THE PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS FOR DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN STUDENTS

Abstract

Critical thinking is a multifaceted process which requires a higher level of cognitive skills. Teachers’ perceptions and practices to develop critical thinking skills among students influence their behavior in the class. This study intended to explore the perceptions and practices of secondary school teachers in developing the critical thinking skills of students. Four secondary teachers were conveniently selected for data collection by using a semi-structured interview followed by classroom observation and document analysis. The collected data was analyzed by using a thematic approach. The findings of the research study indicated that some of the secondary school teachers lack the basic knowledge about critical thinking; therefore, they were unable to define the concept of critical thinking and way to develop these skills in their students. Most of the teachers (i.e., 66.6%) were aware that it is important to develop student's critical thinking skills but except one, other teachers were unable to provide evidence of using effective classroom strategies needed to develop critical thinking skills among students. Moreover, it was observed that students were unable to analyze and apply their knowledge in new situations. Based on the findings, it was recommended that schools need to train teachers on pedagogies to enable them to create interactive classrooms to lead students to think critically. Keywords: critical thinking, reasoning skills, rote learning, teaching approaches

Full text

Pakistan Journal of Social Research
ISSN 2710-3129 (P) 2710-3137 (O)
Vol.3, No. 3, September 2021, pp. 89-98
www.pjsr.com.pk
89
THE PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS FOR
DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN STUDENTS
Samina Ali
M. Phil Scholar, Department of Educational Development,
Karakorum International University
samina87@gmail.com
Sadruddin Bahadur Qutoshi
Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Development,
Karakorum International University
sadruddin.qutoshi@kiu.edu.pk
Zahra Jabeen
Lecturer, Department of Educational Development,
Karakorum International University
zahra.jabeen@kiu.edu.pk
ABSTRACT
Critical thinking is a multifaceted process which requires a higher level of cognitive skills. Teachers’
perceptions and practices to develop critical thinking skills among students influence their behavior in
the class. This study intended to explore the perceptions and practices of secondary school teachers in
developing the critical thinking skills of students. Four secondary teachers were conveniently selected
for data collection by using a semi-structured interview followed by classroom observation and
document analysis. The collected data was analyzed by using a thematic approach. The findings of the
research study indicated that some of the secondary school teachers lack the basic knowledge about
critical thinking; therefore, they were unable to define the concept of critical thinking and way to
develop these skills in their students. Most of the teachers (i.e., 66.6%) were aware that it is important
to develop student's critical thinking skills but except one, other teachers were unable to provide
evidence of using effective classroom strategies needed to develop critical thinking skills among
students. Moreover, it was observed that students were unable to analyze and apply their knowledge in
new situations. Based on the findings, it was recommended that schools need to train teachers on
pedagogies to enable them to create interactive classrooms to lead students to think critically.
Keywords: critical thinking, reasoning skills, rote learning, teaching approaches
INTRODUCTION
Critical thinking is a form of reflective thinking over information and arguments, which involves the
analysis and evaluation of existing communication by being logical (Browne & Keeley, 2011). It refers
to analyzing and evaluating information, reasoning and situations, according to appropriate standards
such as truth and logic, for the purpose of constructing sound and insightful new knowledge,
understandings, hypotheses and beliefs. It is the ability of an individual to process and synthesize
information in such a way that it enables them to apply it judiciously to tasks of decision-making and
effective problem-solving (Heard et al., 2020).
