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Graphic Design
Rune Pettersson
2
Graphic Design
The illustration on the cover is part of an image from my video
program “Life Patterns” presented at the first international ex-
hibition “The Video Show” in London, may 1975. My “multime-
dia project” was one of two invited contributions from Sweden.
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this
work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee pro-
vided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or com-
mercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full
citation on the first page.
Institute for Infology
ISBN 978-91-85334-29-4
© Rune Pettersson
Sweden, Tullinge 2024
3
Preface
Information design is a multi-dimensional, multi-disciplinary,
and worldwide consideration with influences from areas such as
design disciplines, communication disciplines, information dis-
ciplines, language disciplines, cognitive disciplines, art and aes-
thetic disciplines, business and law, as well as media production
technologies.
In this book the focus is on graphic design. The practice of
graphic design is as old as recorded history. The purpose of work
with graphic design is to find a suitable presentation for the con-
tent with respect to the receiver, the subject matter, the medium,
and the financial situation. Within a given area, such as a com-
puter screen, a page in a book, a poster, a label, or a projected
image, the designer may alter the design of headings, margins,
ornaments, pictures, space, symbols, and text. Graphic design is
used as an important “tool” in the other four parts of message
design. The most fundamental design technique is reduction. In
graphic design the main objective is to provide functional, aes-
thetic, and organised structure to all kinds of information sets.
Since my retirement I have edited and revised sections of my
earlier books, conference papers and reports about information
design, message design, visual communication and visual liter-
acy.
Previous editions of this book were published every year
2011–2023. When there is no information about the name of a
photographer, an artist, or a draftsman in a caption, that picture
is my own photo, or my own drawing or sketch.
Tullinge, Sweden
Rune Pettersson, Ph.D.
Retired Professor of Information Design
4
Contents
Preface 3!
Contents 4!
Organized structure 9!
Graphic design 9!
Graphic design theory 9!
Purpose for graphic design 10!
Graphic design objectives 14!
Graphic design processes 16!
History of graphic design 20!
Step by step 20!
Modern graphic design 23!
Research-based design 26!
Typographic cultural heritage 30!
Graphic literacy 31!
Aesthetic principles 32!
Aesthetic proportion principle 32!
Aesthetic designs 32!
Fine art 33!
Information aesthetics 36!
Harmony principle 41!
Harmony 41!
Harmony in typography 42!
Harmony in colour 43!
Aesthetic theories 45!
Beauty theories 46!
Philosophy of art 46!
Philosophy of beauty 51!
Aesthetics and usability 53!
Colour theories 56!
Colour and people 56!
Colour wheels 57!
Colour systems 58!
Colour for information 62!
Functional principles 64!
Providing clarity 64!
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Legibility 64!
Legibility of text 66!
Legibility of pictures 70!
Legibility of layout 71!
Legibility of symbols 71!
Legibility of numerical values 72!
Legibility of maps 74!
Legibility of colour 74!
Providing emphasis 76!
Emphasis 76!
Emphasis in text 77!
Emphasis in layout 78!
Providing unity 81!
Information structure 81!
Pictures and texts 82!
Typography 84!
Type 85!
Design of characters 85!
Typefaces 87!
Letterforms 94!
Size of type 95!
Stylistic variation of type 102!
Typeface personalities 104!
Selection of typefaces 110!
Typeface legibility and familiarity 113!
Some common typefaces 114!
Visual poetry 121!
Paper and ink 121!
Cost effective typography 122!
Typography and language 125!
Projected typography 126!
OH and PP 126!
Slides 130!
Screen typography 132!
Visual displays 132!
User interface design 136!
The message on the screen 141!
Computer print-outs 150!
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Layout 152!
A page 153!
Composition of a page 153!
Page size 154!
Text-face 157!
Religious seeing 158!
The classic model for page design 158!
The golden canon 160!
Margins 162!
Grid systems 166!
Oppositions 169!
Paper sizes 169!
E-books 171!
Text layout 174!
Typographic variation 175!
Justified or unjustified text? 176!
Line length 179!
Interline distance 185!
Space 188!
Headings 192!
Tables 200!
Captions 206!
Quotations 208!
Lists 209!
Layout of text and pictures 213!
Different layouts 213!
From one to two columns 215!
Balance in design 216!
The picture area index 222!
Graphic symbols 226!
Use of graphic symbols 226!
International standards 226!
Groups of graphic symbols 227!
Objectives 229!
Interpretation of meaning 230!
Warnings 233!
Symbols for warnings 233!
Traffic signs 234!
Project “crossing road signs” 235!
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Message and symbol 240!
Design of graphic symbols 243!
Iconic symbols 243!
Simple graphical elements 246!
Graphic symbols and colour 247!
Graphic symbols and size 249!
Graphic symbols and legibility 250!
Posters 251!
Emblems 252!
Multi-colour posters 255!
Educational posters 259!
Main poster objectives 260!
Providing poster clarity 261!
Text on a poster 262!
Pictures on a poster 263!
Layout of a poster 263!
The poster of today 264!
Infographics 265!
Many objectives 266!
USA TODAY 267!
Different kinds of information graphics 267!
Many definitions 270!
Infographics in education 276!
Infographics in schools 276!
Infographics in higher education 277!
Vislets 286!
Infographics for the general public 286!
Infographic acceptance 287!
User-friendly infographics 288!
Graphics with a cause 290!
News graphics 291!
Everyday graphics 293!
Limited space 293!
Instructing 294!
Informing 295!
Tempting to buy 297!
Text, pictures, and background 299!
ID Library 304!
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References 305!
Appendix: Main concepts 346!
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Organized structure
Although we may not think about it very often, the practice of
graphic design is as old as recorded history. We see the results of
graphic design every day in books, magazines, packages, papers,
posters, symbols, and many other products. This chapter in-
cludes the following main sections: Graphic design, and History
of graphic design.
Graphic design
A generally accepted view is that graphic design may be described
as the art and craft of bringing an aesthetic, a functional, and
an organized structure to different kinds of texts and illustra-
tions. Graphic design is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun)
of that process. Traditional graphic design is a kind of “all pur-
pose-design” used in the production of various media. Modern
visual graphic design has its roots in the functional and rational
aesthetics that evolved in traditional graphic design over the cen-
turies for print media, and are now also used in industrial design,
information design, message design, and many other disciplines.
This main section includes the following sections: Graphic
design theory, Purpose for graphic design, Graphic design ob-
jectives, and Graphic design processes.
Graphic design theory
Over the past two centuries graphic design has been referred to
as applied art, commercial art, communication design, graphic
art, and visual communication. This has reflected the expansion
of communication media beyond the realm of the graphic arts.
The two-dimensional graphic arts have included book arts,
calligraphy, lithography, photography, printmaking, and typog-
raphy. Now graphic arts also embraces areas such as apps, expe-
riential design, interactive design, user-centred design, and web-
sites. We can all witness an exponentially expanding field of
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design discourses. There are courses and education in graphic
design all around the world, at all levels.
The field of graphic design differs from some other fields of
design such as fashion design and industrial design. According to
Armstrong (2009a) it is difficult to establish a defined body of
graphic design theory. Here, perceptions of design are persis-
tently dominated by commercial issues. It is defined by its mate-
rial products. Armstrong (2009a) argued that graphic design
theory is drawn from three sources: 1) Making, 2) Research, and
3) Thinking drawn from disciplines such as anthropology, art,
gender studies, history, philosophy, psychology, science, semiot-
ics, and sociology.
In the book Graphic design theory Readings from the field
(Armstrong, 2009b) twenty-four graphic designers explore the
aesthetic and social purposes of daily design practice. These au-
thors present what they think about what they experience is go-
ing on in the world of design discourse. Topics range from Bau-
haus, over postmodernism and social responsibility, to Internet.
Armstrong (2009b, p. 97) noted that digital technology fun-
damentally transformed graphic design “as one millennium
ended and another began.” The old avant-garde issues of author-
ship, social responsibility, and universality were reborn within
society’s newly decentralized network structure. Industry-stand-
ard software and restrictive web protocols formed a new univer-
sal graphic language, while the subjective shift expressed in New
Wave and postmodern design instilled a revived sense of agency
among designers.
Purpose for graphic design
Graphic design is one of many means of visual communication.
The purpose of work with graphic design is to find a suitable
presentation of the message content with respect to the intended
receivers, selected medium, and also to the economic situation.
A well-designed book appears as a “unified whole.” Here all de-
sign elements serve to enhance the content of the message.
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Melin (1999, 2011) found that it is more likely that a “graph-
ically complex” text will be read than a “plain” text. And it also
takes less time to read a graphically complex text than a plain
text. Readers often react in a positive way to texts with good ty-
pography and good illustrations. The overall visual look shapes
users’ perceptions of consistency and user satisfaction in brows-
ing tasks (Ozok and Salvendy, 2000).
Within a given area, such as a page in a book, a computer
screen, or a projected image, we may alter the presentation of
text (headings, running texts, captions, lists), pictures, tables,
and the background (margins, ornaments, page numbers,
spaces). When text and graphics are organised and grouped to-
gether into meaningful semantic clusters, this makes it easier for
readers to chunk the content (Kahn, Tan and Beaton, 1990). Vis-
ual grouping of text enables readers to get a sense of the overall
structure (Tullis, 1997), and help readers to remember the con-
tent/message in the text (Niemela and Saarinen, 2000). How the
content is grouped may influence the readers’ first impressions
of the content (Lindgaard et al., 2006). Readers will better re-
member the content and make fewer errors. Careful integration
of words and pictures engage people more effectively than words
or pictures alone (Sadoski and Paivio, 2001).
Producers of information and learning materials can facili-
tate communication, and also the learning processes of the read-
ers. Complicated language, in both texts and pictures, will impair
the understanding of the message. Active voice, clarity, compre-
hensibility, consistency, legibility, precision, readability, reading
value, simplicity, and structure are the key concepts in infor-
mation design. Meaningful units will help people process and re-
member the information better. Hiebert (1998) saw graphic de-
sign as interface design (p. 9):
In the largest sense, all graphic design serves as an interface.
It is the filter that facilitates communication between users
and products, places, processes, information, and services.
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This interface may have the purpose of description or per-
suasion. It may be in a process of one-way presentation or
two-way discourse (interactive). It has a functional rather
than a decorative purpose.
The purpose of designing a textbook is to present verbal and vis-
ual information in graphical form that provides clarity and co-
herence of the content in a well-structured form (LaSpina, 1998).
Cluttered and unstructured textbook layouts may confuse, demo-
tivate and distract learners. Good textbook design requires har-
mony between clarity and complexity.
In the mid 1990s, design started to become an essential as-
pect of the World Wide Web. Mutasa (2015) cited Eskilson
(2007) who stated (p. 392): “inexpensive software programs
have allowed literally hundreds of millions of amateurish pages
to clutter the web, creating a chaotic visual environment where
one rarely knows what to expect”. I’m ready to agree. It should
be obvious that anyone cannot suddenly become a good graphic
designer, nor can any-one become a good furniture carpenter be-
cause he/she easily can buy a set of fine chisels and a pair of high
quality saws.
This issue has continued to escalate as more programs are
released and available for anyone to create designs and pose
them as the result of graphic design. Eskilson (2007) continued
(p.415): “Desktop publishing software has allowed any amateur
Do it yourself (DIY) designers’ to publish works of poor quality”
(Eskilson 2007, p. 415).
Design is linked tightly to society as it both reflects and helps
to shape the world around us (Arntson, 2007). Designers are part
of this dynamic, important process. The role of graphic design is
functional. Unnecessary elements that are not important for the
processing and understanding of the information should be re-
moved. According to Bull (1999) there are many debates as to
what the role of a designer is. Terms like “Visual Communicator”
and “Information Architect” have arose. Many of these debates
13
have grown out of many designers’ misuse of available technol-
ogy and modern computers. Bull concluded (p. 54):
In our fast-paced, drive-thru oriented society, the graphic de-
sign community often suffers from the public perception of
what I have coined the “Kinko’s Mentality”. This is where an-
yone with a computer is legitimized as a designer and solu-
tions to your problem can be given form based on a solution
to another problem. And of course, it all perpetuates the idea
of the designer as just someone who just dresses things up.
The study of rational, functional aesthetics, as well as effective
and efficient layouts for all media makes graphic design interest-
ing for information design scholars. Graphic design is a tool with
which we can manipulate the raw materials–words in different
typefaces, sizes, styles, empty spaces, illustrations, colour, paper
and ink, and the final number of pages–to achieve the best pos-
sible communications between people in each case. Waller
(1980) provided a list of codifying rules for graphic language and
functions of the typographic organization of text in a book. Wal-
ler discussed two main categories (I) Rhetorical functions, and
(II) Access functions (p. 246):
I. Rhetorical functions
• About the argument.
– Summarization (title, summary).
– Introduction (foreword, preface, introduction).
• Within the argument
– Emphasis (underlining, italics, etcetera.).
– Transition (headings, space, etcetera.).
– Bifurcation (alternative options, parallel texts, interpola-
tion sections).
• Extra to the argument
– Substantiation (footnotes, appendices, references).
– Addenda (apologia, acknowledgements, etcetera.).
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II. Access functions
• About the book.
– Overviews (contents list, abstract).
– Definitives (glossary, index).
– Identifiers (title, author, style).
• Within the book.
– Locators (topical headings, typographic signalling).
– Descriptors (functional headings, captions).
• Extra to the book.
– Study guidance (recommended reading, exercises).
According to Margolin (2005) design has been recognized as a
dynamic activity whose methods, products and discourse are in-
teractive and constantly changing (p. 290).
During recent decades digital technologies have converged
with digital forms and affected developments in art, design, film,
literature, music, and video. New technologies continually chal-
lenge the way images are produced, and visual communication is
undergoing a profound transformation. Mustaqim (2020) argues
that traditional methods of learning graphic design and visual
communication design are no longer adequate because of the de-
mocratization of desktop digital technology in learning environ-
ments.
Graphic design objectives
Any graphical message should be legible, readable, and well
worth reading for the intended audience. In graphic design the
main objective is to provide aesthetic, functional, and organised
structure to all kinds of information sets. The intended individual
information interpreters might be seen as “readers.” They may
develop attention, awareness, emotions, new views, relaxation,
and understanding. In the writing of graphic design objectives,
it may be an advantage to use verbs like find, identify, read, and
recognise. These verbs all denote observable behaviour. A few
examples of performance objectives in graphic design may be:
15
• For a table: 100% of the users should be able to find the time
for departure of the train from station x to station y.
• For a package: 100% of the buyers should be able to read the
text on the package without any difficulty.
• For a non-fiction book: 100% of the readers should be able to
read the text in the book without any difficulty.
• For a logotype: 60% of the readers should be able to identify
a new logotype within six weeks.
Of course, we have to decide the actual numbers, with respect to
percent and allowed time, in each specific case. All graphical
messages should also be readable, and well worth reading for
the intended audiences. Thus, performance objectives in text de-
sign focus on readability. An example for a package may be:
100% of the buyers should be able to understand the text on the
package without any difficulty. Poor documents are typified by
long convoluted sentences, technical or jargon ridden vocabu-
lary, dense and unstructured typography, a lack of focus and un-
clear reading paths (Waller, 2018).
Mutsai (2015) concluded that graphic design goes further
than the aesthetic values. Graphic design affects people in many
different way. A substantial amount of people show a general un-
derstanding of graphic design. It is very powerful and creates
unique individual experiences.
In their book The graphic design idea book Inspiration from
50 masters Steven Heller and Gail Anderson (2016) offer a guide
to various approaches, ideas, and themes that designers have
used in order to enhance the effectiveness and the quality of their
respective works. Graphic design is an amalgam of different com-
ponents that results in commanding, entertaining and informa-
tive textual and visual communications. Readers will be aware of,
and experience the tools (and tropes) that comprise the graphic
designer’s toolkit. The authors show ideas and techniques that
may be viable influences or options for the readers in their own
work.
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Graphic design processes
Around 1850 the sculptor Horatio Greenough wrote, “form fol-
lows function”. The architect Louis Sullivan made this phrase fa-
mous in 1896. However, Mijksenaar and Westendorp (1999, p.
34) concluded that architects, designers, and engineers rarely
follow this rule. Many theories of design processes may have
been devised with three-dimensional products in mind. How-
ever, Adams (1999, p. 4) argued that there is no reason not to
apply these design processes to their two-dimensional relatives.
As long as engineering and product design have been part of
academia, there have been efforts in formulating and validating
models of design processes.
Some examples of design processes
Several different processes for problem solving are related to de-
sign. For example, Shadrin (1992, p. 29) discussed problem solv-
ing based on the following seven steps or “constants” as a system
for problem solving:
• Design activity. (What is the problem?)
• Analysis. (What is the purpose and function of the design?)
• Historical reference. (How was it done before?)
• Visual communication. (How can I communicate my idea?)
• Skills. (What skills do I need for this design?)
• Technology. (How will the design or product be made?)
• Evaluation. (Is this the best solution I can come up with?)
Roozenburg and Eekels (1995) presented a design process with
error elimination step by step. They noted the following steps:
• Problem definition
• Analysis
• Criteria
• Synthesis
• Preliminary design
• Simulation
• Expected properties
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• Evaluation (based on Criteria)
• Value of the design
• Decision (feedback to Synthesis and Analysis)
• Acceptable design
Roozenburg and Eekels stress the development of criteria to be
used in judging the success of a resulting design. The functioning
of a potential design solution is assessed in a simulation. The ob-
served properties of the assessed solution are used to infer the
properties that we may expect from the final product.
Bull (1999) noted the following steps in a graphic design pro-
cess (p. 53):
• Problem definition.
• Research.
• Conceptualization.
• Prototyping.
• Testing.
• Implementation.
• Documentation.
Adams (1999, p. 4) described how the writer and the designer are
working together in some manner using a mental model of the
user and of the way in which the communication will be used.
Within this mental model they construct the whole design con-
cept with verbal structures, and possibly illustrative pictures.
When a user approaches an information product, he or she
brings a history of previous interactions with that type of infor-
mation product. The user will have a cultural and social back-
ground, have a certain ability level and education, and have a cer-
tain motivation regarding the use of the product.
My own “message design and information design model” in-
cludes the following four process activities: 1) Analysis and syn-
opsis, 2) Production of draft, 3) Production of script, and 4) Pro-
duction of original and master. Each activity includes a design
sub-process, activity documentation, and a review process. Main
18
information design and message design materials will include
text (printed and/or spoken), symbols, pictures (drawings, pho-
tos, and/or video), typography and layout, light and light effects,
and sound and sound effects.
The creative message and information design processes include
four different production (P) and review activities (R). The pro-
duction activities are analysis and production (P1) of synopsis
(1), production (P2) of draft (2), production (P3) of script (3),
and production (P4) of original 4) and master (5). C = commis-
sion.
Often a team of people with skills in the different areas are
working together in a design team. The task may often be too
overwhelming for a single person.
Reduction
According to Mullet and Sano (1995, p. 38) the most fundamen-
tal design technique is reduction. Wherever possible the designer
should remove insignificant elements in layout, pictures, and
texts in order for significant design elements to be clearly no-
ticed. An elegant design must be reduced to its essential elements
and each element reduced to its essential form. As an example, a
good symbol for a sign is simple and clear. It has an optimal col-
our, dimension, form, and size (Barlow and Wogalter, 1991;
Dewar, 1999; Wogalter, 1999).
