 100NTU; then Cal 3: 20NTU and; Cal
4: 0.02NTU standards.
Total Alkalinity was measured by APHA 2320
B (pH Titration) using 0.01moldm- 3 H2SO4,
methyl orange and pH meter. At the endpoint
titration colour changes from yellow to faint pink
and the total alkalinity was computed using
equation 1.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 
  ... (1)
Where A = mL 0.01moldm-3 H2SO4
Iron was measured by APHA 3500-Fe B
(colorimetric) using Wagtech PTW10010
Potalab + (C) XA Photometer 7500 BT.
Photometer was calibrated with blank water
sample to be tested. The test was carried out by
adding iron tablet (alkaline thioglycolate) to
10ml sample of water sample. The content was
allowed to stand for 1minutes. The colour
produced is directly proportional to the iron
concentration and measured using the
photometer.
Escherichia coli and Total Coliforms were
determined by APHA 9222 (Membrane
filtration). The number of indicator organisms of
microbial pathogens (Escherichia Coli and Total
Coliforms) in the water samples were
aseptically appropriately determined by filtering
100ml of each sample through membrane filter,
inoculated and incubated at 44.5oC and 37oC for
Escherichia coli and total coliforms respectively.
Plates which had characteristic colonies after
24hours incubation in each case were selected.
Colonies were counted and the results
expressed in term of colony forming unit present
in 100mL (cfu/100mL) of water sample. The
Escherichia coli and total coliforms content was
calculated using equation 2.
cfu/100ml = 
   … (2)
Where A = Number of colonies counted
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Assessment of drinking water quality
in a given catchment may be conducted under
a wide variety of conditions and at varying
spatial scales and levels (Oliver et al, 2016).
The safety and wholesomeness of water can
only be known and guaranteed if it’s properly
tested. Comparison of results obtained with the
standards for physical, chemical and
microbiological characteristics of water
developed by WHO and NSDWQ ascertains
margin of safety. The BSF efficiency
assessment through system operation and
water quality testing using various water
sources represents one of the various scientific
approaches towards unraveling safe water
supply in rural areas.
Treatment Efficiency Assessment
Table 1 – 3 shows results obtained for
both the raw sources and their equivalent
treated water. Table 4 – 6 shows type and
pattern of the BSF effects on water quality
parameters. Comparative analysis between the
raw water and the treated water characteristics
signifies that, parameters with particulate origin
(i.e. colour, turbidity, Escherichia coli and total
coliforms) are effectively mitigated or removed.
Whilst parameters such pH, EC, TDS and total

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION 11(3), SEPTEMBER, 2023
ISSN: 2277-0011; Journal homepage: www.atbuftejoste.net
*Corresponding author: Ahmed Salisu Hassan
hassanahmed6691@gmail.com
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department, national Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
© 2022 Faculty of Technology Education, ATBU Bauchi. All rights reserved
5
alkalinity were increased in concentration and
their increase reduces with elution.
Pathogens from feacal origin were
100% removed by the BSF system, as indicated
by 100% average removal of Escherichia Coli,
for both the stream, hand dug well and borehole
water sources. However, pathogens from
environmental origin were also 100% removed
except for stream and hand dug well water
sources, whose removal was 97% and 98.21%
respectively. Though the environmental
pathogens were not 100% removed, but all their
values were within the standard and guidelines
recommended by NSDWQ and WHO.
Furthermore they are also above confidence
level.
Other particulate matters whose
consequent effect is aesthetic and objectionable
characteristic such as colour, turbidity and iron
(note that iron will be in suspension due to
oxidation from iron (II) to iron (III)) are efficiently
mitigated by the BSF system for all the raw
water sources. All the parameters were 100%
mitigated for borehole water source. However,
average mitigation for colour is 97.23% and
91.05% for the stream and hand dug well water
sources respectively. Furthermore, the average
mitigation for turbidity is 96.45% and 98.85% for
the stream and hand dug well water sources
respectively. Both the parameters values were
within the standard and guidelines
recommended by NSDWQ and WHO.
Other Effects of BSF System
The BSF was observed to increases
the concentration of pH, EC, TDS and alkalinity
among parameters investigated, but the
percentage intensification reduces with number
of elution as shown in table 4 – 6. Average
values 6.19%, 11.31% and 11.58% for pH were
observed for the stream, hand dug well and
borehole water sources respectively. Whilst
average values 68.71%, 43.64% and 70.41%
for degree of mineralization (EC) were observed
for the stream, hand dug well and borehole
water sources respectively. Furthermore,
average values 69.01%, 43.52%, and 52.15%
for dissolution of mineral salts (TDS) were
observed for the stream, hand dug well and
borehole water sources respectively.