Critical thinking is one of the 21st century skills to survive in the era of globalization,
telecommunication, and digital technology (Lai, 2011; Khoiri, Komariah, Utami, Paramarta & Sunarsi,
2021). With the evolution of the technology and its critical role to improve teaching and learning
practices at any stage of educational endeavors (Qutoshi, 2017; Qutoshi et al., 2020), it is possible for
learners to access information from anywhere at a single press of a button. However, it is now
challenging for educators to develop the ability and skills of learners not only to assess new information
but also to analyze, evaluate, and interpret the information on a diverse range of disciplines to create
new meanings out of the available information (Macagno & Bigi, 2020; Liyanage; Liyanage, Walker
& Shokouhi, 2021), teachers’ education is not an exception. Advanced societies require people who can
think well and make good decisions, and helping learners to develop thinking skills is important because

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it is a demand of job market in a complex and rapidly changing global economy (Cotton, 1991 as cited
in Smith & Szymanski, 2013; Duron, Limbach & Waugh, 2006; Short & Keller-Bell, 2021). To develop
students' thinking ability, it is important that teachers first develop conceptual understanding about
critical thinking and its importance. Teachers need to dedicate time and effort to incorporate these skills
through effective teaching, so that they can nurture their students as critical thinkers (Ridho, Wardani
& Saptono, 2021). Ball and Gartan (2005) suggested that when educators prepare learners for higher
levels of cognitive thinking, it is important to be a role model for them by adopting high-level thinking
in their approach to teaching. Research studies revealed that teachers’ ability to think critically, teaching
strategies and classroom environment influences students thinking skills (Simpson & Courtney, 2002;
Kong, 2006; Mangena & Chabeli, 2005).
Research revealed that most teachers have little understanding and knowledge about critical
thinking skills; therefore, it is difficult for teachers to engage students in activities to develop higher
order thinking skills (Choy & San Oo, 2012; Paul, 2010; Ridho, Wardani & Saptono, 2021). Teachers
often perceive that critical thinking skills need to be taught; however, research indicates that they do
not understand critical thinking skills sufficiently enough to incorporate those skills into their lessons
(Paul, 2005; Cotton, 1991 as cited in Smith & Szymanski, 2011). It is evident that the majority of the
secondary teachers use the lecture method (with one directional flow of information as dictating), which
is teacher centered and traditional approach; hence, it is not possible to develop students thinking ability
by using this approach in classrooms (Choy & Cheah, 2009; Ridho, Wardani & Saptono, 2021).
Moreover, teachers are unable to use interactive teaching strategies and provide constructive and
meaningful learning environments in the classroom. Furthermore, content dominant curriculum binds
teachers to cover the syllabus before the finals, which limits students learning and cognitive
development (Aliakbari & Sadeghdaghighi, 2012). In Pakistan, teachers usually emphasize on teaching
content and encourage students to recall and memorize the given information rather than making
learning meaningful and challenging students to reason, question, and search for other options
(Government of Pakistan & World Bank, 2006). This lead to rote memorization which is one of the
major hindrances in developing critical thinking skills among students in Pakistan (Jamil &
Muhammad, 2021).
In the context of Gilgit-Baltistan, researchers observed the practices of teachers at different
levels appeared to be non-conducive for nurturing critical thinking skills in students. For instance,
respondents contended that their teachers never encouraged them to think critically. However, teachers
mostly encourage students to remember concepts through rote memorization. As a result of such
practices, students cannot think out of the box and are unable to solve problems posed to them during
their studies at school and in real life situations. In Pakistan, school students are unable to develop
interactive skills like reasoning, questioning, and thinking because their classroom environment and
teaching methodologies do not emphasize on these cognitive skills to exercise their thinking abilities
(Government of Pakistan, 2006). Moreover, teachers force students to recall and memorize the right
answer instead of motivating and engaging them to apply, analyze, evaluate and search for other options
to come up with innovative ideas (Mahmood, 2006). Thus, this study intended to examine the perception
of secondary school teachers about critical thinking, and the role of their teaching practices in
developing critical thinking skills among students. It is important to investigate if teachers have the
knowledge of critical thinking models and skills in a classroom.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Critical thinking skill has been defined in different ways by many researchers. For instance, according
to Encarta (2009), critical thinking is the ability to think reasonably and analytically. An individual
observes, experiences, and gives reflective judgments in the form of written or verbal arguments.
Consequently, critical thinking involves determining the meaning and significance of what is observed
or expressed, or concerning a given inference or argument, determining whether there is adequate
justification to accept the conclusion as true. In other words, critical thinking is a means of thinking
about any subject, content or problem, in which individuals improve the quality of their thinking.