A text on a poster and on a screen, shall be bold enough
(Mayer, 1993b; Ormrod, 1989; Pettersson, 1993; Wileman,
1993), and large enough (Ormrod, 1989; Pettersson, 1993;
Wileman, 1993). Too small and also too large lettering will impair
19
legibility and reading. The text shall also have good readability
(e.g. Kirkman, 2003, 2005; Klare, 1985; Lipton, 2007; Mackie-
wicz, 2004; Pettersson, 1989; Young, 1989).
It is generally accepted that good design is bold, direct, and
simple. This ensures that significant design elements will be no-
ticed by removing insignificant elements wherever possible.
Most people read instructional materials selectively. Readers
rarely, if ever, begin at the beginning and read straight through
to the end. Usually we use a combination of browsing, reading
headings, looking at illustrations and captions, reading certain
parts of the text carefully, skimming others, and avoiding some
parts completely.
Information layout
An information layout differs from a decoration layout, in which
purely aesthetic aspects dominate. When illustrations in text-
books are not relevant to the prose contents, they do not facilitate
understanding. On the contrary, illustrations can actually have a
negative effect on reading comprehension and prose learning.
Therefore, illustrations should not be used only for decoration in
information and learning materials.
Aesthetically pleasing visuals may deceive the learners about
their instructional values. There are many situations where col-
our and typographic elements can be used for decoration. How-
ever, a decorative use of colour or typography should never be
mixed with the intended use to provide clear structure, simplicity
and hierarchy. It must always be very clear and easy for the re-
ceiver to understand when colour and typography are used for
decoration and when the use is meant to have some cognitive im-
portance.
Waller (2018, p. 143) remarked: “Much of the poorly de-
signed information we experience demonstrates the absence of
professional processes for design and testing, so our goal is to ar-
ticulate good practice to make it accessible to non-professionals.”
20
HATS
Baker (2001) used the acronym HATS for a starting point for de-
sign of simple business documents. The meaning of the acronym
is: Headings, Access, Typography and Spacing.
History of graphic design
People have been designing, planning and executing information
sets, information materials, and messages in all times. Mullet
and Sano (1995, p. 9) noted that whereas art strives to express
fundamental ideas and perspectives on the human condition, de-
sign is concerned with finding the representation best suited to
the communication of specific information content.
The Egyptians were the first culture to produce illustrated
manuscripts and wall decorations that really combined their
writing system with their illustrations. In the fifth century, the
Greeks introduced the concept of symmetry. This was based on
their observations about the natural world. Later, Roman artists
developed symmetric arrangements of letters and graphic ele-
ments. For centuries monks produced hand-drawn manuscripts
in their monasteries. They paid careful attention to the selection
and placement of each graphic element, and they tried to main-
tain a consistent style throughout every single work.
This main section includes the following sections: Step by
step, Modern graphic design, Research-based design, Typo-
graphic cultural heritage, and Graphic literacy.
Step by step
With the invention of the printing press the publisher or art di-
rector employed assistants to design typefaces for high aesthetic
value and good legibility (Meggs, 2005). At this point, more care
could be given to graphic design, illustrations and typography.
Book pages were often decorated with borders and various kinds
of ornaments as natural parts of the final design. Aesthetic and
artistic values of each historical period have been dominating in
traditional graphic design.
21
This is a right-hand page from the Gutenberg Bible. The page is
39.2 x 28.5 cm. The text-face is 28.7 x 19.3 cm. The page format
index is 137.5 and the text face format index is 148.7. Picture:
Art Institute Chicago.
22
Since the time of Gutenberg graphic design has developed as
new printing devices were invented. For centuries words and
pictures were effectively separated by less developed technol-
ogy. There was no method to print text and pictures together
with good quality until the lithographic process was invented.
Originally all lithographs were printed from a flat, litho-
graphic limestone on a flatbed press. Images as well as texts are
drawn on the flat surface of the stone with a greasy crayon, an
oily wash, or with India ink. After a chemical treatment the parts
of the stone without images and text elements are susceptible to
water. The printing ink is transferred to the paper from the sur-
face with the images and texts. Lithography was invented in 1798
and has been used for printing of lithographic art, but also adver-
tisements, cards, placards, posters, etc.
By 1834 specially treated zinc plates began to replace the
heavy stones. From 1860 to 1900, lithography was commonly
used for art reproductions, business cards, greeting cards, and
posters. The use of photomechanical metal plates in the early
1900s made the technique of hand transferring from stones ob-
solete. During this period lithography expanded the range of
graphic design.
With the invention of the half-tone screen it was possible to
print photographs as half-tone pictures. This information is con-
verted to the raster-dots that are employed in the printing of the
pictures. The printed dots vary in size from nothing or very small
to gradually increasing sizes. Smaller dots give the impression of
light grey areas in the image, and larger dots give the impression
of darker tones, and even black. The number of raster-dots de-
fines the quality of the final printed images.
The first colour photographs were reproduced in 1881. Ad-
vances in photoengraving and halftone techniques allowed the
regular use of photographs in print media by World War I. Be-
cause of the modern computer the methods for presenting pho-
tographs have changed radically. Halftone screens can now be
23
simulated with computer programmes that sidestep the entire
photoengraving process.
According to Duprey (2015) women type designers made an
appearance in the history of typography after the middle eight-
eenth century. The activity “graphic design” was established
when the task of designing was separated from the actual print-
ing process. However, the term “graphic design” did not appear
until the 1920s (Eskilson 2007, p. 29). Graphic design existed
over a long period before it was actually recognised for what it is
and differentiated from other professions that collaborate with
graphic designers.
Today the graphic designer has even more freedom than the
monks had during the Middle Ages. Now, it is possible to com-
bine words and pictures at will, in effective and efficient layouts
for all kinds of media. According to Baggerman (2000, p. 9) pos-
sibly the most important thing to keep in mind is that there’s no
recipe that’s going to make your design appropriate for all appli-
cations and users. It helps to think of any designed piece as an
interface, be it a book, retail store, shampoo bottle, or Web site.
Modern graphic design
According to Lester (1995, p. 168) the designer W. A. Dwiggins
was the first person to use the term graphic design. This was in
1922. During his career Dwiggins worked on more than 300 book
designs. Hurlburt (1981, p. 22) defined graphic design in the fol-
lowing way: “Graphic design is an umbrella term that covers a
broad range of printed and projected images. Its three principal
functions are to persuade, to identify, and to inform.” This view
is still common in advertising.
Avant-garde movements
At the beginning of the twentieth century avant-garde designers,
from the modern art movement, found inspiration from efficient,
functional, interesting, and powerful new machinery. The avant-
garde designers used visual forms that were fitting for the new
24
and modern world. They explored asymmetrical layout, func-
tionalism, geometric typefaces, hierarchy, minimalism, serial de-
sign, universality, and white “empty” space on paper. Modern
graphic design emerged out of the modern art movement.
The history of graphic design reveals that the manipulation
of visual structures has always been fundamental to our thinking
about how communication works (Davis, 2012, p. 22). During
several decades graphic design was gradually consolidated into a
design profession. The theoretical base for graphic design was
developed from avant-garde movements such as the Russian ar-
tistic and architectural philosophy Constructivism, the Dutch ar-
tistic movement de Stijl, and the German school Bauhaus that
combined crafts and fine arts. Bauhaus was famous for the new
approach to design. After World War II many art schools worked
with influences from these early movements and practices. In the
middle of the twentieth century graphic design became a profes-
sion in its own right.
Early design principles
Design scholars like György Kepes (1944), Rudolf Arnheim
(1954), and Donis Dondis (1973) wrote textbooks with a number
of design principles that were based on abstract painting and Ge-
stalt psychology. All of them had a focus on visual perception.
For these authors design is an abstract and formal activity. Ac-
cording to Lupton and Miller (1999, p. 62) a theory of design that
isolates visual perception from linguistic interpretation encour-
ages indifference to cultural meaning.
Kepes (1944) argued that visual communication is interna-
tional and universal. Visual communication knows no limits of
grammar, tongue, or vocabulary. This book was used as a college
textbook, and it had thirteen printings, in four languages.
Arnheim (1954) described picture perception as a matter of
responding to basic forms such as gestalt laws. An important
point is that visual perception includes the same behaviours that
we commonly consider only as matters of cognition or thinking.
25
Dondis (1973) discussed the use of several pairs of opposi-
tions as techniques for visual communication. A few examples
are: Balance–Instability, Simplicity–Complexity, and Transpar-
ency–Opacity. Oppositions present the graphic designer with ef-
fective means of making expressive visual communication.
Formal design methods
From the 1950s/1960s graphic designers abandoned the old
avant-garde ideals and begun using formal methods. They
worked with restricted typography in layouts based on strict
grids. The new International Typographical Style, also known
as the Swiss Style, favoured values of asymmetric layouts, clean-
liness, legibility, neutrality, objectivity, photographs rather than
drawings, rationality, and sans serif typefaces.
According to Horn (1999, p. 25–26) information design is
experiencing a variety of tensions. Graphic designers “learn in art
school to worship the gods of Style and Fashion, Novelty, Impact
and Self-expression.” Technical communication people “worship
the gods of Clarity, Precision, Legibility, Comprehensibility, and
(often) Simplicity.”
Presence in our daily lives
Hightower (1989, p. 7) noted that graphic design has a ubiqui-
tous presence in our daily lives that can engage and inform us or
simply add to the visual morass of our contemporary culture. Im-
portant and unimportant messages are graphically communi-
cated to a huge range of individuals throughout the day.
In some situations, graphic design and visual communica-
tion can intervene into problems on a functional level, which is
similar to artefacts from design disciplines such as architecture,
industrial design and product design (Bichler and Beier, 2016).
Here, graphic design has a role within design activism and a re-
lation to commercial design culture in a consumerist economy.
According to Bichler and Beier (2016) information design can
challenge the status quo and range from conventional leaflets to
interactive tools and data visualizations.
26
Today graphic designers work in “persuasion design,” as well
as in “instruction design,” and in “information design.” Graphic
design is a natural part of these design areas. Graphic designers
are responsible for typography and layout in information and
learning sets. The graphic designers may also produce the final
master for printing.
Armstrong (2009a) developed the communication theories
and semiotic ideas that were incorporated into design education
from the early twentieth century in order to examine the value of
ambiguity across the disciplines advertising, art, and design. In
this work, Armstrong employed four analytical categories: 1)
Concept, 2) Context, 3) Form, and 4) Function.
Since graphic design has the power to inform and persuade
people in many different areas Kanat (2019) examined how uni-
versity students in the graphic design departments of selected
universities in Turkey perceived the concept of graphic design. A
total of 142 students (87 female and 55 male) created 145 differ-
ent metaphors. The majority of the students produced abstract
and positive metaphors. Only 26 metaphors were mentioned by
more than one student. The five most repeated metaphors for
graphic design are: Dreaming (7), Freedom (6), Universe, (6),
Mathematics (4), and Path (4). The remaining 119 metaphors
were only mentioned by one student. There were some differ-
ences in perceptions of graphic design based on gender and
grades. These results show that the future graphic designers are
not a homogeneous group.
Research-based design
In accordance with Friedman (1989, p. 10) the taint of commerce
has relegated graphic design to the status of “second class disci-
pline” in the academic realm. In order to better this low status,
the discipline needs to adopt more theory. However, at present
much of the work is based on intuition, and some on fundamen-
tal principles.
27
Usability testing
According to Zwaga, Boersma, and Hoonhout (1999, p. xix) re-
searchers that are active in a field of applied behavioural science
implicitly expect that designers concerned with the usability of
their products will eagerly pick up the fruits of scientific investi-
gations and use them in their own designs. Many documents with
detailed guidelines have been published.
However, to the disappointment of behavioural scientists
and ergonomists designers do not usually read their handbooks,
or their scientific journals, and they are not prepared to apply ex-
perimental data to their work. Often designers are not even
aware that this guideline information exists. The efforts were
wasted because they did not understand what designing was all
about. However, Dillon (1994) found that designers seek further
guidelines and usability standards, and that they are prepared to
apply guideline information.
Adams (1999, p. 19) concluded that designing of good infor-
mation-giving material is a difficult task, but it is one that can be
assisted greatly by appropriate usability testing. Wogalter (1999)
noted that if the testing shows that a number of people do not
understand the message, or worse, misunderstand it, then the
material must be redesigned and tested again–until it is under-
stood by the intended audience. A push for research-based infor-
mation design must come from the information designers. In
each case members of the specific user group may be invited to
evaluate preliminary texts and sketches for drawings and photo-
graphs, that may be needed in each project.
Influence from other disciplines
By adopting approaches from interdisciplinary research graphic
designers can now both affirm and question their own intuitive
inclinations. They can place this process in conversation with
their peers, and also with the lay public. In 2006 Bennett argued
(p. 16):
28
Graphic design is at a crossroads. Looking back, one sees de-
signers engaged in a process where intuition informs the de-
velopment of visual rhetoric intended to evoke a response
from a target audience. Looking ahead, one sees them en-
gaged in a process where research is integrated into the de-
sign of objects and experiences for and with the audience.
According to Bennett (2006) the discipline of graphic design in-
cludes, but are not limited to, the following five theories:
• Alignment.
• Colour.
• Contrast.
• Hierarchy.
• Repetition.
These theories have been proven through a long history of suc-
cessful experimentation in professional practices.
Practitioners who do opt to inform their intuition with the-
ory typically look to other disciplines within the humanities and
sciences (Bennett, 2006, p. 17). Cognitive, cultural, literary, rhe-
torical, semiotic, and social theories for information have long
been popular choices among graphic designers.
Harland et al. (2018) studied graphic design research and
they concluded that there is an immediate need to clarify and de-
velop the role of graphic design research for the theoretical un-
derpinning of graphic design education.
Functional principles
Providing clarity, providing emphasis, and providing unity are
three of the functional principles in information design (Petters-
son, 2010). Information materials should be as clear, simple, un-
ambiguous and transparent as possible. We should avoid all the
unusual typefaces, as well as all fonts that are too small or too
large. Font size and typeface must be adapted to meet the limita-
tions of each medium, and the appropriate technical production.
The most important elements in an information material may be
29
emphasized to enhance attention and perception. Emphasis may
be used to attract, to direct and to keep attention. Information
materials should have an “overall coherence and togetherness.”
Any inconsistencies in information materials may confuse the re-
ceivers and cause a lot of trouble.
Influence from end-users
In one study graphic designers and end-users worked together to
design asthma information in Australia (Taffe, 2017). The end-
users challenged graphic designers’ traditional use of intuition
and made creative and rich contributions. Co-design was a valu-
able approach for the graphic designers. However, for this type
of task information designers are clearly more suitable than
graphic designers. Information designers are used to work with
representatives of the intended users.
According to Falcão and Almendra (2017) professional
graphic designers acknowledge clients to be a very significant
part of the final work produced and see them as co-authors.
Graphic design students should be enrolled in tasks with a high
degree of complexity. They need to analyse data, discover oppor-
tunities, discover problems and understand the environment.
There should be no briefing but an open call for action in a cer-
tain area or context.
There is little awareness among young adults on the issues
of fashion sustainability. These consumers need information on
how to utilize, care for and dispose of fashion items. Perez and
Lonsdale (2018) explored ways of how fashion brands can com-
municate a more sustainable way of consuming fashion to young
consumers in the UK. They used Focus groups with the objective
of identifying the main issues relating to fashion consumption
including the lack of awareness and disposal of garments.
A collaborative workshop involving young consumers who
created a fashion brand to educate consumers through infor-
mation and design of garment labels following good principles of
information and typographic design. These principles included:
30
aesthetics, colour, consistency, layout, legibility, relationship be-
tween text and image, structure, text, and unity. Usability testing
identified further design improvements
The findings showed that overall the fonts, illustrations, and
simplicity of the labels were considered good, legible and rele-
vant. In alignment with information design principles and sus-
tainable standards, participants chose the labels that were simple
and minimal in design, and with clear instructions. The study
supports the need to educate young consumers about sustainable
fashion. Then consumers can change their purchasing behav-
iours.
Typographic cultural heritage
In Slovenia Jožef Blaznik (1800–1872) developed a small print-
ing company into the best printing house in the country. He
printed German and Slovene prints for his clients, and also for
his own publishing house. Blaznik supported book production in
Slovenia by printing the most important works of that time.
In order to study the differences among various typefaces
Možina, Podlesek and Bračko (2018) analysed and digitised the
“Blaznik typeface” with some optimization. They compared the
digitised Blaznik typeface with Palatino and Times, both widely
used in regular printed publications.
In order to study the influence of digital printing technology,
substrate, type size on legibility and preserved information they
analysed chemical, and physical properties of the paper, and the
actual prints. Furthermore, they analysed legibility and typo-
graphic properties.
The results showed that the modern-styled Blaznic typeface
gave the best legibility results among the three tested typefaces.
The Blaznic typeface could be used in different graphic design
solutions in printed publications, still ensuring good legibility,
and appropriate speed of reading.
The results revealed that the selection of a printer is more
important for the resistance of prints to light than the quality of
31
the paper. The differences between the tested papers were rela-
tively small.
The results of this study contributed to the preservation of
Slovenian cultural heritage. According to Možina, Podlesek and
Bračko (2018) digitisation of calligraphy, handmade typography
(i.e. metal or wood typefaces), lettering, and old inscriptions can
contribute to local economy, national awareness, and in addition
even add international recognition. This is an important proce-
dure for the permanence of a cultural heritage.
Graphic literacy
Bedward et al. (2009) used the term graphic literacy for the use
of visual representations including, but not limited to, graphs,
models, pictures, and other visual symbols. These researchers
found that the use of graphic literacy in elementary science edu-
cation can enhance problem-solving and reasoning skills. Waller
(2017, p. 197 f) used the term graphic literacy for typographic
literacy.
Successful practitioners understand the relations between
various design choices and audience effects. A practice-based
trend in design-research (Lupton, 2004) is exploring what we
can learn from how professional designers approach problems.
According to Friedrich (2017) design-researchers need to find a
language in order to discuss graphic form and structure. Com-
municators who understand how rhetorical effects are created
through graphic design are able to reflect on and improve their
practice (Schneller, 2017, p. 331–332). This may be called grap-
hic design literacy.
The terms graphic design literacy, graphic literacy, graph-
icacy, and graphical literacy, seem to represent quite similar
concepts, all include the ability to understand and work with dif-
ferent kinds of graphics. People have used maps, pictures, and
other types of graphics throughout the ages, since or before writ-
ten verbal language. Nowadays graphics are far more readily
available and widely used than ever before (Wilmot, 1999).
32
Aesthetic principles
Aesthetics is usually regarded as a branch of philosophy, along
with epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. It is the young-
est branch of philosophy with its own name. The perception of
aesthetics is always subjective (Maity, Madrosiya, and Bhattac-
harya, 2016). Aesthetics implies a hierarchical judgement in
which the elements of any compositions, and their organisations,
are considered more or less appealing to the senses by virtue of
their ability to create higher emotional, intellectual, or moral ap-
preciations in people. The group “Aesthetic principles” is one of
the four groups of information and message design principles.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Aesthetic
proportion principle, and Harmony principle.
Aesthetic proportion principle
Basically, proportion is a mathematical concept. However, the
concept aesthetic proportion principle is very much a subjective
concept. It is related to the appropriate and pleasing relations be-
tween elements in information and learning materials. Aesthetic
proportion deals with aesthetic aspects of information sets.
This main section includes the following sections: Aesthetic
designs, Fine art, and Information aesthetics.