Conversely, average values 71.69%, 40.22%
and 52.15% for intensity of alkalization were
observed for the stream, hand dug well and
borehole water sources respectively. Though
the rise in concentration of these parameters,
but all the parameters values were observed to
be within the standard and guidelines
recommended by NSDWQ and WHO. The
intensifications of the parameters concentration
might considered as health benefits, especially
for gastrointestinal patient among the teaming
population.

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION 11(3), SEPTEMBER, 2023
ISSN: 2277-0011; Journal homepage: www.atbuftejoste.net
*Corresponding author: Ahmed Salisu Hassan
hassanahmed6691@gmail.com
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department, national Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
© 2022 Faculty of Technology Education, ATBU Bauchi. All rights reserved 6
Table 1: Mando-Rigasa Stream Water Characteristics
DATE
RAW WATER
TREATED WATER
pH
EC
(μS/cm)
TDS
(mg/L)
Colour
(TUC
)
Turb.
(NTU)
T. Alk.
(mg/L)
Iron
(mg/L)
E. coli
T.C.
pH
EC
(μS/cm)
TDS
(mg/L)
Colour
(TUC)
Turb.
(NTU)
T. Alk.
(mg/L)
Iron
(mg/L)
E. Coli
TC
(
cfu/100ml)
(cfu/100ml)
13/03/2023
7.2
79.8
39.7
146
50
211
0.05
21
148
7.7
174.4
87.2
5
2
440
0.00
0
5
14/03/2023
7.4
91.1
45.4
120
41
260
0.06
17
156
7.9
160.9
80.7
4
2
455
0.00
0
8
15/03/2023
7.2
100.2
50.0
101
34
269
0.06
69
250
7.6
144
71.7
2
1
430
0.00
0
4
16/03/2023
7.3
87.6
44.0
125
42
272
0.07
70
257
7.7
119.1
59.5
3
1
390
0.00
0
5
NSDWQ
6.5
-
8.5
1,000
500
15
5
-
0.3
0
10
WHO MPL
6.5
-
8.5
1,000
500
15
5
500
0.3
0
10
Table 2: Farin gida Hand dug Well Water Characteristics
DATE
RAW WATER
TREATED WATER
pH
EC
(μS/cm)
TDS
(mg/L)
Colour
(TUC
)
Turb.
(NTU)
T. Alk.
(mg/L)
Iron
(mg/L)
E. coli
T.C.
pH
EC
(μS/cm)
TDS
(mg/L)
Colour
(TUC)
Turb.
(NTU)
T. Alk.
(mg/L)
Iron
(mg/L)
E. Coli
TC
(cfu/100ml)
(cfu/100ml)
13/03/2023
6.6
153.2
96.7
20
7
280
0.02
67
250
7.8
254
126
3
0
455
0.00
0
3
14/03/2023
6.9
151.5
75.8
45
16
300
0.03
68
260
7.8
231
116
5
0
465
0.00
0
6
15/03/2023
7.1
155.2
77.5
193
65
354
0.07
80
258
7.7
213
106
8
3
438
0.00
0
5
16/03/2023
7.2
205
99.6
90
31
392
0.05
22
231
7.6
244
119
5
0
456
0.00
0
4
NSDWQ
6.5
-
8.5
1,000
500
15
5
-
0.3
0
10
WHO MPL
6.5
-
8.5
1,000
500
15
5
500
0.3
0
10
Table 3: National Water Resources Institute’s Main Borehole Water Characteristics
DATE
RAW WATER
TREATED WATER
pH
EC
(μS/cm)
TDS
(mg/L)
Colour
(TUC
)
Turb.
(NTU)
T. Alk.
(mg/L)
Iron
(mg/L)
E. coli
T.C.
pH
EC
(μS/cm)
TDS
(mg/L)
Colour
(TUC)
Turb.