Twenty-first century demands new skills and information, which includes critical thinking,
exploring, evaluating, reasoning information, problem solving, and developing analytical and effective
communication skills (Lai, 2011). The primary objective of education is to develop advanced skills and
abilities in learners, such as observational, reasoning, analyzing, evaluating and problem solving, so

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91
they can face and resolve real life challenges (Hashim, Ismail & Kuldas, 2013). Similarly, Zarillo (2012)
stated that the institutions should focus on evaluating how students are learning and applying given
information rather than using standardizing testing abilities. According to the National Education Policy
(2009), one of the key objectives of education is to help and develop critical thinking skills at all levels
in the schools. Hoodbhoy (2009) argued that in Pakistan, students are trained and prepared to just
complete their degree, and students cannot comprehend, analyze, present, and apply their own ideas
and knowledge in the real world. He further added that students lack the basic life skills which could
help them to face real life challenges. Aliakbari and Sadeghdaghighi (2012) argued that critical thinking
skills are not inherent or inborn abilities. These skills need to be developed through long term practice
and experiences. It is important to encourage and develop these skills and enable students to connect
with the outer world. Similarly, Snyder and Snyder (2008) suggested that through effective teaching
strategies and long-term dedicated practices of teachers it is possible to develop critical thinking abilities
of students. Thus, critical thinking skills require multiple cognitive abilities and personal characteristics
as well as the right motivation and an enriching environment (Fletcher, 2011; Lewis & Smith, 1993). It
means that teachers need to be very consciously aware about their own skills, abilities, knowledge and
attitude towards critical thinking skills so as to enable their students to be critical thinkers.
Lauer (2005) claimed that teachers have a little knowledge about critical thinking skills;
therefore, it is difficult for them to engage students in different activities to develop their critical
thinking skills. Similarly, Choy and Oo (2012) stated that most of the teachers are not aware of the
importance of their critical thinking skills, so they are unable to use effective strategies needed to
develop these skills (Elder & Paul, 2010). Thus, teachers need to expose their students to a diverse range
of teaching methods, which promote critical thinking skills in order to nurture their thinking process.
Moreover, teachers can use various strategies to influence and improve students' thinking abilities, such
as problem solving, justifying and judging the arguments, interpreting and concluding the topics under
discussion. Furthermore, teachers should inculcate critical thinking and inquiry-based problems in their
teaching practices, which would directly enhance the academic achievement of the students (Connor,
Morrison & Petrella, 2004). Teachers can use a variety of activities, such as using diagrams, mind
mapping and graphics images to help students visualize given information in a more meaningful way.
Similarly, Gürses, Açıkyıldız, Doğar, and Sözbilir (2007) suggested that creative discussions and
project-based activities encourage critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Most of the people
would learn much better through activities and observation rather than learning through rote
memorization. These creative methods would include experimenting, questioning, testing, observing,
and exploring (Scriven & Paul, 2008; Templeaar, 2006).
According to King, Goodson and Rohani (2009), the environment of the classroom should be
appealing and encouraging for the students. Non supporting environment of the classroom influences
the students' reasoning and problem-solving skills. Appropriate teaching strategies and learning
environments facilitate the growth of higher order thinking ability and enhance student’s persistence,
self-monitoring, open-minded and flexible attitudes (Smith, Sasone & White, 2007). Students’
progress and improvement in the classroom is based on the teacher’s style and attitude; the classroom
environment and the instructional strategies the teacher employed can motivate students to learn and
think on higher levels (Orr & Klein, 1991). Teacher’s positive attitude and interactive classroom
environment enhance the students' learning (Osterman, 2000; Fredericks, Blumenfeld & Paris, 2004).
Besides teachers’ lack of knowledge about critical thinking skills, there are many obstacles in
developing students’ critical thinking skills. According to the Economic survey of Pakistan (2011),
challenges faced by Pakistani schools are shortage of teachers, large number of students in classrooms,
unavailability of trained teachers and resources, and lack of adequate research etc. School curricula are
often content dominated (i.e., curriculum as subject matter and textbooks etc.), making teaching mainly
a knowledge transfer process rather than focusing on middle order and higher order thinking skills by
focusing on curriculum as experience and curriculum as mosaic (Qutoshi, 2021). Similarly, Sultana and
Zaki (2015) reported that Pakistani teachers are bound and forced to cover the school syllabus. In this
pressure, teachers are unable to assist and pay individual attention to each student, which is a great
psychological and social need of students. Teachers are unable to provide a constructive and meaningful
learning environment in a classroom because they are bound to cover the syllabus before the end terms.