Aesthetic designs
We may all have different ideas of what we find beautiful and re-
warding, and what we find boring, disturbing, distracting or even
ugly. When a design is said to be out of proportion it is lacking
appropriate relations. It may be disproportionate, exaggerated or
overemphasized. Aesthetic designs are perceived as easier to use
than less-aesthetic designs (Lidwell, Holden, and Butler, 2010, p.
20). The graphic designer and the information designer may:
• Be careful using proportions according to the divine propor-
tion, or the principle of the golden ratio.
33
• Find out receiver preferences of aesthetic designs.
• Find out receiver preferences of aesthetic proportions.
• Never mix a decorative use of colour with cognitive im-
portance.
Fine art
Throughout history all cultures have produced musical, verbal as
well as visual art. Fine art is usually assumed to mean the visual
arts, like architecture, painting, and sculpture. The impulse to
create, to recognise and to generate order seems to be universal.
Different reasons
One of the earliest human artistic acts was to spend more time
shaping tools than was functionally necessary. Palaeolithic Ne-
anderthal man carefully decorated their spearheads. Some theo-
rists argue that the origin of human creativity can be found in
these early crafts of making tools and weapons.
Throughout history many people have produced art for dif-
ferent reasons, such as religious devotions, special commemora-
tions, adornments, and also for personal expressions. Art has
also been created on many scales, all the way from small jewel-
lery and miniature paintings up to monuments, murals, paint-
ings, and huge buildings. The broadest generalisation may be
that the visual arts are spatial rather than temporal. We must ex-
perience literature and music serially in time, and visual arts
must be experienced in space. Space is an illusion in painting.
Here an indication of three dimensions on a two-dimensional
surface is rendered by conventions.
However, the conventions vary during different periods and
in different places. In many situations it is not at all possible to
“understand the meaning of fine art.” To some degree, the phys-
ical materials that artists use will influence the properties of the
resulting artwork. As an example, a fresco painting on a wall has
visual properties that are different from the properties of an oil
painting on canvas.
34
Divine proportion
In fine art classical formats are based on the divine proportion,
or the principle of the golden ratio. The divine proportion is an
irrational number that is calculated from a line that is divided
into two segments in a certain way. The ratio of a line (a+b) to
the larger segment (a) is the same as the larger segment (a) is to
the shorter segment (b). Thus, (a+b)/a = a/b (Livio, 2002, p. 3).
According to the Divine Proportion (a+b) is to a, as a is to b.
This mathematical relationship forms an irrational number,
i.e. a number that never ends. Around 300 B.C. Euclid of Alexan-
dria, in Egypt, provided the first mathematical definition of the
golden ratio (Livio, 2002, p. 3). (Calculated with ten decimals
the golden quota is 1.6180339887.) In the early 20th century the
American mathematician Mark Barr named this irrational num-
ber “phi” in honour of the Greek Sculptor Phidias (Livio, 2002,
p. 5). Historians believe that Phidias lived circa 490–430 B.C.
The principle of the golden ratio is comparable to the well-
known Fibonacci numbers: 0–1–1–2–3–5–8–13–21–34–55–
89, and so forth. In this sequence any term after the first two is
the sum of the previous two terms. This property is a close ap-
proximation of the golden quota (8/5 = 1.6). A golden rectangle
therefore has sides of approximately the same proportions, 8/5.
Any such rectangle is enlarged in size by being multiplied by 1.62
and reduced in size by being multiplied by 0.62.
A golden number has a slightly wider ratio (3/2 = 1.5) than
the golden ratio. So, the golden quota and the golden number
are close, but they are different. This difference becomes im-
portant and obvious in large formats. Both the golden ratio and
the golden number are used quite often. Also, the ratio 5/3 is
close to the golden ratio, but different (1.67). This ratio is slightly
higher, and sometimes seen in advertising. This format is also
35
used in art. For example, we can go to a store that sells artist ma-
terials and buy a ready-made frame with a fully prepared canvas
called M10. The size of Marine 10 is 33 x 55 cm.
When we divide a golden rectangle (left) according to the golden
ratio by defining a square (middle, blue part), the rest of the
original rectangle (yellow part) gets the proportions of the
golden ratio. We can repeat this process (right) and get another
rectangle (yellow) with the proportions of the golden ratio. In
theory we can repeat this process forever. However, in reality
there are always physical limits to do this.
When an isosceles triangle has the ratio of the perpendicular
a to the base b in the Golden ratio, it is called a Golden triangle.
Similarly, there is the Golden spiral which grows logarithmically.
When diagonal lines are drawn in a pentagon, several examples
of the golden ratio emerge. At the same time phi is the property
between the diagonal and one side in the pentagon. The five-
point star is used in many different situations.
Traditionally, the golden rectangle has been considered aes-
thetic in the western world (Arnheim, 1974; Berndal and Frigyes,
1990; Bringhurst, 2015; Koblanck, 1999; Moriarty, 1991; Petters-
son, 2002; Pettersson and Strand, 2006). For 2,500 years the
principle of the golden ratio has been used in art and architecture
to create so called harmonious proportions. The golden ratio is a
36
well-known standard format for fine art, flags, graphic design,
symbols and more. During the nineteenth century the golden ra-
tio was much used in painting academies.
According to Thapa and Thapa (2018, p. 189) “an artist
searches for the Truth in the Beauty, and a scientist searches for
the Beauty in the Truth”. We can find examples of divine propor-
tion in aesthetics, architecture, fauna, flora, geometry, human
body, mathematics, music, nature, poetry and visual arts.
Dichotomy
In the Greek mythology there is a perpetual struggle between two
sets of opposing forces or ideals, the Apollonian and Dionysian
dichotomy. Apollo and Dionysus were both sons of Zeus. Apollo
was the god of common sense, distance, dreams, healing, reason,
self-control, and the sun. Dionysus was the god of wine, god of
ecstasy, emotion, excess, passion, rage, and wildness. The Apol-
lonian ideal celebrates human creativity through logical thinking
and reason. The Dionysian ideal is based on chaos and it appeals
to our emotions and instincts.
The Apollonian and Dionysian philosophical dichotomy is
commonly associated with the German philosopher Friedrich
Nietzsche (1844–1900). While music is the essence of Dionysus,
the visual arts share the same features as Apollon. Paglia (1990)
used this dichotomy as the basis in her theory of art and culture.
Here the Apollonian is light and structured, and associated with
males. The Dionysian is dark and chthonic, dwelling within or
under the earth, and associated with females.
Information aesthetics
Norman (2002) argued that visual attractiveness is important
for the cognitive domain since the affective domain is highly re-
lated to human cogitation, our action of thinking deeply about
something.
Lidwell, Holden, and Butler (2010, p. 20) found that aes-
thetic designs are perceived as easier to use than less-aesthetic
37
designs. Information aesthetics deal with aesthetic aspects of in-
formation sets. In some situations, art may be used for infor-
mation, and information may in some situations be classified as
art. A good example of this is the brightly coloured posters de-
signed by artists like Jules Chéret (1836–1932), and Henri de
Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901).
Chéret is often called both “the father of modern advertising”
and “the father of the poster.” He produced about 1,200 posters.
Toulouse-Lautrec is often called “the king of posters.” A register
of his complete works shows in all 350 lithographs, of which
about 30 are posters. The 27-year-old Toulouse-Lautrec became
famous over a night, when his poster “Moulin Rouge: La Goulue”
was put on walls and advertising pillars all over Paris in October,
1891. Toulouse-Lautrec revolutionized the art of posters and gave
the commercial poster the status as an independent art form.
Jules Chéret, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and many other artists
who worked with commercial posters did not follow the old prin-
ciple of the Golden Ratio.
Aesthetic value
Aesthetic value is a judgment of value based on the appearance
of an object and the emotional responses that it evokes. The aes-
thetic value is difficult to assess objectively. The aesthetic value
of a message is how the intended receivers perceive the message
with respect to its beauty. With the invention of the printing
press the publisher or art director, as previously noted, employed
assistants to design typefaces for high aesthetic value and good
legibility (Meggs, 2005). More care could be given to graphic de-
sign, illustrations and typography. Aesthetic and artistic values
of each historical period have been dominating in traditional
graphic design. Metallinos (1990) developed a schema that ex-
plains three forms of picture presentations in accordance with
their functional aesthetic value.
Dwyer and Dwyer (1989), however, found that aesthetically
pleasing visuals might not be of great instructional value (p. 122):
38
“The value of different types of visual illustrations is not a valid
assessment of instructional effectiveness that is, aesthetically
pleasing visuals may not be of great instructional value.” And
Holmes (1993) argued that it is possible that aesthetically pleas-
ing information material will be noticed and because of that used
better than material without any aesthetic qualities. Malamed
(2009, p. 203) noted that when viewers look at both pleasant and
unpleasant pictures, they consistently demonstrate an emotional
reaction indicated by pronounced brain activity that does not oc-
cur when they look at neutral pictures.
A format index
It is difficult to compare pages and pictures, especially in differ-
ent media and in different sizes. To objectively compare formats
of pages, papers, and different kinds of images and pictures I
have developed a simple format index. It is calculated as the
(height/width x 100). Regardless of the size of the individual ar-
tefacts all wide formats get index numbers below 100. All square
formats get index 100, and all vertical formats get index values
above 100.
The format index can be used to compare individual pages,
pictures, sheets of paper, and text faces (as a page format index,
a paper format index, a picture format index, or a text face for-
mat index). When we use a standard European A-series paper
and a G-series paper horizontally the index is 71. When we in-
stead use the same pieces of papers vertically the index is 141.
(The page format index for the Gutenberg Bible is 137.5). When
we use a US-letter paper horizontally the index is 77, and the ver-
tical index is 129. For the horizontal golden ratio format, the in-
dex is 62, and for the vertical format the index is 162.
The format index can also be used to compare pictures and
projected images. For the movie format Cinemascope, the index
is 43, for Showscan 46, for Vistavision Europe 54, for Cinema U
and IMAX 69, and for a standard film the index is 75. For the
effective picture area of a projected slide in Europe the index is
39
65, for the 2017 version of PowerPoint 56, for the old version of
PP 75, and for an OH 78. The image area on a horizontally held
iPad Air2 has index 75, and when the iPad is held vertically the
index is 133. A traditional TV screen has index 75, and a HDTV
has index 56.
This illustration shows some examples of format index values.
Study of book pages
For many years many designers and fine artists have been using
the proportions of the golden ratio in their work. It can be used
in page formats, paintings, and picture formats in print products,
e.g. in books. Furthermore, some handbooks in typography and
graphic design recommend the use of the golden ratio. In her
book Creative Advertising, Moriarty (1991, p. 237) noted that:
“Most quality books and magazines use page sizes that are close
to a 3:5 ratio. The amount of type on the page relative to the over-
all page size is roughly 3:5. The proportions of the page margins
to the text area are also 3:5.” The Penguin publishing house has
used the page format 111 x 180 mm (3:4.9) for more than half a
century for the Penguin Classic series (Bringhurst, 2015, p. 157).
In order to study if, or, and to what degree, the golden ratio
is a good principle for design of harmonious book pages we car-
ried out a study with 126 university students from Sweden and
44 from USA (Pettersson and Strand, 2006). Subjects were asked
to fold a white paper, size 45x45 cm, to a book page that they felt
was the most harmonious. There was no time limit.
The results showed that there is a large variety in the values
of what a harmonious book page is. On average the most harmo-
nious book page is 22.7 cm high and 16.6 cm wide. The mean
40
area is 382 cm2. Very few subjects created book pages according
to the principle of the golden ratio. There was no notable differ-
ence between the perceptions of women when it comes to a har-
monious format on a book page. In this study the mean format
index was 137 for men and 135 for women. These format indexes
are close to regular paper, and far away from the golden ratio.
The study showed no significant difference in values of subjects
in the two countries. We concluded that the golden ratio is not a
good principle when it comes to design of book pages.
A study of headings
The golden ratio has been used in the past to estimate suitable
levels for headlines in a document (Berndal and Frigyes, 1990).
The size of body type is multiplied with 1.62, and then rounded
off. If the body type is ten Didot points (=10.7 pica points), and
there are four levels for headings in the document, the following
sizes are adequate: 10, 16, 26 and 42 Didot points.
The use of the golden ratio in art and design seem to be based
on tradition rather than on facts. In one experiment I studied
how subjects perceived different headings. In 2002, students at
Mälardalen University in Sweden were asked to carefully study
and then rank six versions of page layouts (Pettersson, 2003, p.
45). There is a relatively large spread in their perceptions. The six
layout versions were ranked according to the alternative “best,”
or “second best” by at least one person. Two clear groups
emerged, one group for “better,” and one group “not as good”.
To the “better group” belongs: classic book typography (av-
erage ranking 2.5), the x-law with normal body type (2.6) and my
model for study books (2.8). These three variants are considered
clearly better than the ones that belong to the “not as good”
group. The “not as good” group consists of the X-law with bold
text type (3.8), and the two layout versions that are based on the
principle of the golden ratio (4.6 and 4.7). The principle of the
golden ratio apparently gave too much difference between the
41
type sizes. Also note that the two variants with bold headlines be-
long to the group “not as good”.
Harmony principle
The harmony principle is one of the two aesthetic principles in
information design (Pettersson, 2010). Harmony describes the
effect of the pleasing interaction, and combination of elements to
form a consistent and orderly whole of all elements in a design.
Certain design elements look good when they are placed together
and when they interact in a final design. Other design elements
may look ugly and they may also be distracting. Harmony in de-
sign can be said to be a pleasing arrangement and combination
of elements to form a consistent and orderly whole. We need to
find a good vertical as well as a good horizontal balance of graph-
ical elements on a page and on a screen.
This main section includes the following sections: Harmony,
Harmony in typography, and Harmony in colour.
Harmony
Kandinsky wrote (1912/1977 p. 47): “never has there been a time
when it was more difficult than it is today to formulate a complete
theory...” Here Kandinsky was referring to a theory of harmony
and a firm artistic basis. In fact, this is still difficult, and not only
with reference to art, beauty and harmony, but also with refer-
ence to design, and information design. We can:
• Develop standard templates for graphic design.
• Find a good balance between design elements.
• Find good colour harmonies for the documents.
• Use standard templates for graphic design.
The term harmony may be used in all design disciplines to mean
that the design decisions, and the design elements all fit together.
Graphic designers and information designers often use the term
harmony in discussions on typography and layout. There is har-
mony in information material when all design elements fit well
42
together and form harmonious relationships. Harmony is often
closely related to unity (Wileman, 1993). Both balance and con-
trast are important aspects of harmony (Mullet and Sano, 1995).
And Arntson (2007, p. 51) stated: “Design is the arrangement of
shapes. They underlie every drawing, painting, and graphic de-
sign.”
Harmony in typography
Harmony in typography will be achieved when there is good re-
lationship between the individual elements in the design and the
“wholeness.” A balanced typography gives an impression of
credibility and quality.
Balance is the sum of all the elements, the horizontals and the
verticals, the darks and the lights that make up the design. Man
has an intuitive sense of balance. Information material should
display good balance, in a manner, which is interesting but not
disturbing or distracting. Balance can be formal or informal. For-
mal balance has total symmetry and it is felt to be static and har-
monious. It may, however, also be quite boring.
Composition can be used to direct the viewers (Wileman, 1993,
p. 93). Informal balance contributes to a feeling of dynamism
(Fleming and Levie, 1978; Pettersson, 1993). It may attract atten-
tion to a specific picture, to a part of a text or to the entire infor-
mation material among other options. However, imbalance and
inconsistent use of colours, graphics, and typography, have all
been found to reduce learning (Bradshaw, 1996, 2003).
Contrast is the difference between the brightest and the dim-
mest parts of a picture or of the parts of a text. The contrast
should be clear and distinct. It should differentiate image ele-
ments from one another, regardless of the colour, and regardless
of the colour-contrast effects.
Contrast in typography may be achieved by using different
colours, fonts, sizes, and styles. It is far too common with
43
improper contrast. It is quite often a more or less even shade of
grey or chromatic colours. Different hues may have the same
value, and as a result almost no contrast. Another common prob-
lem is the use of too small symbols and too small type. Text must
always be large enough. The difference in resolution in different
media is very important. We tend to order impressions that form
natural opposites, thereby reinforcing one another, in groups.
Harmony in colour
Historical colour theories have included principles used to create
harmonious colour combinations in architecture and in paint-
ing. Perceived relationships between different pure colours have
been visually represented with colours displayed on a circle, a
“colour wheel.” Harmonious combinations of pure colours will
look good together. Colour combinations that have been consid-
ered especially pleasing have been called colour harmonies, or
colour chords. The artist may use:
• Any two colours that are opposite each other in any of many
colour wheels.
• Any three colours that are equally spaced and forming a tri-
angle on a colour wheel.
• Any four colours forming a square or a rectangle on a colour
wheel.
A colour wheel shows relationships between primary colours,
secondary colours, and tertiary colours.
• The “primary colours” serve as the foundation for creating all
other colours in the visible spectrum. In painting blue, red
and yellow are the primary colours. (However, in light and
physics the primary colours are blue, green and red.)
• The three “secondary colours” are green (mixing blue and yel-
low), orange (mixing red and yellow), and purple (mixing red
and blue).
44
• The six “intermediate, or tertiary colours” are combinations
of primary and secondary colours. These colour combinations
are: blue-green, blue-violet, red-orange, red-violet, yellow-
orange, and yellow-green.
In theory it should be possible to mix all colours. However, dyers,
painters, and printers preferred pure pigments to primary colour
mixtures because the mixtures are considered too dull. Further
see the section “Colour wheels” in the main section “Colour
theories”.
Colour and typographic elements can be used for decoration.
However, it must always be very clear and easy for the receiver to
understand when colour and typography is used for decoration,
and when the use is meant to have some cognitive importance.
45
Aesthetic theories
Aesthetics is usually regarded as a branch of philosophy, along
with epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. It is the young-
est branch of philosophy with its own name. Aesthetics implies a
hierarchical judgement in which the elements of any composi-
tions, and their organisations, are considered more or less ap-
pealing to the senses by virtue of their ability to create higher
emotional, intellectual, or moral appreciations in people.
Aesthetic theories that are based on perception favour sen-
sation over intellect, favour seeing over reading, favour univer-
sality over cultural differences, and favour physical immediacy
over social mediation (Lupton and Miller, 1999, p. 62).
According to Mooney (2020, p. 89) it is not enough to look
at aesthetics as an isolated field of study to make sense of the aes-
thetic experience in the 21st century. More than ever, it is neces-
sary to understand aesthetics in the wider context of a changing
and technologically progressive society.
The group art and aesthetic disciplines includes disciplines
such as aesthetics, architecture, art history, computer graphics,
film, fine art, iconography, iconology, illustration, music, paint-
ing, photography, and sculpture. At present the aesthetics theory
for Information Design includes, but is not at all limited to, the
following two fields of knowledge: 1) Beauty theories, and 2) Col-
our theories.
This main section includes the following sections: Philoso-
phy of art, Philosophy of beauty, Aesthetics and usability.
46
Beauty theories
Philosophers have made many attempts to define beauty. In the
18th century philosophers agreed that beauty could not be de-
fined in terms of the qualities shared by all beautiful objects.
Three theories concerning the nature of beauty are: 1) The formal
theory, 2) The emotional theory, and 3) The relational theory.
The formal theory locates beauty in the qualities of objects.