(NTU)
T. Alk.
(mg/L)
Iron
(mg/L)
E. Coli
TC
(cfu
/100ml)
(cfu/100ml)
13/03/2023
6.7
120.8
60.5
6
2
223
0.02
0
8
7.8
245
122.6
0
0
433
0.00
0
0
14/03/2023
6.7
123.9
61.9
8
3
250
0.04
0
20
7.9
209
104.5
0
0
440
0.00
0
0
15/03/2023
7.1
118.9
59.5
3
1
245
0.03
0
21
7.7
188.3
94.6
0
0
400
0.00
0
0

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION 11(3), SEPTEMBER, 2023
ISSN: 2277-0011; Journal homepage: www.atbuftejoste.net
*Corresponding author: Ahmed Salisu Hassan
hassanahmed6691@gmail.com
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department, national Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
© 2022 Faculty of Technology Education, ATBU Bauchi. All rights reserved 7
16/03/2023
7.2
125.5
62.7
3
1
296
0.05
0
25
7.7
190.5
95.1
0
0
400
0.00
0
0
NSDWQ
6.5
-
8.5
1,000
500
15
5
-
0.3
0
10
WHO MPL
6.5
-
8.5
1,000
500
15
5
500
0.3
0
10
Where:
NSDWQ = Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NIS-554-2015); WHO MPL = World Health Organization Maximum Permissible Level (2012);
EC = Electrical Conductivity; TDS = Total Dissolved Solids; Turb. = Turbidity; T. Alk. = Total Alkalinity; E. coli = Escherichia coli and; T.C. = Total coliform.

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION 11(3), SEPTEMBER, 2023
ISSN: 2277-0011; Journal homepage: www.atbuftejoste.net
*Corresponding author: Ahmed Salisu Hassan
hassanahmed6691@gmail.com
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department, national Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
© 2022 Faculty of Technology Education, ATBU Bauchi. All rights reserved
8
Table 4: BSF Treatment Performance for Mando-Rigasa Stream Water
TREATED WATER
pH
% Inc.
EC
% Inc.
TDS
% Inc.
T. Alk.
% Inc.
Colour
% Dec
Turb.
% Dec
Iron
% Dec
E. Coli
% Dec
TC
% Dec
6.94
118.55
119.67
108.53
96.6
96
100
100
96.6
6.76
76.62
77.75
75
96.7
95.1
100
100
94.9
5.56
43.71
43.4
59.85
98
97.1
100
100
98.4
5.48
35.96
35.23
43.38
97.6
97.6
100
100
98.1
Average
6.19
68.71
69.01
71.69
97.23
96.45
100
100
97
Table 5: BSF Treatment Performance for Farin gida Hand dug well Water
TREATED WATER
pH
% Inc.
EC
% Inc.
TDS
% Inc.
T. Alk.
% Inc.
Colour
% Dec
Turb.
% Dec
Iron
% Dec
E. Coli
% Dec
TC
% Dec
18.18
65.80
64.28
62.5
85
100
100
100
98.80
13.04
52.48
53.53
58.33
88.89
100
100
100
97.69
8.45
37.24
36.77
23.73
95.85
95.38
100
100
98.06
5.56
19.02
19.48
16.33
94.44
100
100
100
98.27
Average
11.31
43.64
43.52
40.22
91.05
98.85
100
100
98.21
Table 6: BSF Treatment Performance for National Water Resources Institute’s Main Borehole Water
TREATED WATER
pH
% Inc.
EC
% Inc.
TDS
% Inc.
T. Alk.
% Inc.
Colour
% Dec.
Turb.
% Dec
Iron
% Dec
E. Coli
% Dec
TC
% Dec
16.42
102.81
102.64
94.17
100
100
100
100
100
14.49
68.68
69.46
76
100
100
100
100
100
8.45
58.37
58.99
3.27
100
100
100
100
100
6.94
51.79
51.67
35.14
100
100
100
100
100
Average
11.58
70.41
70.69
52.15
100
100
100
100
100
Where:
EC = Electrical Conductivity; TDS = Total Dissolved Solids; Turb. = Turbidity; T. Alk. = Total Alkalinity; E.
coli = Escherichia coli and; T.C. = Total coliform; Inc, = Increase and; Dec = Decrease.
.
CONCLUSION
Comparative analysis between the
raw water and the treated water characteristics
signifies that, parameters with particulate origin
(i.e. colour, turbidity, Escherichia coli and total
coliforms) were effectively mitigated or
removed. Whilst parameters such as pH, EC,
TDS and total alkalinity among parameters
investigated increases, but the percentage
intensification reduces with number of elution..
These rises of the parameters concentration
might be considered as health benefits,
especially for gastrointestinal patient among the
teaming population. Hence, BSF might
considered as a viable alternative for safe water
supply option and enhancing access to safely
managed water for both rural remote, rural on-
road and rural mixed context in Nigeria.
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*Corresponding author: Ahmed Salisu Hassan
hassanahmed6691@gmail.com
Water Resources and Environmental Management Department, national Water Resources Institute, Mando Road, Kaduna.
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