Moreover, assessment systems bind teachers to focus on teaching content and force their students to
memorize and recall information instead of involving students in meaningful activities. To measure

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students' thinking and reasoning ability, it is important to develop their problem-solving skills and
encourage and involve students in classroom discussions. Unfortunately, the classroom environment
and teaching methods adopted by teachers in Pakistan do not consider the individual differences of the
learners (Sultana & Zaki, 2015).
From given literature, it is indicated that the teachers are using traditional methods of teaching,
such as lecture method with one-directional flow of information without the involvement of learners
lead them to emphasize on recall and memorization of information without any practical demonstration
(Jalal et al., 2020; Orland-Barak & Wang, 2021). This means that these teacher-centered approaches
could hardly develop students’ thinking skills with a specific focus on remembering and understanding
the level of the knowledge acquisition (Qutoshi & Poudel, 2014; Choy & Cheah, 2009). Thus, teachers
need to develop an interactive, encouraging and learner-centered teaching approach in classrooms to
help students to think (Short, & Keller-Bell, 2021) about applying and analyzing the knowledge that
they gained in their classroom to experience higher-order thinking skills by evaluating and creating new
knowledge (Qutoshi, 2018; Schroeder, 2003).
RESEARCH DESIGN
A qualitative research paradigm was employed to study and explore the teacher’s perception and
practices to develop critical thinking skills in their students. Qualitative research design is used
extensively when researchers want to study human behavior and habits to explore and understand a
particular issue or topic (Creswell, 2014). According to Bogdan and Biklen (1998), the basic aim of
qualitative research is to discover individual views, thoughts, and experiences to understand human
behavior and experiences. Therefore, the aim of using qualitative design is to gain a deep and holistic
understanding of secondary school teachers’ perception and practices in developing critical thinking
skills in real classroom settings.
Under the qualitative paradigm, the researchers used a qualitative case study design to collect
data. The case study is a method for exploration of facts through using different tools for detailed data
collection (Merriam, 1998). Maxwell (2005) stated that qualitative case study design helps to explore
and analyze in-depth knowledge of a single phenomenon such as the perceptions and practices of
secondary school teachers in this study. Therefore, the case study design was a suitable approach for
exploring and understanding the perception and practices of teachers in the classroom to generate
detailed contextual data. Case study research encourages the use of various data collection tools for in
depth analysis of particular issues or a topic (Yin, 2009). Therefore, in this study, the researchers used
semi-structured interviews, observation (non-participant) and document reviews. Data was collected
from multiple techniques which help the researchers in triangulating data such as interviews (semi-
structured), classroom observation (formal observation with a checklist) and document analysis (lesson
plans, students’ notebooks, books etc.). These research tools helped the researchers to get a detailed and
critical insight into the perceptions and practices of teachers for developing critical thinking skills
among students in school.
Convenient sampling was used as a sampling strategy for the study. Convenient sampling helped
researchers to easily select the willing participants who are representative of the population in a
minimum possible time (Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2015). Rationale for using a convenient sampling
strategy was that including every subject in the study was difficult and time consuming, so researchers
selected the teachers who were easily accessible and willing to participate in the research. The four
interview participants were secondary level teachers and subject specialists with a minimum five years
of teaching experiences.