According to this theory an object may be considered beautiful
when it has integrity, unity, proportion, and splendour. How-
ever, the emotional theory identifies beauty with the mental re-
sponses of the audience, the listeners and the viewers, and their
aesthetic experiences. According to the relational theory beauty
includes aspects from the other two theories.
Aestheticians value art for its originality and expressiveness.
Its focus is on individual artefacts crafted through the manual
and aesthetic virtuosity of the artist. Design, in contrast, is valued
for its fitness to a particular user and to a particular task (Mullet
and Sano, 1995, p. 8). While a painter or a sculptor can choose
any imaginable shape, a designer is limited by the function of the
thing being designed. Of course, many designers want to provide
aesthetic experiences where possible, but the design aesthetic is
always related to the intended function of the information prod-
ucts intended for widespread distribution and use.
Philosophy of art
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714–1762), a leading German
philosopher, introduced the term aesthetics in 1735. However, a
large number of philosophers from Plato to the present day have
discussed “the philosophy of art.” Seward Barry (1994) defined
aesthetics broadly as an “appreciation of the beautiful,” and more
narrowly as a “philosophy of art, its creative sources, forms, and
effects.” Aestheticians study all the arts, from all countries, and
from all periods of history, in relation to their cultural, physical,
and social environments. They try to organise and understand
knowledge of art in systematic ways.
47
The philosophy of art includes traditional, philosophical the-
ories of art: for example: Aristotelian, empiricist, existentialist,
feminist, idealist, Marxist, phenomenological, Platonic, post-
modernist, and rationalist aesthetics theories.
Such theoretical positions inform, but are also tested by, crit-
ical and interpretive articles about particular types or examples
of artworks. The information designer may focus attention upon
the visual arts–as opposed to dance, literature, music, and thea-
tre. Philosophers have encountered difficulties in framing a the-
ory of “aesthetic perception” and, more importantly, of the re-
markable variety of visual arts.
Definitions of art
A number of philosophers have made attempts to define art. Usu-
ally definitions of art aim at establishing a set of characteristics
applicable to all kinds of fine arts, as well as the differences that
set them apart. After some hundreds of years of discussions aes-
theticians have not yet agreed upon a definition of art. Some say
that it is impossible to define art.
Art criticism may be defined as the process of judging the
aesthetic qualities of visual art, mainly painting, sculpture, and
architecture, but also craft. This is specialised field, but judge-
ments about art have appeared since ancient times. In the West-
ern world, reflection on art began with the philosophers of an-
cient Greece. Plato discussed proportion as the source of beauty,
and imitation, as the primary mode of art. Aristotle identified dif-
ferent kinds of imitation. Xenocrates wrote about painting and
sculpture, and the ideal synthesis of imitation and proportion.
Experiences of art
It is a common belief that a person’s response to art is a mystical
experience that has no basis in reality and serves no practical
purpose. But the opposite may very well be true. Any positive re-
sponse to art is a phenomenon of reality that may reflect a per-
son’s most important values. Another belief is that art is entirely
subjective and cannot be evaluated on an objective basis.
48
Discussions about how people experience art have been
dominated by theories devised in the 18th century. Some philos-
ophers still think of the typical experience of art as contemplative
and disinterested, different from everyday concerns. A few mod-
ern aestheticians have stressed the continuity between aesthetic
experience and everyday experience. The social sciences, such as
anthropology, archaeology, and sociology, help aesthetics re-
searchers explain the forms that art has taken in various cultures,
and how the arts are related to economic activities, government,
religion, and science. Theories of post structuralism and inter-
pretation theory propose strategies of critical evaluation that in-
corporate multiple viewpoints and accept a basic indeterminacy
in meaning.
Interpretations of art
In aesthetics one area of study is concerned with the study of the
interpretations of art, how people criticise, enjoy, and use art.
What happens in the minds of people when they listen to music,
look at paintings, or read poetry? Knowledge of psychology helps
the aestheticians to understand how people act, desire, feel, hear,
imagine, learn, see, and think, in relation to art and aesthetic ex-
periences.
One question is whether strictly deductive reasoning based
on premises descriptive of the artworks can back evaluative
judgements. According to some opinions, judgments are merely
expressions of personal preferences. Thus, these opinions cannot
be considered true or false. Another basic question is whether
conflicts over interpretations of a work of art can be settled by
facts about the work, or whether more than one interpretation of
a specific work is correct and possible or not.
For the media theorist Marshall McLuhan Cubist art re-
quired “instant sensory awareness of the whole” (McLuhan,
1964, p. 13). With Cubism one could not ask about the content or
message in the artwork, but rather consider the artwork in its en-
tirety.
49
Metaphysics of art
Aestheticians ask questions like these. What access does art give
people to reality? What kind of entity is a work of art? Works of
art may be physical objects, such as sculptures. However, not all
works of art are physical objects. A dance and a theatrical perfor-
mance may be as aesthetically relevant as any physical object. A
flat painting can represent spatial depth and fast movements.
What the painting represents may often seem more aesthetically
relevant than its physical dimensions.
Some philosophers have concluded that works of art repre-
sent mental entities, such as dreams and visions. Other philoso-
phers have noticed that artists may express their attitudes, emo-
tions, and personality traits in their art, and have concluded that
art works belong in a category with non-verbal communications
rather than with physical objects. Still other philosophers argue
that works of art exist only in the minds of their creators and of
their audiences. The question whether art can provide knowledge
of, or insight into, reality is as old as philosophy itself. Plato ar-
gued that art has the power to represent only the appearances of
reality. The opposite position is common among artists, critics,
and modern philosophers.
Since art can reflect powerfully emotional values to the be-
holder, art can be appreciated, enjoyed, and loved for those val-
ues. The artwork, however, is an extension of the artist and thus
can never be spiritually possessed or owned by anyone else, even
though the physical ownership of artefacts as well as copyrights
can be transferred or sold.
In a discussion about plagiarism in graphic design Noh et al.,
(2016) tried to identify contributing factors and understanding
of visual plagiarism among the university community. They
noted an alarming trend of visual plagiarism in art and design
programs. Noh et al. concluded that the academic community
should “educate students to value people’s ideas and works and
to improve academic integrity.”
50
Production of art
Main questions about the production of art deal with creativity,
imagination, and the role of innate ability in any artistic produc-
tion. Ancient and medieval philosophers assumed the same
model for producing fine art and crafts. They had no conception
that the two are distinct. The present distinction between the
production of fine art and crafts emerged in Western culture after
the renaissance. Today most aestheticians assume that some-
thing is unique about producing fine art.
Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944) was an influential Russian
modernist, and pioneering painter and art theorist. He is consid-
ered by many to be the father of abstract art and a leader in the
movement to free art from the strict bonds of tradition. Accord-
ing to Kandinsky art is the expression of the spiritual atmosphere
of a certain period. Art evolves from the culture that inspires ar-
tistic expression. The foundation of forms, the harmony of col-
ours, and the principle of art is an “inner necessity,” or a “right of
the artist” to unlimited freedom. Art is born from the inner ne-
cessity of the artist.
Kandinsky taught at the Bauhaus school of art and architec-
ture from 1922 until the Nazis closed it in 1933. He then moved
to France. In 1912 Kandinsky argued (1912/1977 p. 1): “Every
work of art is the child of its age and, in many cases, the mother
of our emotions. It follows that each period of culture produces
an art of its own which can never be repeated.”
In 1925 Kandinsky published his thoughts of the role of the
line, point, and other key elements of non-objective painting. A
point, a small bit of paint on the canvas, is neither a geometric
point nor a mathematical abstraction. It has colour and a simple
or complex shape. A point can be isolated, or it can resonate with
other points or lines on the canvas. A horizontal line corresponds
with the ground. A vertical line corresponds with height and of-
fers no support. A diagonal line is un-stable.
51
Philosophy of beauty
Until the eighteenth century, scholars regarded the study of
beauty as the main problem of aesthetics. Since then aestheti-
cians have devoted less effort to the philosophy of beauty than to
the philosophy of art. The philosophy of beauty recognises aes-
thetic phenomena outside of the arts. These aesthetic phenom-
ena can be found in nature, and in non-artistic cultural areas
such as mathematics, morality, and science. The philosophy of
beauty is concerned with fine arts only insofar as art may be per-
ceived as beautiful. Philosophers have made many unsuccessful
attempts to define beauty. However, there is much more to art
than beauty. In fact, in many situations, art may have little, or
nothing to do with beauty.
Iconologia
The Italian art historian and scholar Cesare Ripa (c. 1560–c.
1645) published Iconologia, a didactic encyclopaedia in Rome
1593. A second edition was published in Rome in 1603, this time
with 684 concepts and 151 woodcuts to illustrate the text. The
book was extremely influential in the 17th and 18th centuries and
published in another eight Italian editions, and eight editions in
other languages (Manning, 2002).
For more than three hundred years experts in art history
used Iconologia as their prime source of knowledge when they
discussed description, identification, interpretation of the con-
tent and messages in classical art. Art historians had learned, and
knew the “true” language of art. However, this was, and still is,
not true for people in general. The general public lack these nec-
essary frames of references.
Judgement of beauty
One of the effects of art is the feeling that some things are beau-
tiful and other things are ugly. In 1790 Immanuel Kant (1724–
1804) defended the validity of a “subjective universality” as a
“universal voice” of the imagination through which beauty be-
came known. He asserted that the “judgement of beauty” is
52
“subjective,” and defined aesthetic apprehension as “taste,” an a
priori judgement separate from cognition and morality. Aes-
thetic criticism implies a judgement that utilises analysis, syn-
thesis, evaluation, and feeling in the understanding of beauty.
Before Kant, the common assumption was that beauty des-
ignated some objective feature of things. Most of the earlier the-
ories of beauty declared that beauty was a complex relation be-
tween parts of a whole. Some philosophers called this relation
“harmony.” From the time of the Greeks a common assumption
was that beauty applied not only to art. Beauty manifested itself
in cultural institutions and moral character as well as in natural
and artificial objects. Philosophers sometimes established very
firm rules about what artists should create and what people
should like. Many of these rules have been abandoned.
Psychological pleasure derived from an artwork comes from
the similarity of the artist's values and sense of life to one's own
values. Admiration of an artwork comes from the viewer’s evalu-
ation of the artist’s integrity, skill, and style. An individual can
dislike the values, the sense of life, or the theme of an artwork,
but can anyhow admire the artist’s skill or style.
Instructional value
Aesthetically pleasing visuals may not be of great instructional
value. Dwyer and Dwyer (1989, p. 122) found that: “The value of
different types of visual illustrations is not a valid assessment of
instructional effectiveness, that is, aesthetically pleasing visuals
may not be of great instructional value.” It is, however, quite pos-
sible that aesthetically pleasing information material will be no-
ticed, and then actually used in a better way than material with-
out any obvious aesthetic qualities.
Malamed (2009, p. 203) noted that when viewers actually
look at both pleasant and unpleasant pictures, they consistently
demonstrate an emotional reaction indicated by pronounced
brain activity that does not occur when they look at neutral pic-
tures.
53
Information design may vary a lot in style and quality. Ed-
ward Tufte (1983, 1990, 1997) has provided information design
with results from pioneering studies on how information materi-
als used for communication can be both beautiful, and at the
same time useful. His concepts of chart junk and data-to-ink ra-
tio are useful contributions to information design. In newspapers
attractive information graphics, with “infotainment” values, at-
tract more readers (Holmes 1993).
Aesthetics and usability
We could argue that the very moment that shape exceeds func-
tionality is the point at which usability is compromised. How-
ever, we may also argue that aesthetics and art concerns in gen-
eral serve a basic human need. We may say that artistry makes a
thing more usable and useful by way of making it special.
Aesthetic experiences in interface design
Dreilinger (1993, p. 6) wrote about aesthetics and usability as the
yin and yang of interface design. Norman (1998) asserted that if
everyday design were ruled by aesthetics, life might be more
pleasing to the eye but less comfortable; if ruled by usability, it
might be more comfortable but uglier. The aesthetic properties
of a design contribute to its ability to offer a different perspective
on the world. Paying attention to the aesthetic of any design is
more important than simply making things look pretty.
When the Apple Macintosh first appeared on the market in
1984 people in the business world assumed that aesthetics has
no useful function beyond making something look nice. Business
people were accustomed to the IBM PC. They assumed that the
aesthetically pleasing Macintosh interface could not possibly be
as useful as the less attractive text-based interface of the old PC.
Aesthetic properties of a design make the product more personal,
more intimate, and more special.
According to Baggerman (2000, p. 11) all design elements in
interface design should serve a purpose. It is the same for
54
information design. In information design functional properties
are always more important than aesthetic properties. However,
it may be an advantage if information materials also look good.
Aesthetic experiences in instructional design
In 1934 the American educational reformer John Dewey (1859–
1952) argued that aesthetic is a quality of experience that “pos-
sesses internal integration and fulfilment” (Dewey, 2005a, p.
46). Dewey emphasized that aesthetic experience is an everyday
life experience, not something that takes place just on a special
occasion. Aesthetics is a concept that allows more holistic de-
scriptions of a learning experience than effectiveness, efficiency,
and appeal or engagement.
According to Parrish (2005) Dewey’s thoughts from the
1930s brings insights to instructional design. These insights en-
hance instructional practices. People use their senses when they
are experiencing aesthetic values: “The sensory experience al-
lows for perceptivity, and perceptivity allows for the building up
of one’s own experience” (Uhrmacher, 2009, p. 624).
Instructional designers frequently point to their affiliations
with other design disciplines and look to them as useful ana-
logues of their practice (Parrish, 2005). In many design disci-
plines aesthetic aspects are of high importance to both designers
and end-users.
According to Parrish (2009, p. 513): ‘‘An instrumental view
of learning may consider only the immediately measurable out-
comes of a learning experience, particularly its impacts on cogni-
tion, behaviour, or performance.” But aesthetic, cultural, emo-
tional, political, and social qualities of experiences have more
than immediate rewards. Parrish (2009) provided five principles
contributing to developing the aesthetics of instructional design:
• Designing clear phases of the learning experience: Challenge,
engagement, and Conclusion/Resolution.
• Learners are made active, not passive recipients of infor-
mation.
55
• Designing instruction according to concrete activities not to
obscure constructs.
• Designing the setting of learning in a way that all the content
and activities of the lesson become integrated in coherent
manner.
• Being a role model of an active learner while being careful
about the principles above.
For Dewey, Parrish, Uhrmacher, and many other researcher’s
aesthetics is far more than beauty. The opposite of aesthetic ex-
perience is boredom, disengaged habitual behaviour, or imposed
labour.
Perceptual aesthetics
Unlike the classical tradition perceptual aesthetics seeks mean-
ing through the process of becoming or developing according to
nature through perceptual dynamics (Seward Barry, 1994). The
concept of “perceptual aesthetics” provides us with a unified ap-
proach to art that reveals a cross-pollination of perceptual in-
sights and aesthetic insights. A perceptually based approach to
art provides a simple and more basic system of aesthetic judge-
ment than do approaches based on morality, contemporary man-
ners, and taste of style. Perceptual aesthetics is based on Gestalt
psychology and its understanding of the perceptual process. Per-
ceptual aesthetics seeks to understand how art may be struc-
tured. Here regularity, simplicity, and symmetry provide the
foundation from which to judge the effectiveness of composition
in art.
Use of material
In many areas of design, the use of material is a very important
factor. It represents many different aspects of aesthetics as well
as functional qualities. As an example, warning signs must be
clear and easily noticed in bad and degraded conditions such as
fog, smoke, and weak illumination, (Lerner and Collins, 1983).
Some warning signs need adequate reflectance and good lighting
56
equipment (Wogalter, 1999). In the area of wayfinding, or way-
showing, the right decision may be to paint lines in different col-
ours on the floor in a hospital or use reflecting materials in signs.
When messages are printed the use of paper, or plastic, is of vital
importance. The material has to be “right” for the situation.
Colour theories
Colour is regularly used in printed materials, not only in illustra-
tions, but also in the text itself. Colour can be used to clarify the
structure of the text and to make learning easier.
This main section includes the following sections: Colour
and people, Colour wheels, Colour systems, and Colour for in-
formation.
Colour and people
People have probably always seen colour as important. There are
rich deposits from 100,000–70,000 years ago in the Blombos
Cave in South Africa (Henshilwood, d'Errico, and Watts, 2009).
Here pieces of red ochre have been deliberately engraved or in-
cised with abstract geometric designs. These artefacts maybe the
oldest known human “artwork.”
At the beginning of the 7th century pope Gregorius the Great
(about 540–604) had said that pictures are used in churches so
that those who cannot read at least can look at the walls and un-
derstand what they cannot read in books (Piltz, 2007, p. 128;
Sandquist Öberg, 2007, p. 171). Gregorius the Great presented
his insights and views in a new and simple manner (Hill, 2008,
p. 169).
From about 1250 Biblia Pauperum consisted of a collection
of about 50 colourful hand-painted loose pages (Cornell, 1925).
The purpose of Biblia Pauperum was to recount the teachings of
the Bible to the illiterate, who were at that time in the majority
among the inhabitants in most countries.
The colour theory and the colour principles that Leon Bat-
tista Alberti (1404–1472) published in his book Della Pittura
57
(On Painting) in 1435 have influenced the use of colour in the
visual arts. Classical painters like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelan-
gelo, Raphael, Peter Paul Rubens, and Rembrandt, worked with
colourful compositions with great sense of colour and light. Leo-
nardo da Vinci (1452–1519) set out his beliefs on colour theory
in his Treatise on Painting, which was not published until 1651.
He wrote that black and white was indeed colours, and he as-
signed white, yellow, green, blue, red, and black as the simple or
primary colours (Anderson Feisner, 2006, p. 13).
Historical colour theories have included principles used to
create harmonious colour combinations in architecture and
painting.
Colour wheels
Perceived relationships between different pure colours have been
visually represented with colours displayed on a circle, a “colour
wheel.” Harmonious combinations of pure colours will look good
together. Colour combinations that are considered especially
pleasing are called colour harmonies or colour chords. The artist
may use: 1) Any two colours that are opposite each other in a col-
our wheel, 2) Any three colours that are equally spaced and form-
ing a triangle on the colour wheel, or 3) Any four colours forming
a square or a rectangle on the colour wheel. A colour wheel shows
relationships between primary colours, secondary colours, and
tertiary colours.
Every historical colour wheel is a visual representation of a
contemporary specific colour theory (Anderson Feisner, 2006).
In 1704, Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) made the very first colour
wheel. He split white sunlight into red, orange, yellow, green,
cyan, and blue. In 1810 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–
1832) created a colour wheel showing the psychological effect of
each colour. The “primary colours” are red, yellow and blue. The
“secondary colours” are green, orange and purple, created by
mixing two primary colours. Mixing of primary and secondary
colours gives the six “tertiary colours.”
58
Colour systems
There are many theories about how perception of colours actu-
ally works. Colour can be described in aesthetical, physical, phys-
iological, psychological, and technical terms. Hue, value, and sat-
uration describe what we see when we look at pictures as well as
the real world. Intensity, purity and wavelength are physical di-
mensions. The relationship between brightness, hue, lightness
and saturation is very complicated. Colour is reflected in and
through light. There is nothing yellow in a banana. It’s all in how
it is perceived. For practical use in art and in industry several dif-
ferent systems providing numerical indexes for colour have been
developed.
The Natural Colour System
In 1892 the German physiologist Ewald Hering based his “natu-
ral system” on man’s natural perception of colour. Hering’s op-
ponent colour theory presupposes two pairs of chromatic colours
blocking each other, red/green and blue/yellow. This theory be-
came the basis for the Natural Colour System (NCS), developed
during the 1970s in the Swedish Colour Center Foundation in
Stockholm (Hård and Sivik, 1981).