RESULTS
Secondary School Teachers’ Perception about Critical Thinking
The findings of the study revealed that most of the secondary school teachers lack basic knowledge
about critical thinking, and could not even define the concept explicitly. However, the majority of the
teachers agreed that it is important to develop students’ critical thinking skills (Ridho, Wardani &
Saptono, 2021). 33.3% of the teachers expressed their views about some basic steps towards developing
critical thinking skills in students. In addition to this, it was found during classroom observations, that
for secondary school teachers, critical thinking means asking questions and giving responses to the
teachers in order to grasp the main idea of the topic under discussion in the class. One of the teachers

The perceptions and practices of secondary school teachers for developing critical thinking skills
93
said, “critical thinking means the ability to grasp the main idea of the topic/lecture”. Similarly, another
teacher shared her views in these words, “if the student is able to understand 10% of the given
information and ask questions related to the topic, that means he/she is involved in the process of
thinking”. Moreover, another teacher expressed that “critical thinking is an ability to solve problems
according to one’s mental level”.
During the document review phase, it was discovered that the Oxford syllabus for secondary
school students explicitly includes information, objectives, activities, material, and teaching strategies
for developing higher-level thinking skills. However, during classroom observations, it was shown that
the teachers were not following those instructions and objectives mentioned for each chapter. The term
“critical thinking” is mentioned in curriculum objectives, educational aims, and goals in educational
policies. Contrary to this, most of the teachers were unable to define and explain the concept of critical
thinking.
Teacher’s Perceptions Regarding Student’s Ability to Think Critically
In response to the question about teachers’ perception about student’s ability to think critically, teachers
responded in these words, “I think students’ past experiences of school times are not encouraging and
motivating them to question and reason in the classroom. Therefore, every student in the classroom was
not actively participating during the lesson.” Another teacher said, “In my classroom, maximum
students have reasoning and thinking ability, but few students, who are slow learners, resist mental
efforts”.
Teaching Strategies to incorporate higher order thinking skills in students
Responding to these questions from the participants, “What strategies did they use in their classrooms?
and What opportunities do the teachers provide students to foster their thinking skills? One of the
teachers responded, “For developing critical thinking skills in students, I develop hands-on and minds-
on activities. The students enjoy outdoor activities more than indoor activities. I always try to make my
lessons more interesting by using maps, globes, pictures, and outdoor observations”.
During classroom observation, the researchers noticed that some teachers involved their
students in different indoor and outdoor activities and gave opportunities to students to experience,
explore, observe, think and share their learning with the class. Students were not bound to textbook
content, and they were discussing and sharing their knowledge with the class.
Most of the teachers said that one of the important strategies they used in the classroom to
motivate students is to think and share their ideas with the class. One of the teachers shared, “I always
encourage my students to do self-study and arrange group discussions, so students are able to share their
ideas with other peers in the class. I appreciate my students when they ask logical questions during the
lecture. I usually engage students in a brainstorming activity before starting the lesson so that they can
share their previous knowledge and experiences related to the topic. One teacher stated that "I try to
encourage my students to think, identify and share examples related to the topic”. It was observed that
the teachers used to write the topic on the board, read from the textbook, and orally explained the content
to the students.
While reviewing the lesson plan, it was noticed that the objectives were not clear in the lesson
and the six levels of Bloom’s revised taxonomy were not considered. Most of the teachers were unable
to provide their lesson plans. The researchers kept requesting the teachers to share their lesson plans,
but teachers informed at the end that they do not write lesson plans.
Classroom environment to motivate and engage students in thinking process
When the researchers further probed and asked participants about how their classroom environment
helped students to engage in higher-order thinking. The participant responded, “as a teacher, I am not
in favor of chalk and talk methodology. I try to demonstrate the lesson through pictures, charts and
maps. I always discourage rote learning and restrict my students not to copy the answers from the book”.
The researchers noticed that one teacher was encouraging and involving the students in different mental
activities. She was using the lecture method through engaging the students in the classroom. For
example, she used different AV aids during the lesson and demonstrated the topic to attract the students
in the classroom. The teacher tried to use some appropriate strategies to create a learning environment
in the classroom

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Another teacher responded that “I appreciate students’ effort and motivate them to share their
knowledge and experiences. I also provide extra time to students to do research, and to involve
themselves in the thinking process. I think my classroom environment is very encouraging”. However,
during the classroom observation, the researchers observed that the classroom environment was very
traditional and students were passive most of the time. The teacher was not encouraging the students to
participate, nor use any teaching aid or material except textbooks and whiteboard. Most of the students
in the classroom were talking to each other and were not listening carefully to the lecture.