The NCS Colour Solid with the
six elementary colours. Yellow,
red, blue, and green are all
located on the circum ference
of the Colour Circle.
The Colour Triangle is any
vertical sector running through
half of the NCS Colour Solid, such
as, e.g., white–blue–black–white.
From a perceptual point of view, we perceive six colours as
“pure.” Black and white are achromatic colours. Yellow, red,
blue, and green are pure chromatic colours. These six colours are
called elementary colours. All colours that are not pure
59
elementary colours have a varying degree of resemblance to sev-
eral elementary colours. Thus, every possible colour can be de-
scribed with a specific location in a three-dimensional model, a
twin cone, called the “NCS Colour Solid.”
The Colour Circle
The chromatic elementary colours yellow, red, blue, and green
are all located on the circumference of the Colour Circle. One
hundred steps, thus describing the hue of a colour, can divide
each quadrant.
This figure illustrates a cut and opened circumference of the col-
our circle, here starting with red and ending with red.
The Colour Triangle
There are many thousands of colour triangles. The Colour Trian-
gle is any vertical sector through half of the NCS Colour Solid. It
is used to describe the nuance of a colour, i.e., its degree of re-
semblance to white, black, and the pure chromatic colour of the
hue concerned (chromaticness).
When we want to describe a colour using the colour triangle
and the colour circle, it is done in the following sequence: black-
ness, chromaticness, and hue. For example, a colour of 10 per-
cent blackness, 80 percent chromaticness, and with a hue of
Y70R will have the notation 1080-Y70R.
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There are many thousands of colour triangles. In this example
the figure illustrates the colour triangle ending in pure blue.
The eye’s sensitivity.
In the colour circle the positions between green and yellow re-
fract in fovea. The maximum sensitivity in the eye is between the
pure green and the pure yellow, but it is closer to green. Red is
focused behind the fovea. Blue is focused before the fovea. Our
minimum sensitivity is between red and blue.
Here the NCS Colour Circle is combined with information on the
eye’s sensitivity. Our maximum sensitivity is between green and
yellow. Our minimum sensitivity is between red and blue.
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Some other colour systems
The NCS places emphasis on qualitative variation in the colour
sensation whereas the Munsell System is based on equally spaced
visual scales. Both systems are based on surface colours. The
Munsell Colour System (MCS) was introduced in 1905 and it has
been modified several times. The system consists of fixed arrays
of samples that vary in hue, lightness (here called value), and sat-
uration (here called chroma). The value scale ranges from white
to black with nine steps of grey. Forty equal steps in a circle rep-
resent hue. The value and the hue are related to each other by a
maximum of sixteen “saturation steps.”
There are many theories about how perception of colours ac-
tually works. In 1807, Thomas Young (1873–1829) proposed a
tri-chromatic colour vision system. In 1924, Young’s theory was
formalized by Herman von Helmholz (1821–1894), who pro-
posed hypothetical excitation curves for three kinds of cones in
the retina, sensitive for red, green, and blue.
In the Hue Lightness Saturation System (HLS), the hues are
arranged as circles on the outside of a double cone resembling
the NCS Colour Solid (Murch, 1983). Hue specifications start
with blue at 0° and then follow the spectral order around the cir-
cle. Lightness and saturation are defined as percentages from 0–
100. The HLS system is easy to use for colours on the surface of
the model. Colours inside the model are difficult to define. As in
the Munsell- and NCS-systems, brightness creates problems.
The Hue Value Saturation System (HVS) is a model that is
rather similar to the NCS-system but it utilizes another coding
(Samit, 1983). Here value is defined as the relative lightness.
White has full value and black has no value at all.
Printers who use modern subtractive colour methods use
magenta, yellow, cyan, and black as primaries. Colour scientists
often use the additive primaries, red, green and blue (RGB).
These colours are used in computer monitors, and television
screens. People who are specially trained can use the RGB
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proportions as a colour description system. However, this is not
possible for people in general.
In web design colours are defined with a six-digit hexadeci-
mal number or triplet, a hex value/hex triplet. Colours can be
specified in the format #RRGGBB, where RR, GG, and BB are the
hexadecimal values for red, green and blue values of the colour.
The values varies from zero to maximum 255 for each.
Colour for information
Colour is regularly used in printed materials, not only in illustra-
tions, but also in the text itself. Colour can be used to clarify the
structure of the text and to make learning easier. Certain parts of
the text may be printed with colours or printed on top of back-
grounds in different colours. Black type has good contrast to
many light background colours. The legibility will always be af-
fected when there is insufficient contrast between the type and
the background.
From many experiments, it is clear that people prefer colour
in visuals rather than black and white. To some extent colour is a
language of its own. Colour enhances the attention and percep-
tion of a visual message. If people like the contents in a picture,
they like them even more when the visual is presented in colour.
Advertising is known to be much more effective when visuals are
in colour than in black and white (Moriarty, 1991).
We can use colour as an important and a successful part of
information design (Bradshaw, 2001; Dwyer, 1971, 1978; Han-
nafin and Peck, 1988; Lipton, 2007; Moriarty, 1991; Muter and
Marrutto, 1991; Pettersson, 1989; Scharff, Hill, and Ahumada,
2000; Winn, 1993; Wogalter, 1999). Typographic colour serves
to highlight content or to structure a document (Pflaeging and
Stöckl, 2021, p. 12). The overall functionality of colour ranges
from the affective and attitudinal, to the iconically or symboli-
cally representational.
Inconsistent and improper use of colour can be distracting,
fatiguing, and upsetting, and it can actually produce negative
63
results and reduce learning. It should also be remembered that
some people are red-green colour blind and they perceive these
hues as grey.
Colour is also very important in large, or very large, outdoor
structures for advertising at the side of a road called billboards,
mainly in the US. All billboards are highly visible, and typically
showing short slogans and distinctive visuals. All advertisements
on billboards have to be designed to immediately catch attention
and quickly create memorable impressions. Readers often pass
billboards at high speed. All messages must be easily legible, and
readable in a very short time. There can only be a few words, in
very large print, and a large or very large image in colour.
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Functional principles
In information design the group “Functional principles” includes
six information and message design principles: Defining the
problem, Providing structure, Providing clarity, Providing sim-
plicity, Providing emphasis, and Providing unity. Guidelines
that are based on these six principles will assist the information
designer to design information materials that are well suited for
the intended receivers. This chapter includes the following main
sections: Providing clarity, Providing emphasis, and Providing
unity.
Providing clarity
In information design the concept clarity refers to both legibility
and readability. Legibility is determined by the technical design
of text and pictures. The reader should easily be able to see and
distinguish all different parts of a text. Legibility can be meas-
ured rather objectively. Readability of a message involves the
reader's ability to understand the style of graphic form, pictures
and text. What makes a message difficult to read is not as often
the subject matter as the style. Good, clear visual information
help the reader grasp concepts more quickly (Brady, 1993).
This main section includes the following sections: Legibility,
Legibility of text, Legibility of pictures, Legibility of layout, Leg-
ibility of symbols, Legibility of numerical values, Legibility of
maps, and Legibility of colour.
Legibility
The legibility of a graphical message is determined by the tech-
nical design of texts and pictures, that is, their clarity. The infor-
mation designer will have to make the content stand out clearly
from the background. In general information materials should be
as clear, simple, unambiguous and transparent as possible. We
should avoid unusual typefaces, as well as fonts that are too small
or too large. We read words in a text as “pictures,” not letter by
65
letter. Typeface and font size must be adapted to meet the limi-
tations of the medium and technical production. A message has
good legibility if it is easy to read, and if the reader can easily see
and distinguish all different parts of the message.
Good legibility is always economically advantageous, and
poor legibility is a costly business. Good models make the pro-
duction of documents simple and inexpensive. It is not econom-
ical to cram too much information on a page. It is better to edit
the text and reduce its bulk, and thereby increase its legibility.
Legibility can be measured rather objectively and its quality
is assessable whether we understand the content of the message
or not. Dissatisfaction with the execution of a message may also
cause dissatisfaction with the content of the message (Pettersson,
1989). The information designer has to consider the legibility of
text printed on paper, displayed and projected on screens, as well
as legibility of pictures, legibility of layout, legibility of symbols,
legibility of numerals, and legibility of colours.
Kovačević, Brozović, and Možina (2016) used eye-tracking
technology to examine different versions of pages in a manual in
order to improve the user’s visual search for specific information.
They found that bold highlighting of relevant information facili-
tated this search process. They also found that pictograms could
be used as guides for directing the users’ attention to key ele-
ments in manuals.
It still is very common that researchers and teachers, in
many academic areas, create their own instructional materials
and visual communication products used for information and for
learning in their own courses. However, according to Kuba
(2021) in the future, all researchers and all teachers in all aca-
demic areas must be able to design much better instructional ma-
terials and visual communication products for information and
for learning. Visual design skills must be more tangible.
In her article Presentation matters: Basics of graphic de-
sign in educational technology Kuba (2021) presented several
visual design recommendations for developing appealing and
66
readable instructional materials. Her recommendations follow
the design principles: alignment, contrast, proximity, and repe-
tition. Kuba (2021) concluded (p. 13: “Visual design skills are es-
sential in all academic areas, but especially in instructional de-
sign, since students must be prepared to work in an environment
where designing visuals for learning will be part of their daily
work.”
Legibility of text
Depending on the purpose, we can read a text in several ways. An
active reader makes good use of the structure embedded in the
text. The preface, the table of contents, the headings, as well as
the captions and the illustrations provide an overview of the con-
tent in the whole book.
The concept “legibility of text” refers to external properties
of a text (Lipton, 2007; Pettersson, 1993; Williams and Tollet,
1998). These external properties are colour of the printing ink,
distance between letters, distance between words, headings, in-
ter-line distance, layout, letter size, line length, margins, number
of letters per line, paper quality, subdivision into paragraphs,
type size, and more. All of these external properties interact, and
they have not been found to have a drastic effect on legibility as
long as the text is presented within the framework of variation
normally found in contemporary books in each culture.
According to Waller (2015) legislation presents one of the
hardest reading tasks that we can imagine. In most countries,
legislation language is highly technical in nature. Language is
used with great precision, rather than for any rhetorical effects.
Typically, legislation is very much interconnected. A typical Act
amends one or more previous Acts. Furthermore, in the future
this specific Act may itself be amended by new Acts. Here it is not
enough to use a clear language; the reader may still encounter
old Acts.
Using graphic form, a team from The Simplification Center
in London demonstrated in a very clear way that it is possible to
67
present a legal text in a clear and user-friendly way. Waller
(2015) concluded that without clear graphic structures embed-
ded in the text, most functional documents are unusable even if
they may be comprehensible at some level. Every design element
needs to do a job, and make it easier for the intended readers to
understand the intended content. Anything that is unnecessary
could be removed.
Legibility of print media
A printed text in books, handouts, and other printed documents
must have good legibility. We can:
• Restrict the number typefaces and only use a few per infor-
mation material.
• Use a clear, and direct, simple and transparent typography.
• Use a common typeface, between nine and twelve Pica points,
for continuous text in a book, a pamphlet, or a report.
• Use a simple and transparent typography.
See the chapters Layout, and Typography for more information.
Legibility of projected texts
In verbal presentations, many of the overhead transparencies,
slides, filmstrips, and projected computer presentations consist
mainly, or sometimes only of text. Here lettering must be consid-
ered carefully in order to guarantee good legibility for all listen-
ers. In preparing the material we can:
• Avoid graduated and tonal background fills.
• Maintain a good contrast between foreground and back-
ground.
• Use characters that are bold and large enough.
• Use no more than six rows of six words in each image.
Before the presentation the presenter will need to reduce room
illumination and clean physical slides, lenses, and screens. Dur-
ing the presentation, it is important to really project the images
in focus and on the screen, preferably horizontally. See the main
68
section Projected typography in the chapter Typography for
more information.
Legibility of text on wall charts
Posters and wall charts must have good legibility. We can:
• Adjust all text to reading lighting conditions.
• Adjust all text to reading distance.
• Avoid all-capital printing for running texts.
• Restrict the number of typefaces.
• Set text bold and large enough.
Since people read posters and wall charts from some distance
text must be large enough (Ormrod, 1989; Pettersson, 1993;
Wileman, 1993), and bold enough (Mayer, 1993a; Pettersson,
1993; Wileman, 1993, p. 79). Both too small and too large letter-
ing will impair reading. The text on a poster or a wall chart may
often have to be ten times larger in size than a text in a book or
on a print out. Text should be set in lower-case letters, since all-
capital printing has been shown to markedly reduce the speed of
reading (Henney, 1981; Poulton and Brown, 1968). Since the
texts on posters and wall charts should be short it may be a good
idea to use a sans serif typeface like Arial or Helvetica. If so the
running text will need some extra space between the lines (Col-
lier and Cotton, 1989). See the chapter Typography for more in-
formation.
Legibility of text on screens
Compared with traditional graphic presentations, a presentation
of information on visual displays such as television sets and com-
puter terminals are very limited. Still, information may be pre-
sented in many different ways. The design may vary with respect
to spatial organization like directive cues, colours, columns,
headings, justification, lines, scrolling text, spacing, and twin-
kling characters, symbols or words. A text on a computer screen
must have good legibility. We can:
69
• Avoid the use of all capital letters.
• Use dark text on a light background.
• Use ISO standards when possible.
• Use typefaces specially designed for screen display.
Further see the main section Screen typography in the chapter
Typography for more information.
Low vision readers
The macula is a part of the retina, the light-sensitive tissue at the
back of each eye. The macula controls our sharp, and straight-
ahead vision. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an
eye disease, which can blur the central vision. According to Wong
et al. (2014) AMD in the retina is the most common cause of vis-
ual loss in people above the age of 60 years in most industrialized
countries. Readers with low vision depend on the possibility to
magnify parts of the text. However, magnification will always re-
duce the amount of text that the reader can overview at each oc-
casion. Furthermore, magnification makes it more difficult to
navigate in a text, and find specific contents.
In one study, Beier et al. (2021) studied the font parameters
letter boldness, letter spacing, and letter width, for the type-faces
Courier Bold, Courier Regular, and Times New Roman Regular.
Then, they adjusted and modified Times New Roman Regular
into three new versions. In the first version they adjusted the let-
ter width to visually match that of Courier Bold. In the second
version they adjusted the letter boldness to visually match that of
Courier Bold. In the third version they added spacing both be-
tween letters, and spacing between words.
Then, 20 low-vision AMD-patients (mean age = 84.35 years)
took part in a reading experiment. Here, Beier et al. (2021) used
the special tool Radner Reading Chart in order to measure crit-
ical print size, reading acuity, and maximum reading speed.
The results of this reading experiment showed small, but signifi-
cant, improvements in reading acuity with increased letter spac-
ing and increased letter width. However, increased letter
70
boldness did not improve low vision reading in this study. There
were no systematic effects of the choice of font on reading speed,
or on critical print size as measured in this study.
The authors concluded that the reading acuity of AMD-pa-
tients with low visual acuity improved with wider letter shapes
and wider letter spacing. Within low vision rehabilitation, the
findings support the need to change the paradigm away from the
recommendation of specific fonts to the recommendation of font
characteristics. This may promote informed choices between
presentation options and faster development of new presenta-
tion modalities.
Legibility of pictures
A message has good legibility if it is easy to read, and if the reader
can easily see and distinguish all different parts of the message.
Legibility can be measured rather objectively and its quality is
assessable whether we understand the content of the message or
not. Dissatisfaction with the execution of a message may actually
also cause dissatisfaction with the content of the message. The
information designer has to consider the legibility of text printed
on paper, displayed and projected on screens, as well as legibility
of pictures, legibility of layout, legibility of symbols, legibility of
numerals, and legibility of colours. We can:
• Set words in images and pictures bold and large enough to
read.
• Use a style guide for picture elements in schematic pictures.
• Use picture elements that are bold and large enough.
• Use picture elements that are large enough.
See the chapter Layout for general information.
71
Legibility of layout
An “informative layout” must have good legibility. We can:
• Use a clear and simple layout.
• Use arrows, bullets, and other symbols to highlight infor-
mation.
• Use standard grids for pre-planning of pages.
• Use standard paper sizes.
See the chapters Layout, and Typography for more information.
Legibility of symbols
The use of symbols has a long tradition and various symbols can
be used to aid communication. We can:
• Design graphical elements that are bold and large enough.
• Design solid figures that will function in any size.
• Use characters that are bold and large enough.
• Use clear and distinct colours in symbols.
Brozović, Dunđer, and Kovačević (2018) designed and tested
three sets of twelve wayfinding pictograms, all on circular signs,
for a wayfinding system in a student dorm. Eight signs were used
for outdoor applications and four signs were used for indoor ap-
plications. In the first set all pictograms were based on black lines
on a white (empty) circular backgrounds. In the second set all
pictograms were based on areas on the same white circular back-
grounds. Here white lines were used for some inner elements in
the motives. The third set was an inverted version of the other
versions, with white pictograms on black circular backgrounds.
In an on-line survey 125 respondents (students and visitors)
used a 5-point scale to rate how well a picture of each sign with
its specific pictogram presented a dorm facility. A second part of
the survey included multiple-choice questions where the re-
spondents expressed their attitudes and opinions about signage
design, orientation in space and need for a wayfinding system in
the dorm.
72
The results showed no significant differences in preferences
between the three types of signs with pictograms. The authors
concluded that the results demonstrate the effectiveness of test-
ing wayfinding signs during the early design stages, and stress
the importance of the communication between designers and us-
ers.
See the chapters Layout, and Typography for more infor-
mation.
Legibility of numerical values
Numerical data and information can be presented in tables, and
also in graphs. Tables and graphs in information materials must
have good legibility. We can:
Tables
• Use rounded off numbers.
• Use a table heading, explaining the data.
• Use type between 8 and 12-pts size for table cells.
• Use vertically oriented tables.
Graphs
• Compare areas of variables to show their parts of a whole.
• Compare lengths of variables to show their relationships.
• Use actual figures in graphs when accuracy is needed.
• Use colour to enhance clarity.
Based on word and sentence structure, it is often possible to
guess right for one or a few missing letters in a sentence. How-
ever, there is normally no way we can guess right for a missing
digit in a numeric value. Nine out of ten opportunities are wrong.
If we misread a number on a prescription it can have very severe
health consequences. Read the text set in blue below:
We can guess a few missing letters in a sentence,
but we can’t guess any missing numbers: 2 5 372.
Guess the three missing characters, then look at the next page.
73
It is often quite easy to guess right for a few missing letters
in a sentence. However, in the bottom row, there are ten ways to
guess the missing number, in the void between numbers 2 and 5.
Research of typeface legibility is often based on psychophys-
ical experiments. However, since typefaces have different con-
trasts, proportions, styles, and weights it is difficult to isolate any
specific visual feature (Beier, 2016). Since there are too many ty-
pographical variables at play at once Beier, Bernard, and Castet
(2018) focused on visual complexity in a study of legibility of
digits. Among possible limiting visual factors, the authors stud-
ied the effect of the length of the numeral skeleton on numeral
legibility. The skeleton of a letter or a digit is the basic structure
of the character.
Beier, Bernard, and Castet (2018) designed three versions of
the digits from 1 through 9. They modifying the complexity of
each numeral (equivalent to their digit skeleton) while control-
ling for variations in other physical parameters. Observers were
asked to identify the different versions in random three-digit
strings, presented within their peripheral visual field.
Results showed that the digit “1” should have a narrow de-
sign without a crossbar at the bottom, the digits “3” and “9”
should benefit from open apertures, and the digit “7” should have
a straight leg and no serif at the horizontal bar. Crowded digits
We can guess a few missing letters in a sentence,
but we can’t guess any missing numbers: 235 372.
Here, the two missing letters and the missing number be-
tween figures 2 and 5 are shown in red. It is not likely that
you failed with “e” and “s”. However, there was a 90 percent
risk that you failed with number “3”. In information design
the intended readers should never be forced to guess. It must
always be very clear.
74
presented in the periphery of the visual field generally profit from
a short morphological skeleton.
These findings can help type designers create legible digits,
and could also help graphic designers determine which typeface
to choose when maximum legibility is a priority, for readers with
normal visions as well as for readers with central visual field loss.
See the chapters Layout, and Typography for more infor-
mation.
Legibility of maps
A lot of information can be presented in maps. All maps must
have good legibility. We can:
• Provide distinct contrast in form and dimensions.
• Restrict complexity of patterns, and the number of typefaces.
• Use bold and distinct symbols in a consistent way.
• Use colour to enhance clarity.
See the chapters Layout, and Typography for more information.
Legibility of colour
Colour can be used to clarify the structure of a text. Certain parts
of the text may be printed with colours or printed on top of back-
grounds in different colours. Colours used in information mate-
rials must have good legibility. We can:
• Combine colours with shape in warning signs.
• Make sure that differences between colours are clear and ob-
vious.
• Use colour to enhance clarity in illustrations.
• Use colours with good contrast to the background.
Colour is regularly used in printed materials, not only in illustra-
tions, but also in the text itself. The most legible combinations of
print colours are black or dark brown text on a light-yellow back-
ground (Pettersson, 1989; Pettersson et al., 1984a). Black type on
a white background gives the highest and most comfortable
75
contrast for sustained reading (Bradshaw, 2001; Lipton, 2007;
Muter and Marrutto, 1991; Scharff, Hill, and Ahumada, 2000).
Other combinations may attract more attention but are less legi-
ble and, thus, require larger type. The legibility will always be af-
fected when there is insufficient contrast between the type and
the background. There are strong cultural differences in inter-
preting the meanings of colour.
Left: Here the black type on a yellow background gives good
legibility. The orange text on the same background gives poor
legibility.
Right: The same orange text on a dark greenish background
gives good legibility. The black type on the same background
gives very poor legibility. You may have to enlarge the picture
to really see this text.
Kovačević, Brozović, and Bota (2014) investigated how dif-
ferent lighting affected legibility of simple pictograms on blue,
red and yellow backgrounds. In the study 87 subjects looked at
pictograms in a viewing booth with controlled lightning condi-
tions. In typical “home daylight conditions” legibility of the pic-
tograms was best with the yellow background.
The background colour of a computer screen should be
“fairly light” or “fairly dark,” depending on the content. The text
displayed on a screen should have an opposite (“fairly dark” or
“fairly light”) colour (Bradshaw, 2001). The most legible colour
combination is black text on a white or yellow background (Pet-
tersson et al., 1984a).
76
Unfortunately, red and green are often used as important
discriminating colours in symbols and also in warning signs.
Since many colour-blind people perceive red and green as grey,
colour can only be used to code the information redundantly.
Colour may be combined with shape, and position, or with both,
which is often seen in traffic signs.
In one cross culture study Tian, Lonsdale, and Cheung
(2019) asked subjects with and without Chinese culture back-
grounds about their opinions about aesthetics and effectiveness
of design of Chinese characters. Results showed that perceived
effectiveness is the priority, and aesthetics is the second im-
portant factor for graphic design criteria. Colour-coding of Chi-
nese characters might be an effective learning method.
Providing emphasis
The most important elements in information material may be
emphasized to enhance attention and perception. This main sec-
tion includes the following sections: Emphasis, Emphasis in text,
and Emphasis in layout.
Emphasis
A dark dot in a light field and a jog in a straight line are two good
examples of emphasis. As previously noted emphasis may be
used to attract, direct and to keep attention. Typography and lay-
out will better show the structure and the hierarchy of the con-
tent in the information material when important parts are em-
phasised. We can:
• Use clear colours and contrasts for emphasis.
• Use specific elements for emphasis.
• Use variables like complexity, directionality, and exaggerated
features, for emphasis.
• Use variables like humour, isolation or motion for emphasis.
It is possible to provide emphasis in information material with
the help of a number of specific design elements. Generally
77
speaking highlighting cues and emphasis in a message will result
in attention to that message. We should, however, never overuse
any accenting techniques because if we do they may completely
lose their meanings and their power to emphasize (Dwyer, 1978;
Hartley, Bartlett, and Branthwaite, 1980; Benson, 1985; Bausell
and Jenkins 1987).
Emphasis in text
There are a several possibilities to emphasize elements in typog-
raphy. We can use boldface, colour, italics, and key words in red,
light against dark, small against large, and underlining key
words. In order, not to confuse the readers, it is important to es-
tablish a consistent system for how to signal emphasis.
When used purposefully, contrast can reveal the structure of
the content helping readers see relationships among the parts
(Ivory, Sinha, and Hearst, 2001). Typographic cuing generally re-
fers to the use of bold or italic type or underlining to signal the
important ideas in a text. There is little doubt that cuing does
work well in drawing attention to the cued material (Glynn, Brit-
ton, and Tillman 1985). The consensus is that readers are more
likely to remember cued ideas than un-cued ideas (Hartley,
1987). In an experiment with 300 subjects Cisotto and Boscolo
(1995) found that the use of paragraph headings improved learn-
ing. However, underlining of relevant information did not have
the same effect. Underlining did not improve learning.
Headings should always be relevant and identify the subject
matter. The purposes of headings are to attract the attention of
the readers, make the subject matter readily apparent, and indi-
cate the relative importance of different items in the document.
To avoid too large masses of text, it is a good idea to divide the
text into sections, subsections, and paragraphs. Headings on dif-
ferent hierarchic levels will provide the readers with reference
points and help them to organize information cognitively for bet-
ter retention and recall. Headings set in different type versions
aid comprehension of the text content (Jonassen, 1982).
78
Normally boldface and italics will not be used for continu-
ous text. Italic print is read more slowly than regular type and is
also disliked by many readers (Tinker, 1965). However, the infor-
mation designer can decide to use boldface and italics for empha-
sis of parts of a text (Lipton, 2007; Mayer, 1993; Tinker, 1965).
The use of underlining and all capital letters should be re-
stricted to headings and titles if they are used at all. Usually bold
and italics are quite sufficient. Underlining in the middle of a
sentence makes the lower line more difficult to read (Isaacs,
1987). Shadow and outline letters should be avoided.
There are a few other possibilities to emphasize paragraphs
in texts, such as adjunct question to relevant information (Mayer,
1993b) and statements of objectives for emphasis (Briggs and
Wager, 1989; Mayer, 1993b).
Emphasis in layout
Most people read instructional materials selectively. Readers
rarely, if ever, begin at the beginning and read straight through
to the end of a document. Usually we use a combination of brows-
ing, reading headings, looking at illustrations, reading captions,
reading certain parts carefully, skimming others, and avoiding
some parts completely. Many readers will only spend time on a
limited amount of information in a newspaper. It is known that
elements like headings, photos, drawings, and information
graphics attract attention and often are entry points into a page.
Size and placement of such elements influence how the reader
will actually read the page. Many readers may jump over too
large pictures and never look at them at all.
The competition for our attention is usually very fierce in
commercial arts and in advertising. Thus, discontinuity is often
used intentionally to attract and even to hold attention of the
viewers. The intended message may be hidden within verbal or
visual puns, within metaphors, satires, parodies, or within hu-
mour. In these cases, designers break the traditional rules or
guidelines of instructional message design. It might also be
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possible to deliberately use the unexpected to attract attention to
instructional materials. There are several possibilities to empha-
size elements in typography and layout. The information de-
signer can use a number of “tools,” such as:
Some tools for emphasis
Tool
Author/s
Areas of colour
Mijksenaar 1997
Areas of shading
Mijksenaar 1997; Pettersson 1989
Arrows
Beck 1984; Hartley 1987; Jonassen and
Kirschner 1982; Lamberski and Dwyer 1983;
Mayer 1993; Pettersson 1989; Winn 1989
Black on white
Muter and Marrutto 1991; Scharff, Hill, and
Ahumada 2000
Boldface
Hartley 1987; Jonassen and Kirschner 1982;
Mayer 1993;
Boxes
Mijksenaar 1997
Bullets
Mayer 1993
Clear contrasts
Pettersson 1989
Colour
Pettersson 1989; Winn 1993; Wogalter 1999
Colour coding
Bradshaw 2003; Hannafin and Peck 1988;
Tian, Lonsdale and Cheung 2019
Complexity
Pettersson 1989
Contrast
Muter and Marrutto 1991; Pettersson 1989;
Scharff, Hill, and Ahumada 2000
Detail–no detail
Pettersson 1989
Directionality
Pettersson 1989
Headings
Hartley 1987; Jonassen and Kirschner 1982;
Mayer 1993
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Highlight
information
Mayer 1993
Icons
Loftus, Shimamura, and Johnson 1985;
Young 1991; Griffin and Gibbs 1993; Mayer
1993; Black 2017
Illustrations
Mijksenaar 1997
Imbalance
Fleming and Levie 1978
Irregular design
Fleming and Levie 1978, 1993
Italics
Mayer 1993; Mijksenaar 1997;
Pettersson 1989
Key words in red
Fleming and Levie 1978
Larger font
Mayer 1993
Light against dark
Pettersson 1989
Lines
Mijksenaar 1997
Logos
Byrom and Lehman 2007; Fang and Mowen
2005; Henderson and Cote 1998; Mijksenaar
1997
Margin notes
Mayer 1993
Oval around object
Pettersson 1989
Repetition
Mayer 1993
Small against large
Pettersson 1989
Symbols
Mijksenaar 1997
Tonal areas against
plain backgrounds
Pettersson 1989
Underlining key
words
Fleming and Levie 1978; Mayer 1993
Unexpected design
Fleming and Levie 1978, 1993
Unstable design
Fleming and Levie 1978, 1993
Variation out of
context
Pettersson 1989
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White space
Hartley 1987; Jonassen and Kirschner 1982;
Jacobs and Poillon 2012; Jovančić, Keresteš,
and Nedeljković 2020; Mayer 1993; Olsen,
Pracejus and O'Guinn 2012
Italics give emphasis to a word or a group of words. It is im-
portant to establish a consistent system for how to signal empha-
sis. Use italics for emphasis sparingly; too many italicised words
may reduce the emphasis effect.
Providing unity
Aesthetic theories that are based on perception favour sensation
over intellect, favour seeing over reading, favour universality
over cultural differences, and favour physical immediacy over so-
cial mediation (Lupton and Miller, 1999, p. 62). Aesthetics treats
the conditions of sensuous perception and aims to establish gen-
eral principles of art and beauty, and of proportion and harmony.
This main section includes the following sections: Infor-
mation structure, and Pictures and texts.
Information structure
Unity suggests an “overall togetherness” in the information ma-
terial. It is more or less the opposite of emphasis. According to
some authors unity is the fabric about which the entire infor-
mation structure with its text elements and pictures is interwo-
ven. In a design that lacks unity the different elements compete
for attention. It is chaos and it creates confusion for the receivers.
However, the systems for desktop publishing make it possible for
the individual author to integrate words and visuals to aid com-
munication.
All kinds of inconsistencies in an information material may
confuse the receivers. It may become unnecessarily complicated
for them to interpret and understand the intended content of the
message. There is a close relationship between guidelines aimed
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at providing unity and guidelines aimed at providing harmony.
To provide unity in information material we can:
• Use highlighting techniques in a consistent way.
• Use layout in a consistent way.
• Use style in a consistent way.
• Use terminology in a consistent way.
• Use typography in a consistent way.
To get maximum impact from a picture it should be introduced
in the text between the appropriate paragraphs. Each picture
should also have its own caption. Substantial research has clearly
shown that learning efficiency is much enhanced when words
and visuals interact and supply redundant information (Levie
and Lentz, 1982; Levin and Lesgold, 1978). The improvement
sometimes exceeds sixty percent and averages thirty percent.
Pictures and texts
Many authors have found that pictures should be put as close to
the relevant running text as possible (Benson, 1985; Braden,
1983; Clark and Lyons, 2004; Haber and Hershenson, 1980;
Hartley and Burnhill, 1977a; MacDonald-Ross, 1977; Mayer,
1993a; Mayer and Sims, 1994; Mayer et al., 1995; Moreno and
Mayer, 2000; Pettersson, 1989, 1993; Schriver, 1997; Wright,
1982).
Illustrations in textbooks are often “forgotten” by students
as well as teachers; therefore, it is important for editors and in-
formation designers to clearly instruct the learners to make good
use of the pictures (Hannus, 1996; Peeck, 1993, 1994; Reinking,
1986).
Each culture is unique, and have its own history and its own
traditions. According to Aleshawie (2019, p. 51): “people like
identifying with their culture, culture is one of the determinants
which help graphic designers create their designs.” In order to
measure the application of cultural identity the researcher ana-
lyzed materials from well-known international travel and
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tourism agencies. These materials were created by 63 different
designers, 51 (81%) from Saudi Arabia, and 12 (19%) from other
countries.
Based on all the results from the analyses Aleshawie (2019,
p. 61) concluded that we should respect other cultures, and no
one should impose or omit symbols which could offend religious
principles. Furthermore, designs should emphasize culture and
identity by carrying out design goals, as designers have consider-
able influence.
Visuals designed to complement oral and printed instruction
should both have a high correlation with the message they are
attempting to support and need to be designed to provide the
learning environment with specific types of stimuli needed by
particular types of learners, to achieve special educational objec-
tives. Wileman (1993, p. 93) provided the following checklist
with questions for evaluation of visuals with reference to unity:
1. Are the visual elements (words, pictures, graphic design ele-
ments) well laid out?
2. Does the margin unify or add to the composition of the vis-
ual?
3. Does the entire message (words and images) fill the screen?
4. If words are used, is it clear which words go with what pic-
tures?
5. Does the composition direct the viewers to the centre of at-
tention?
6. Does the composition support what is being taught?
We may distinguish between three types of unity. Pragmatic
unity is that the characteristics of the viewer can work for or
against recognition of an image. Semantic unity is the possibility
to identify an image. Syntactic unity is an acknowledgement that
an image exists. A minimum requirement is that the bounds of
each image should be discernible.
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Typography
Typography is the art and technique of arranging type in order to
make the message visible. There are many possibilities to make
the structure in a document clear (Benson, 1985; Tinker, 1963,
1965). According to Rath (2016) “typography” is an umbrella
term for the study of letterforms, typefaces and the practical se-
lection and application of type in layout. The graphic designer
will select typefaces, point sizes, line length, and line spacing and
alter the presentation of headings, running text, captions, lists,
tables, and ornaments.
“The ability to select and apply type sensitively is an art form
that requires of a designer, an astute knowledge of the commu-
nicative complexity of letterforms” (Atzmon, 2008, 13; cited by
Rath, 2016, 60).
Typography determines the clarity of the message and has
been noted to have the capacity to influence brand perception
(Childers and Jass, 2002, p. 104) and consumer motivation
(McCarthy and Mothersbaugh, 2002, p. 664). Graphic designers
use typography in different ways. Over time, we have become ac-
customed to associating certain styles of typographic design with
certain kinds of content and tone of voice (Moys, 2011).
Any typographic feature that reduces ability to readily recog-
nize and discriminate individual letters within words and words
within larger text units will decrease legibility (McCarthy and
Mothersbaugh, 2002, p. 670). “Novelty” or “incongruity” may
have the inverse effect of generating interest in advertising
(McCarthy and Mothersbaugh, 2002), and this is certainly also
true in information design.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Type,
Cost effective typography, Typography and language, Pro-
jected typography, and Screen typography.
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Type
The words we read in books and other graphical media use type.
The term type refers to all characters that are used in printing. It
may be hard to imagine how people lived 500 years ago without
type. At that time, all texts were copied by hand or they were
printed from wood blocks. Today printers use thousands of type
styles. A type style makes somewhat the same impression on the
reader that a speaker’s voice makes on the listener. Some type
may suggest strength. Others may suggest delicacy. Rath (2016,
p. 92) concluded that, as a communicative agent, type can be im-
plemented as a highly effective rhetorical design tool. Over time
and with a practiced hand, designers begin to evolve an innate
sensibility and sensitivity for type application.
This main section includes the following sections: Design of
characters, Typefaces, Letterforms, Size of type, Stylistic varia-
tion of type, Typeface personalities, Selection of typefaces,
Typeface legibility and familiarity, Some common typefaces,
Visual poetry, and Paper and ink.
Design of characters
Individual characters can be designed in many different ways
(Strizver, 2006). Many characters are based on geometrical
shapes like the circle, oval, rectangle, square, and triangle. Cir-
cles and triangles need to have a slightly larger height (3–4%)
than a corresponding square.
Typefaces can be identified by looking for classic traits, such
as the shape of specific parts of lower-case letters. It is not always
possible to see the differences without special training. A font, or
font of type, is a complete assortment of characters of the same
specific size, and of one specific variation of a typeface. Thus, any
typeface can include a large number of fonts. A regular type-
writer, if you still have one, can deliver one font, but a regular
desk top computer may be able to provide many hundreds of
fonts. However, in computer manuals the word font is sometimes
used to mean typeface, which is of course confusing.
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The terminology in typography is based on hot metal type com-
position. Here are some examples.
Imaginary lines are used in the positioning of letters. The
baseline is the main point of reference in typography. The x-
height is the vertical space occupied by lowercase letters (exclud-
ing ascenders and descenders). The H-height or cap height is the
height of capital H. The point size or type size is the vertical space
allowed for any character of a typeface.
Imaginary lines are used in the positioning of letters. Helvetica
72 pt is used in this illustration.
When designing characters for digital environments, it is im-
portant to consider how to compensate for the limitations in
fonts that are designed for traditional printing. All fine lines in
characters present huge challenges for adaptation to screens,
since they only represent a small percent of a pixel (Josephson,
2008; Bias et al., 2010).
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Digital-text developers improve text for low-resolution com-
puter displays by font design, font hinting, and rendering tech-
nologies (Bias et al., 2010, p. 746). Font hinting refers to editing
typeface outlines to available pixels. Rendering technologies aim
to give screen text the clarity of printed text.
The lowercase letters of a and g are designed both in “one
storey, or single storey, letter forms” and in “two storey letter
forms.” Walker and Reynolds (2003) discussed whether 6-year-
old children find serif text with “infant character forms” (e.g. var-
iants of a and g) easier or more difficult to read than “adult char-
acter forms.” The results showed that children in the test group
could read specially designed texts set in Gill and Century, with
and without infant characters, equally well.
One storey “infant character forms” (left) and “two storey
adult character forms” (right).
Numerals are characters that represent numeric values.
There are two groups of numerals. In the group “Lining numer-
als” all characters are aligned to the baseline and all are of equal
height. In this group all characters have fixed widths, which is
good for vertical alignment in tables. In the group “Old style nu-
merals” characters are not aligned to the baseline, and the char-
acters “3, 4, 5, 7 and 9” have descenders. As these characters are
not fixed to the baseline and not of equal height, they can be dif-
ficult to read.