Moreover, another teacher shared the view that “I always encourage students’ participation in
the classroom. I also give a positive response when they need guidance. I motivate my students to share
their ideas and knowledge, and also encourage them to do extra study and to do research about different
topics”. The researchers noticed that most students were not active and unable to concentrate during
lectures. The teacher was unable to motivate and create an active learning environment in the classroom.
During observation, the researchers noticed that the teachers used an authoritative style of teaching, and
the classroom environment was not interactive. Most of the students were hesitant to discuss or to ask
any questions from teachers because of their authoritative attitude in the classroom. It is demonstrated
that the majority of the teachers do not use interactive methods in the classroom to involve students in
the learning process. The classroom environment was not appealing and encouraging for the students.
Teaching strategies, normally used by the teacher, were teacher-centered, as a result, they could not
create a motivating and exciting learning environment in the classroom.
Strategies to Assess Critical Thinking Skill
In response to the question from the participants, “what strategies were used in the classroom to assess
the thinking skills of the students?” One of the teachers responded: “I ask questions during the lecture
while evaluating their responses. I check their work individually”. Study revealed that the teacher used
the map to identify/find the location of a particular country on the map. Then they were asked to guess
the climate, living style, culture, and hobbies of the people living in the different locations on the map.
Most of the students were active and they were very good at using maps and globes. Researchers
observed that the teacher engaged students by asking frequent questions. Moreover, the students were
engaged in meaningful activities during class. Another teacher responded that she keeps assessing the
critical thinking skills of the students whenever they respond to the given oral or spoken tasks. In the
classroom, during observation, she was asking questions to evaluate students' learning; however,
students were not provided equal opportunities because it was observed that few of the students were
ignored in the class. One teacher responded, “Asking questions by the students in the class means they
are engaged. I keep evaluating my students by checking whether their responses are memorized
responses or answers with logical reasoning”.
It was noticed that some research participants did not feel comfortable in being observed by the
researchers. The study also indicated that some teachers did not consider the importance of critical
thinking in their teaching activities. Therefore, their students showed poor performance in doing simple
tasks based on logic and reason.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The study revealed that the majority of the secondary school teachers had little awareness and
understanding about the concept of critical thinking; however, they could realize the importance of
developing critical thinking skills in students as an important classroom activity. Studies such as Paul
and Stapleton (2010), and Qutoshi (2018) argued that teachers need to develop clear concepts about
critical thinking and should use effective strategies in their classrooms to develop critical thinking skills.
However, the participants of this study appeared to be less aware of such kinds of strategies and could
not motivate their students to develop their critical thinking skills. From the findings of the study, it
could be inferred that teachers need to walk the talk about their awareness of the concepts and their
teaching practices in a classroom. This shows that teachers need to develop clear concepts about critical
thinking skills and need to follow the syllabus guidelines that are provided to improve their students'
learning skills.
Moreover, the findings indicated that most of the teachers did not even know how to define
critical thinking and they had little knowledge about critical thinking skills. As a result, it is difficult for
teachers to engage students in different activities to develop critical thinking skills in their classrooms

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(Lauer, 2005), because majority of the teachers lack these skills, resultantly, it becomes extremely
difficult to develop critical thinking skills in their students. Therefore, schools need to focus on
developing high-order thinking skills in their teachers to make them capable of developing their
students’ higher order thinking.
Data revealed that despite the fact that syllabus was enriched with a lot of information with
clearly defined objectives for each lesson, and the activities were based on higher-level ordered
thinking; however, the teachers were found to be in a state of “comfort zone” and they do not focus on
those objectives, and seem to critique the school for not providing the required instructional material to
improve the teaching and learning of students. This means that their possible target is not higher-order
thinking skills, but middle order thinking by applying the knowledge with application-based learning.