Typefaces
The term typeface refers to the general outline, the face, person-
ality, and shape of the individual characters. During the little
more than 500 years of western printing history, probably more
than 60,000 typefaces have been designed (Mijksenaar, 1997). It
88
is easy to combine them in many ways. Most of these typefaces
are, however, limited in their usefulness. Differences are often
subtle. It is not always possible to see the differences without spe-
cial training. The distinctive details and the explicit forms of
words may facilitate word recognition.
Certain typefaces are more appropriate in some situations
than others. According to Black (1990) we have to 1) Consider the
purpose of the text. 2) Make sure that the chosen sizes and
weights required for the text (e.g., light, medium, bold) are avail-
able. 3) Make sure that the character set contains commonly used
signs and additional special characters needed. in the text (e.g.,
mathematical symbols), and 4) Consider how well particular
typefaces will withstand repeated copying.
Words in all capital letters have similar shapes and profiles.
Many words cover rather similar areas on the background. How-
ever, written with lower-case letters words look quite different.
All-capital printing has been shown to markedly reduce the
speed of reading (Henny, 1981; Poulton and Brown, 1968;
Tinker, 1965).
Words in all capital letters have rather similar shapes and pro-
files. The three words “DESIGN FOR CLARITY” (at the top)
cover rather similar rectangular areas on the background.
However, written with lower-case letters (at the bottom) the
words “design for clarity” look quite different
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Sans serif type style (first A) and Roman type style with serifs
(second A). In this example, we can compare Geneva and Gara-
mond of the same type size. There are four main types of serifs:
bracketed serif, hairline serif, wedge serif, and slab serif.
Without sufficient white space around words in all capitals,
the words will become too difficult to read (Kinney and Show-
man, 1967). Lupton (2010, p 13) wrote: “Typefaces are an essen-
tial resource employed by graphic designers, just as glass, stone,
steel, and countless other materials are employed by architects.”
Experts employ several systems for classification. Classifica-
tion systems may be based on chronology, on evolution, and on
various elements of letter shapes. Most systems are incomplete
and more or less confusing. The system that has enjoyed the larg-
est general favour divides typefaces into four main classes: 1) Ro-
man type style. 2) Sans serif type style. 3) Script type style. 4)
Black letter type style. Within these classes, groups of type de-
signs with important similarities form “type families.”
In his text Choosing type for information design Luna
(2017, p. 479) wrote: “While typeface choice is popularly seen as
reinforcing the atmosphere value of a document, there is real
value in assessing and selecting the right typeface for each job, so
that clarity can be maintained at small sizes or on screen, and so
that document hierarchies can be made visually explicit.”
In a laboratory setting Beier and Larson (2013) studied read-
ing speed and preferences of letter forms. The subjects were stu-
dents from an art school and students from a design school. They
read a story with common and uncommon letter shapes. The re-
sults indicated that allowed reading time had an effect on the ac-
tual speed of reading. Readers were more critical about the fonts
of uncommon letter shapes compared with the fonts of common
90
letter shapes. However, the uncommon letter forms in typefaces
did not slow down reading performance.
Roman type style
The Roman type style includes most of the typefaces used in
modern printing. These typefaces have serifs, finishing strokes
normally at the top and at the bottom of the main strokes of let-
ters. Serifs are not just put there for decoration. They help us dis-
tinguish between characters. Serif typefaces are often considered
to make it easier to follow text lines and thus be easier to read
than sans serif typefaces (Tinker, 1963), except for small letter
sizes (Benson, 1985; Braden, 1985; Mackiewicz 2004). However,
visual psychophysical studies in adult readers have shown that
serifs have little effect on legibility (Arditi and Cho, 2005).
Serifs on characters make it easier to follow the imaginary hor-
izontal baselines. The lower parts of letters are hard to read.
The upper parts of letters shape the images of words. Thus, this
part of the word is rather easy to read.
Serifs are terminal strokes, normally at the top and at the bot-
tom of the main strokes of letters in a Roman type style. This
typeface is called Garamond.
91
Common typefaces are easier to read than uncommon type-
faces (Benson, 1985; Paterson and Tinker, 1932; Spencer, Reyn-
olds, and Coe 1974; Tinker, 1963, 1965). Most typefaces in books
for children are sans serif.
In one study de Lange, Esterhuizen and Beatty (1993) had
450 primary school students from nine different schools in South
Africa participating in reading experiments with text on paper.
They used computer software in order to match line and letter
spacing, and weight of type size, resulting in Helvetica 12 pt, and
Times Roman 13 pt. The pre-test consisted of 47 lines with a total
of 536 words, and the post-test had 45 lines with 549 words. The
authors found no significant statistical differences between Hel-
vetica and Times with respect to reading accuracy, comprehen-
sion, word recognition, and speed reading.
Walker and Reynolds (2003) studied whether reading books
for young children should be set in serif or in sans serif type.
Their results suggested that there is little significant difference in
children's reading performance when Century is compared with
Gill.
Lund (1999) reviewed research literature on the legibility of
serif and sans serif type and concluded that the research is not
only inconclusive, but it is mostly of too poor quality to be relied
upon. Other aspects, like lighting condition, and size of type are
more important for good legibility. For continuous reading, the
typeface must be comfortable to read for longer periods of time.
Typefaces are often named after the designers who created
them or after the printers who first used them. Common exam-
ples of serif typefaces are Baskerville, Berling, Bodoni, Bookman,
Caslon, Century Old Style, Garamond, New Century Schoolbook,
Palatino, Times, and Times New Roman.
The French printer Nicolas Jenson (1420–1480) worked in
Italy. He perfected the first Roman style type already in 1470. In
France Claude Garamond (c. 1490–1561) created the Garamond-
style about 1540. In England William Caslon (1692–1766) de-
signed the Caslon-style in 1734; and John Baskerville (1706–
92
1775) created the Baskerville-style about 1757. In Italy Giam-
batista Bodoni (1740–1813) designed a new kind of Roman type
style in 1768. For more than 200 hundred years the Bodoni-style
has been called modern or modern type. Classical newspaper
typefaces are Century Old Style, Ionic, Excelsior, Times New Ro-
man, and Corona. They were all created for the hot-metal print
and the rotary letterpress printing.
Sans serif type style
The Sans serif type style has no serifs on the characters. These
typefaces provide uniform weight when there are less-than-opti-
mal reading conditions and they are often used for captions, dia-
grams, headings, labels in pictures, and tables (Benson, 1985;
Lipton, 2007; Mackiewicz, 2004; Pettersson, 1993). Williams
and Tollet (1998) suggests we should use sans serif type to im-
prove legibility. Sans serif type can be used successfully for the
body text in books, pamphlets and reports.
Common examples of sans serif type typefaces are Avant
Garde, Futura, Geneva, Gill, Helvetica, Optima, Univers, and Ve-
nus. Helvetica typefaces may be the most widely used among the
sans serif typefaces in the world today (Collier and Cotton, 1989).
Subjects perceive san serif fonts as clean, modern and technical
(Brumberger, 2003).
Serif fonts as well as sans serif fonts have been designed spe-
cifically for use on computer screens, smartphone screens, and
tablet computers. However, sans serif fonts are still regarded
more legible for screen reading than serif fonts (Josephson,
2008). It is common for type displayed on high-resolution
screens to appear smaller but crisper, while type displayed on
low-resolution screens appears larger but fuzzier (Schriver, 2016,
p. 124–125). Legibility matters a lot when busy readers must dis-
tinguish between pairs of characters such as o and e, 8 and 6, or
0 and o. Practical situations in which readers must make rapid
discriminations between numbers or characters include credit
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card numbers, email addresses, order numbers, prescription
numbers, serial numbers, and URLs.
Some other typefaces
Script type style looks somewhat like modern handwriting that
is carefully executed with a brush dipped in India ink. The indi-
vidual characters are joined together. It is not possible to use
script type for whole words in upper-case, or capital letters. Ex-
amples are Constance, Palace Script, and Zaph Chancery.
Black letter type style resembles old German handwriting in
manuscripts. Black letter type style is rare and thus difficult to
read today. It is rarely used in the USA. Examples are Fraktur,
Rotunda, Schwabacher, and Textura.
A more modern classification scheme is the serif-evolution
system. This system provides eight main classes: Venetian, Old
Style (Dutch-English and French), Transitional, Modern, Con-
temporary (sans serif and square serifs), Black letter, Scripts, and
Decorative letters.
Most typefaces are proportionally spaced. Then different
letters are assigned different spacing in accordance with their in-
dividual shapes and sizes. However, on most typewriters and also
on some printers the typefaces are monospaced. In such type-
faces all the letters get the same amount of space. The letter “l”
get the same space as the letter “m”. Proportionally spaced type
is usually easier to read than mono-spaced type.
Note the differences for the character spaces (represented by
red lines) in a proportionally spaced text (left) and in a mono-
spaced text (right). This is best seen for the letters l and m. In
this example all characters are set in Helvetica.
94
Since monospaced type always allocates the same amount of
space for each character, they aligns vertically in a text block. Ac-
cording to Ambrose and Harris (2006) monospaced type may be
an advantage to use in tables with numerals in columns.
Experimental typography
Experimental typography is a practice based on exploration and
interpretation, seeking new forms of visual expression apart
from traditional patterns. According to Uyan Dur (2021) Virtual
Reality Artworks based on experimental typography may reveal
various contents that explore the role of language for art as struc-
tured images in virtual environment. The use of experimental ty-
pography in Virtual Reality Artwork can expand the narrative
language of Virtual Reality (VR), and change consumption and
methods.
Letterforms
During the Renaissance, the increased demand for books led to
the development of new typefaces. Since the humanist letter-
forms have been continuously in use since their establishment,
they are familiar to people. The fundamental letterforms have
not changed since the Renaissance (Jubert, 2014).
According to Rath (2016, 59) the visual manifestation of type
is really a visual manifestation of language. The term “letterform”
describes the visual articulation, or the formal structure of a
typeface. Letterforms exhibit many complicated and structural
differences across a huge number of typefaces. The term “letter-
form” can be used to distinguish between linguistic and non-lin-
guistic communicative properties of type. While “letter” refers to
linguistic properties of type, “letterform” emphasises its non-lin-
guistic communicative properties.
Machin (2007, p. 87) noted that “letterforms themselves
have become more important as part of the overall meaning of
composition and have themselves become more graphic and
iconic.”
95
The properties of typefaces are a prominent element in
graphic communication (Puškarević, Nedeljković, and Pušnik,
2018, p. 605). Over time, distinctive features of letterforms have
evolved, influenced by the technological advancements. Uncom-
mon letterforms are a priori not as legible as the common ones.
Size of type
Too small and too large lettering impairs reading. We read words
in a text as patterns or even as a series of “word pictures,” not
letter by letter (Hallberg, 1992; Ingvar and Hallberg, 1989). Wil-
kins et al. (2009) found that size and design of typeface in textual
material for children aged 7–9 (in the UK) may impair: 1) Speed
of reading, 2) Comprehension, and 3) Measurement of reading
attainment.
In one “size study” sample sentences were printed in Arial
font with an x-height of 4.2 mm (22 pt) and 5.0 mm (26 pt) re-
spectively. Children comprehended the larger typeface 9% more
quickly. For two studies sample sentences were printed in Sas-
soon Primary and Verdana. The results showed that children
read and searched text in Verdana more quickly than text in Sas-
soon Primary.
Our perception of size is relative. According to White (1987),
some 10-pts type looks gigantic and some look minuscule. It all
depends on the design of the face and its x-height. Letters can be
varied in size and even by type to differentiate different kinds of
data (Hartley, 1987). To achieve optimum legibility letter size
must be adjusted to the visual format and the reading distance.
In Denmark Beier and Oderkerk (2019) studied the effect of
age and font on reading ability (see book 3 Text Design, section
Reading in different ages.)
Height of character
The x-height is the vertical distance equal to the height of the
lowercase letters such as x (without ascenders and descenders).
Higher x-heights allow for smaller size of a typeface, which is just
96
as legible but still is space saving and thus economical. This may
be important, for example in the production of newspapers.
It is an advantage with typefaces with low x-height and light
serifs for continuous reading in books. Here the low x-height al-
lows quite generous white space between lines. In this way the
horizontal flow of reading is maintained (Luna, 2017, p. 479–
486). However, increasing the interline distance will get the
same effect on smooth reading when a typeface has high x-
height. Typefaces designed for magazines and newspapers have
high x-heights, and they tend to be heavier. These typefaces allow
narrow lines, and multi-column pages.
Height and width vary in different typefaces of the “same size”,
sometimes a lot. This example includes Garamond (left), then
Times New Roman, Georgia, Arial and Verdana (right). These
differences in the shape and size of individual characters will
influence the legibility of the typefaces.
According to Tinker (1963) printed text smaller than nine pt
is too small to be considered legible. Text that should be printed
on paper and read in a continuous manner should be set between
nine and twelve Pica pt (Benson, 1985; Bernard and Mills, 2000;
Braden, 1983, 1985; Haber and Haber, 1981; Schriver, 1997;
Tinker, 1963). A twelve-point normal type is often suitable. Even
after reduction in the printing process to ten-pts type, the text
will exhibit very good legibility.
In early readers for children the x-height is typically about
four mm. Over the course of five years the x-height decreases to
an “adult size” (about two mm). Hughes and Wilkins (2000) ar-
gued that the typeface becomes too small too early in life.
97
In its Publication Manual the American Psychological Asso-
ciation (1996, p. 151) recommends a minimum type size of eight
pt in figures printed in books and reports. The maximum type
size is 14 pt. According to Lenze (1991) font size above twelve pt
slows the reading process because the reader must examine each
letter individually to recognize it. Thus, we can conclude that type
should be “large enough.” A larger type size in a single column is
preferable to a smaller type size in a double column layout. A
poster or wall chart might require text that is at least ten times as
large since we will read from a distance.
Measurement systems
Traditionally the vertical height of letters is designated in typo-
graphical points. The point is the smallest unit of measurement
in typography. It is used for measuring font size, leading, and
other items on a printed page. However, since the 18th century,
the size of a typographical point has varied between 0.18 and 0.4
millimetres. The size of a point is still somewhat different in var-
ious parts of the world. There are three basic measurement sys-
tems used for traditional typographical typesetting, and one
main system used for desktop publishing systems.
The Pica system
The Pica system is used in traditional typography in Great Brit-
ain, and in USA. In this system the typographic unit is called
pica. 1 pica is divided into 12 points (pts). 12 pts = .1660 inches
= 4.2333 mm. 1 pt = .3527 mm (72,27 pts/inch)
The Didot system
The Didot system is used in traditional typography in most parts
of Europe. In this system the typographic unit is called Cicero. 1
cicero is divided into 12 points (pts). 12 pts = .1780 inches = 4.511
mm. 1 pt = .3759 mm (67.6 pts/inch).
98
The Mediaan system
The Mediaan system is used in traditional typography in Belgium
and France. In this system 12 points (pts = .1649 inches = 4.205
mm. 1 pt = .3504 mm (72.5 pts/inch).
Desktop publishing systems
Desktop publishing systems use an adopted version of the Pica
system based on the size of the International inch. (In 1959 the
International inch was defined as 1/36 of the International yard
(0.9144 m), which makes it exactly 0.0254 m. The previous Brit-
ish Imperial inch as well as the United States customary inch
were revised to correspond to the new definitions.) Here, 1 DTP
pica = 12 points = 12 pts = 1/6 of an International inch = .1667
inches= 4.23 mm. 1 DTPpt = .3528 mm (72 pts/inch), which is
very good for all printers.
This picture shows the relative sizes of Pica points (.3516 mm),
Didot points (.3759 mm), Mediaan points (.3504 mm), and DTP
Pica points (.3528 mm). They are small. However, in some situ-
ations, these small differences may be significant.
Initial letters
Sometimes initial letters are larger than the letters in the running
text. Initial letters may be lowered as “drop caps” or raised as
“raised initial letters.” Because of the possibility to create fancy
initial letters in desktop systems, this medieval practice has be-
come common again (Stokstad and Cothren, 2011). Misanchuk
(1992) argued that fancy initial letters are not at all likely to help
readers.
99
Different impressions
Traditional hot metal type is cast in sizes ranging from 4 pt to 144
pt. Some photo-typesetting machines and systems for desktop
publishing can produce even larger characters. Sizes of type that
are in common use are 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 24, 30, 36,
42, 48, 60, and 72 pt. Characters should obviously neither be too
small, nor too large. In the first case we cannot read them at all.
Legibility is very poor. In the latter case we can only have a few
words on each line. Below are five examples of a paragraph of
text in five size versions: Georgia 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16-pts type.
Georgia 8. Infodidactics is the methods used for teaching the various aspects of information
design. The huge spread among the different disciplines makes information design an interesting,
but also a complex area of research and teaching. Understanding is the goal of all scientific enter-
prise. When we understand a subject matter, we are able to explain phenomena and predict new
phenomena.
Georgia 10. Infodidactics is the methods used for teaching the various as-
pects of information design. The huge spread among the different disciplines
makes information design an interesting, but also a complex area of research
and teaching. Understanding is the goal of all scientific enterprise. When we
understand a subject matter, we are able to explain phenomena and predict
new phenomena.
Georgia 12. Infodidactics is the methods used for teaching the
various aspects of information design. The huge spread among
the different disciplines makes information design an interest-
ing, but also a complex area of research and teaching. Under-
standing is the goal of all scientific enterprise. When we under-
stand a subject matter, we are able to explain phenomena and
predict new phenomena.
Georgia 14. Infodidactics is the methods used for
teaching the various aspects of information design. The
huge spread among the different disciplines makes in-
formation design an interesting, but also a complex
area of research and teaching. Understanding is the
goal of all scientific enterprise. When we understand a
subject matter, we are able to explain phenomena and
predict new phenomena.
100
Georgia 16. Infodidactics is the methods used
for teaching the various aspects of information
design. The huge spread among the different dis-
ciplines makes information design an interest-
ing, but also a complex area of research and
teaching. Understanding is the goal of all scien-
tific enterprise. When we understand a subject
matter, we are able to explain phenomena and
predict new phenomena.
As we can see from these five examples different size ver-
sions of a text provide different impressions. In information de-
sign it is important to find a good balance between our need for
a general overview and a good legibility of individual words. We
need a balance between “not too small” and “not too large.” In
books, magazines, and newspapers larger type may be used for
headings.
Here are some examples of the word “information” in five
larger size versions: Helvetica 18, 24, 28, 36 and 48-pts type.
Information 18
Information 24
Information 28
Information 36
Information 48
Which type sizes do you prefer for different headings in a book,
and in a technical report?
101
Often text is printed with black ink. However, text may also
be printed in a number of colours and on a number of colours.
This is especially easy in documents for the Internet. The use of
colour will influence impressions as well as legibility. White text
on a black background should usually be larger than traditional
black text on a white background. Fine lines in a Roman type
style may sometimes almost “disappear.” It is better to use a sans
serif type when the text is white on a black background.
Here twelve examples are set in 18 pt Times New Roman, six
with black texts and six with white texts. Obviously, the white
text is not good on the white background, and neither on the yel-
low or green background. Obviously black text is impossible on
black background. Fine lines may almost “disappear” against a
background in colour on a screen.
Text may be printed in a number of colours. Here all twelve ex-
amples are Helvetica, set in 18 pt in six colours. Obviously the
white and the yellow text are not good on the white background.
Again, black text is impossible on black background.