Findings unveiled the fact that teachers were unable to develop and create an effective
classroom environment for developing critical thinking in their students. For example, teachers could
not be able to create a conducive, yet challenging learning environment for students to think critically
and focus on out-of-the-box thinking to share their innovative ideas related to the knowledge they
received in their class and beyond. Moreover, thinking about using knowledge in real-life situations,
analyzing to make different meanings, evaluating the information for a common good, and coming up
with new knowledge seem impossible (Qutoshi, 2016). Thus, students need an active learning
environment to generate more opportunities to develop the ability to ask questions and to interact
meaningfully with other learners. The findings also showed that appropriate teaching strategies and
interactive learning environments aid to facilitate the growth of higher-order thinking ability, and help
students to develop flexible attitude, self-monitoring and analytical skills (Smith, Sasone & White,
2007) that appeared to be missing in the current situation.
The research demonstrated that teaching strategies were not appropriate, and the teachers were
ignoring needs of the most of the slow learners in the classroom. Findings also showed that participants
were aware of their student's mental abilities and learning difficulties, yet they were not making any
effort to actively involve and to motivate those students during lessons.
In conclusion, these findings showed that the majority of teachers had very basic knowledge
about critical thinking and teachers need more knowledge, skills, and expertise to face these challenges
successfully (Saleh & Al-Mekkhlafi, 2017). To develop critical thinking skills in students’ teachers
need to engage their students in thoughtful discussion and provide them the opportunity of thinking,
questioning and creativity. Trained teachers need to create interactive classrooms so that students can
apply, analyze and evaluate the given information in new situations, and be able to generate new ideas
to develop their deeper level of understanding of the subjects.
It was also found that teachers used to put the responsibility on the students to think critically
rather than providing enough opportunities to students and to help them to think critically. Mostly, both
teachers and students fall in the lowest level of the cognitive domain. They preferred rote learning and
asked students to copy their answers from a book. Gabler and Schroeder (2003) argued that in the
traditional classrooms, students were expected to master reading, writing, and arithmetic. In the 21st
century, students need more than these basic skills to excel in the future workplace. Whereas, the
teachers found to be encouraging and appreciating only those students who were very active to answer
the questions asked by the teachers, they ignored the rest of the students in their classes who are slow
learners and do not ask questions. Keeping such a situation in the classroom, the teachers make students
responsible and blame students’ early years of schooling. Therefore, students stayed passive all the time
in their classrooms. Moreover, the researchers hardly found any activity or question in the classroom
which could involve students in the thinking process.
After analysis of participant’s answers, researchers came to realize that almost 100% of
participants expressed their views that their classroom environment is conducive which motivates and
encourages student participation. Whereas, their views were found contradictory during classroom
observation and they were found to be less supportive in providing students the opportunities to think
critically. It was noticed that hardly 33.3% of the teachers were aware of some of the motivational
strategies, and they use different strategies to engage students in higher-order thinking processes in the
classroom as compared to 66.6% of teachers, who did not engage students in developing critical
thinking skills nor encourage students to participate in classroom activities.
Thus, the study revealed that there are differences between the practices and perceptions of
secondary school teachers with regard to developing critical thinking skills among students. For

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instance, there are teachers who are aware of critical thinking and exhibit it in their practices, while the
rest are teachers who are aware of critical thinking but do not exhibit it in their practices. Thirdly,
teachers are aware of critical thinking, but have wrongly understood it; hence, exhibit accordingly in
their practices.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the key findings of the study, research recommends that schools need an education system
that focuses on effective training of teachers to engage students in effective learning (Andrews, 2000;
Febriatika & Alberida, 2021). Here, effective learning means enabling students to learn and experience
all six levels of learning based on Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) such as remembering, understanding,
applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating new knowledge. So, schools need education for
emancipation that can liberate both teachers and students to think out-of-the-box solutions to the
problems to face the 21st-century challenges either using the Oxford curriculum or adopting ‘one nation
one curriculum’ in the future. To this end, the need is to convert schools into learning organizations
(Qutoshi & Rajbhandari, 2016), and to achieve this objective, a transforming or transformative
leadership in schools is highly desirable who can develop learners as critical thinkers (Qutoshi & Luitel,
2021).
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