We know that too small and too large lettering impairs read-
ing. As an example, a text on a poster should be at least five times
larger than a corresponding text in a book. Newspaper print is
usually eight or nine pt. In books ten to twelve pt are common.
102
Further see the sub-section Legibility of colour in the chap-
ter Functional principles, and the section The message on the
screen in the chapter Screen typography.
Stylistic variation of type
With respect to line thickness, inclination, and width characters
in a typeface can be drawn in many different versions. A typeface
may be available as light condensed, light, light expanded, bold
condensed, bold, bold expanded, regular condensed, regular,
regular expanded, extra bold condensed, extra bold, and extra
bold expanded. With respect to inclination a typeface may be de-
signed in italic letter style versions. A typeface may also be avail-
able as outlined, in-lined, and shadowed. Usually bold and italics
are quite sufficient alternatives.
The most common type versions are easier to read than un-
common versions. The major examples of stylistic variation of
regular text are bold, italic, and bold italic. Different manuals
have different recommendations for when bold and italic type
versions should and shouldn’t be used. Content is more im-
portant than form in information design. A text will retain its
content even when type design is changed. Graphic design can be
and should be used to build consistency and aid communication.
Peña (2020) details a protocol for the production of new
fonts from existing ones. For Peña font remix is a kind of meta-
design. As a concept metadesign dates to the mid-1960s. Today
metadesign is an emerging conceptual framework aimed at de-
fining and creating economic, social, and technical infrastruc-
tures in which new forms of collaborative design can take place.
Bold type
Visual weight and impression vary a lot. It may be compared with
physical weight. A small and extra bold and expanded character
may be seen as heavier than a large, light and condensed charac-
ter. Boldface should normally not be used for continu-
ous prose but is good for emphasis of important parts
103
of the text. It is also good for headings. Make type big enough
to stand out from the background and heavy enough to be visible
(Lipton, 2007).
Bold type has been seen as aggressive, masculine and as
strong (Brumberger, 2003), as difficult to read and as very un-
professional (Mackiewicz, 2005), as assertive, daring, domineer-
ing, overbearing, solid and substantial (Van Leeuwen, 2006), as
daring, overbearing, stable and substantial (Machin, 2007).
Italic type
Italics should normally not be used for continuous prose. Italic
print is read more slowly than regular type and is also disliked by
many readers (Tinker, 1965; Foster and Bruce, 1982). Italics may
be used for emphasis of small parts in a running text, for head-
ings, and for captions. However, extensive use of italic text in
continuous prose will impair their functions to emphasize
(Glynn, Britton, and Tillman, 1985). We need to be extra
careful with bold and italic texts.
Other types
We should usually avoid all kinds of odd type versions like “out-
line type”, “shadow type”, and “reverse type” in any “normal”
running text. The use of underlining and all capital letters should
be restricted to headings and titles if they are used at all. Isaacs
(1987) pointed out that underlining in the middle of a sentence
makes the lower line more difficult to read.
This is called “reverse type”.
This is called underlining.
THIS TEXT HAS CAPITAL LETTERS.
104
Typographic cueing
Glynn, Britton, and Tillman (1985) reviewed studies on the effect
of “typographic cueing” on learning. Typographic cueing gener-
ally refers to the use of bold type, italic type, or underlining to
signal the important ideas in a text. There is little doubt that cue-
ing does work in drawing attention to the cued material. The con-
sensus is that readers are more likely to remember cued ideas
than un-cued ideas (Hartley, 1987).
Typeface personalities
Several scholars have discussed the physical characteristics that
lead to “perceived personas” and “typeface personalities” of type-
faces. According to Hassett and Curwood (2009, p. 272) the use
of font is a mode of communication that serves as a semiotic re-
source. Research indicates that the presentation of texts affects
the perception of the contents of the messages. Abe Pittman
(2012) concluded that regardless of the ability to communicate
technical features of a typeface’s anatomy, viewers share an emo-
tional reaction.
Stress of a typeface
The angle of the thickest part in a curved letter is usually de-
scribed as either diagonal or vertical. It can also be horizontal.
This design feature is called stress of a typeface. For example,
the typeface Sabon has diagonal stress, and Century Schoolbook
has vertical stress. Stress reminds of the visual properties of writ-
ing. It is easy to see the angle of stress by drawing a line through
the thinnest points of the letter o. There is no obvious stress in a
sans serif typeface with uniform strokes.
Both Krause (2007), and Samara (2007) offered different
conceptual categories in their taxonomies of fonts, including
concepts, elegance, energy, moods, technology and specific ar-
eas. Typographical features like colour, flourish, formality, fram-
ing, size, slant, and weight focus on elements of characters as well
as overall composition. Strategies that support how readers
105
interpret multimodal texts are evolving (Albers, 2008; Anstey
and Bull, 2006; Serafini, 2010; Serafini and Clausen, 2012).
Strong emotions
Several typefaces elicit strong emotions from viewers. One exam-
ple is the typeface Comic Sans. It was designed for Microsoft
based on lettering from comic books, but it has also been used in
many other situations. Depending on your own point of view,
Comic Sans is breezy, fun, silly or vulgar and lazy–and many aes-
thetes and graphic designers just hate it (Steele, 2009).
Viewers judge the material based on visual attributes versus
meaning of the text (Childers and Jass, 2002, p. 95). To ensure
that the intended message is understood, document designers
must consider how typography and text present a united mes-
sage. There are many different and subjective opinions regarding
the personalities of typefaces. Here are some views:
Angular type conveys cultural meanings. It is abrasive, brisk,
controlled, decisive, harsh, masculine, modern, rational, and
technical (Van Leeuwen, 2006).
Bold type has been seen as aggressive, masculine and strong
(Brumberger, 2003), as difficult to read and unprofessional
(Mackiewicz, 2005), as assertive, daring, domineering, overbear-
ing, solid and substantial (Van Leeuwen, 2006), as daring, over-
bearing, stable and substantial (Machin, 2007).
Cursive type fonts as well as script fonts are seen as elegant
(McCarthy and Mothersbaugh, 2002), or organic, personal, and
formal (Van Leeuwen, 2006).
Curvature in type is perceived as fluid, gradual, maternal, nat-
ural, organic, smooth, and soft (Van Leeuwen, 2006).
Expanded type was regarded as positive light and providing
room to breathe (Van Leeuwen, 2006).
106
Flattened type has heaviness, inertia, self-satisfaction, and so-
lidity (Van Leeuwen, 2006).
Imperfection in type was regarded as friendly (Mackiewicz,
2005).
Italic type is disliked by many readers (Tinker, 1965; Foster
and Bruce, 1982).
Light type has been described as delicate, gentile, and feminine
(Brumberger, 2003), as difficult to read and unprofessional
(Mackiewicz, 2005), and as insubstantial and timid (Van Leeu-
wen 2006).
Moderate weight type has been regarded as professional
(Mackiewicz, 2005).
Narrow and condensed type has been seen as cramped, eco-
nomical, precise and restrictive (Van Leeuwen, 2006). Machin
(2007) described it as cramped and un-assuring.
Sans serif type is seen as clean, modern and technical
(Brumberger, 2003).
Serif type includes most of the typefaces used in modern print-
ing. Thus, they are familiar and well known to most readers.
Vertical type has instability, lightness, and an up-wards aspira-
tion.
Van Leeuwen (2006, p. 142) concluded that a new typogra-
phy has emerged. Typography is no longer a humble craft and an
“abstract art” in the service of the written word. It is a means of
communication in its own right and it is spearheading innovation
in graphic design.
Visual rhetoric
In her Master Thesis “Rhetoric in graphic design” Emanuel
(2010) states that there is no pure information in human com-
munication and, therefore, no neutrality in graphic design. Her
107
work explores the possibilities of visual rhetoric in the field of
graphic design. She has placed her emphasis on a few areas, such
as information design and news. Here the presence of visual rhet-
oric is less clear than in areas such as advertising and poster de-
sign. In this Master Thesis examples of various layouts clearly
demonstrate how design decisions may influence the actual
transmission and perception of messages.
The author shows graphic designers the importance of in-
cluding the shaping of meaning in their individual creative pro-
cesses, and there are tools available to do that. Emanuel (2010,
p. 164) concludes that the graphic designers who acknowledge
that they often have to make rhetorical decisions in their own
work, will actually take greater control over the meanings that
are expressed by their work. Each graphic element carries infor-
mation and incorporates decisions. Colour, framing, line spac-
ing, type size: actually, every decision a graphic designer has to
make during the creative process will influence the future per-
ceptions of the message. Graphic design is communication, and
graphic design is always rhetorical. Since some meaning will be
perceived anyway, it is the designers’ responsibility to take
charge and conduct the process.
Moys (2011) studied how typography and layout in a selec-
tion of magazine feature spreads and covers influenced reader’s
judgments. When it came to typeface the participants in the
study: “were more likely to discuss its treatment than its choice:
whether something was in bold, capitals, italics, colour, had a
drop shadow or other effects, seemed to influence its distinctive-
ness far more than the choice of typeface.” Moys concluded that
“typographic voice” is conveyed through a range of variables. It
is not just a question of establishing a typographic or visual
mood. Typography plays a role in how a document is seen to ad-
dress its readers and position itself.
Later Moys (2017, p. 218) concluded that visual rhetoric isn’t
simply about creating something that looks professional for
108
corporate or public service sector service clients. It’s also about
making complex information seem accessible and credible.
Language limitations?
Previously research in the area of “print personality,” had been
conducted using typefaces in English. Do typefaces in English,
and other languages using the Latinate alphabet, lend themselves
unusually well to eliciting perception of print personalities? Ara-
bic is a language that is especially visually distinct. It is formed
in a cursive script in which the visual appearance of letters con-
trasts strongly with those used for Latinate languages. In one
study Jordan et al. (2017) presented eleven different typefaces in
Arabic sentences to skilled readers of Arabic. Participants rated
each typeface according to 20 different personality characteris-
tics. The results showed evidence of the existence of distinct print
personality characteristics also in Arabic
Semantic properties of typefaces
Puškarević et al. (2018) studied the effects of typeface complexity
in relation to image complexity on consumer’ visual attention
and attitudinal responses in print advertising. Unlike functional
properties, the semantic properties of typefaces can trigger a cog-
nitive and emotional reaction. They evaluated the effects based
on attitudes, eye movements, and intentions of the viewers under
incidental exposure to an advertisement.
When put in the context of print advertisements, the com-
plex forms of typefaces are paired with different levels of image
complexity. The results indicated that typeface complexity has a
significant effect on visual attention and attitude of consumers in
certain conditions.
Typeface complexity can influence consumer’s visual atten-
tion and positively shape attitudinal responses when it is paired
with an image with fewer detail and variations of basic elements.
However, when paired with an image contains more details and
objects, typeface complexity will not have any influence due to
the extensive visual “clutter.” The relationship between low
109
image complexity and high typeface complexity can positively in-
fluence consumer’s visual attention and attitude.
The universal structure
In one study Nedeljković, Novaković, and Pintier (2017) bound
single-page printed leaves with test instruments for typefaces in
a booklet. The authors asked 40 subjects to evaluate personalities
for the following eight sans-serif typefaces divided in these four
groups.
Grotesque: Franklin Gothic Std No.2, and Founders Grotesk-
Medium.
Neo-grotesque: Helvetica LT Std, and DIN.
Geometric: Futura Std-Medium, and Grid Sans.
Humanist: Gill Sans Std, and Frutiger LT Std 55 Roman.
Every printed page contained a complete group of alphanumeric
characters, and Likert scales for the following 20 typeface per-
sonality attributes: attractive, cheap, cold, contemporary, dig-
nified, direct elegant, feminine, formal, friendly, loud, mascu-
line, pretentious, professional, relaxed, reliable, scholar, seri-
ous, technical, and warm.
In order to avoid the effect of hierarchy the authors pre-
sented all printed pages in random page orders. Variance analy-
sis showed that there is a statistically significant difference on all
of the attributes except three: contemporary, dignified, and
technical.
The results showed that the subjects experienced the se-
lected typefaces in very different ways. Certain attributes are as-
signed to typefaces in accordance with their matching or mis-
matching to the universal structure. In this research typeface
brightness stands out as the most influential specific character-
istic. The universal structure of the typeface is a universal char-
acteristic.
110
Selection of typefaces
Waller (1987a) concluded: “Typography is a ubiquitous but
poorly understood aspect of language. Its interpretation is not
well understood but seems to combine the same kind of logical
and pragmatic reasoning that we use for prose with an extra per-
ceptual dimension.”
The decision of which typeface to select should rest largely
on the purpose and on the intended audience for the document
(Benson, 1985; Black, 1990). Using the correct typeface for the
job is based on solving a problem and meeting a specific need.
Lenze (1991) noted that private documents may invite the use of
ornate and stylish looking fonts. Professional documents, how-
ever, require maximum legibility (Benson, 1985; Pettersson,
1989; Tinker, 1963).
Advertisements must always be noticed. Therefore, it is im-
portant to choose a graphical form that arouses interest. Thus,
unusual typefaces can be useful and stimulate attention, entice
the reader to look at the pictures and begin reading the text.
When it comes to information materials, the graphical form
should basically be simple and “transparent” and not arouse any
special interest or attention for its own part. The graphical form
should not be too exciting or provocative, nor should it be pa-
tently dull. McDougall and Hampton (1990, p. ix) concluded that
design and layout should enhance visual and verbal content by
making it appealing and understandable. It should not be exces-
sively ornamental, thus calling attention to itself.
To encourage readers to pay attention to relevant infor-
mation, text designers should help the reader to control her or
his cognitive processes during learning (Mayer, 1993b). To
achieve optimum legibility, it is known that:
• Common typefaces are easier to read than uncommon type-
faces (Benson, 1985; Frutiger, 1998; Licko, 2009; Nedel-
jković, Jovančić and Pušnik, 2020; Paterson and Tinker,
1932; Spencer, Reynolds and Coe, 1974; Tinker, 1963, 1965).
111
• Running text should have a “normal” combination of upper
and lower-case letters. All-capital printing has been shown to
markedly reduce the speed of reading (Henny, 1981; Poulton
and Brown, 1968; Tinker, 1965).
• Serif typefaces are often considered to make it easier to follow
text lines and thus be easier to read than sans serif typefaces
(Tinker, 1963), except for small letter sizes (Benson, 1985;
Braden, 1985; Mackiewicz 2004).
• The typefaces in common use are all more or less equally leg-
ible (Paterson and Tinker, 1932; Tinker, 1963, 1965).
• Use sans serif for captions, headings, and marginalia (Sim-
monds and Reynolds, 1994; Schriver, 1997).
• Without sufficient white space around words in all capitals,
the words will become too difficult to read (Kinney and Show-
man, 1967).
The different typefaces have their individual characteristics.
They vary in space and in their visual appeal. Some are more leg-
ible and some are less legible. In the USA children usually learn
to read using textbooks with serif typeface like New Century
Schoolbook. In European countries it is not unusual that sans
serif typefaces are used in textbooks. Children in China learn to
read the complicated Chinese characters. And we can find
equally good readers in all these countries. As a matter of fact,
the reader should never become too conscious of the typeface.
Type can be created in a variety of styles. A change in type
style can signal a change of purpose, a new section, or another
degree of importance. Typographical techniques can alert learn-
ers to such things as main ideas, important concepts, rules, sec-
tions, subsections, and more. However, multiple type styles on a
page tend to be confusing rather than facilitating. The decision of
which font or which fonts to use should rest largely on the audi-
ence, and the purpose of the document (Benson, 1985).
Systems for desktop publishing have been common for a
long time. Software that is easy to handle give the layman the
112
opportunity to combine verbal and visual messages. This techno-
logical revolution enables us to do anything we have in mind to
do on a page or on a screen. The mechanical processes of type-
setting and makeup do no longer restrict us. Unfortunately, most
desktop publishers know little about graphic design, information
design, and typography. With the new systems it is almost too
easy to manipulate a text and make use of all the possibilities to
change the appearance of a page. We should however not try all
possibilities in every document. It is far too easy to create confu-
sion or even a complete mess-up. As White (1987) put it:
The distinguished art and craft of typography developed over
centuries by sensitive craftsmen/artists cannot be handed
over to an indifferent typist keyboarding a machine (how-
ever marvellous the technology) with results of equal excel-
lence and stature. The reader feels the difference in terms of
the piece’s ease of reading, charm, and comfort.
It is wrong economy to cut back on investment in quality, believ-
ing the readers won’t know the difference. Winn (1993) noted
that in text, attention is drawn to words or passages that stand in
contrast to the rest of the body of the text. Baggerman (2000, p.
69) pointed out that designers make a frequent mistake when
they choose typefaces according to their own tastes instead of ac-
cording to the needs of the users.
Typography has generally been considered transparent. Re-
search has often focussed on legibility of typefaces. According to
Dimovski and Puškarević (2017) typography has emerged as a
powerful tool in visual communication. Both practitioners and
scholars have acknowledged its role. Dimovski and Puškarević
observed that the use of filmmaking techniques in preparing
teaching material is welcomed by learners and that they react
positively to cinematic content, when presented in class. Now ty-
pography is “a means of communication in its own right” (van
Leeuwen, 2006).
113
Typeface legibility and familiarity
Nedeljković, Jovančić, and Pušnik (2020) examined legibility in
the context of familiarity. They had two hypotheses:
H1: Exposure to a typeface provides better legibility.
H2: Exposure to a typeface and the universal skeleton provides
better legibility.
Nedeljković, Jovančić, and Pušnik (2020) compared reading per-
formances at different levels of familiarity. The levels of familiar-
ity depended on the common skeleton similarity, and the expo-
sure. In order to compare reading performances, they used spe-
cially designed typefaces as stimuli. Undergraduate students and
teaching assistants (aged 18–35) used an eye-tracking on-screen
reading technology. The 84 subjects were all totally unaware of
the two hypothesises. They were only told to read the texts pre-
sented on the screen as naturally as possible. Before the begin-
ning of each session, every participant was informed orally about
the next steps.
The shape of a humanistic prototype is the result of median
values of eight typefaces (Baskerville, Bodoni, Excelsior, Gara-
mond, Helvetica, Optima, Palatino, and Times), which Frutiger
(1998) used to define its skeleton. The median of all samples is
obtained by their overlapping in the same-resolution matrix,
where all samples are aligned both vertically and to the baseline.
Nedeljković, Jovančić, and Pušnik (2020, p. 3) concluded:
With only a few exceptions, the essential structure of the
Latin alphabet letters or the “skeleton” as defined by Adrian
Frutiger (1998) has stayed more or less the same for more
than 500 years.
The results of the reading speed test for texts set in common type-
faces (Arial and Grid Sans) did not vary significantly. However,
the same tests run for unknown-uncommon (Grid Sans Unicase)
showed noticeably higher reading ease after the exposure period.
114
The reading speed of unknown-common typeface did not
change significantly after the exposure period. Nedeljković, Jo-
vančić, and Pušnik (2020, p. 15) concluded that the universal
structure is the constant, which provides reading comfort. Thus,
the universal structure enables legibility of every new typeface
form that is derived from the universal skeleton regardless of its
specific stylistic attributes. Typeface legibility depends on how
much the typeface resembles the structure we are exposed to.
Nedeljković, Jovančić, and Pušnik (2020, p. 9) confirmed
Licko’s (2009) claim that “we read best what we read most.” Leg-
ibility depends on familiarity. The legibility of all known type-
faces is the result of their long-lasting and frequent usage. The
universal letterform, the one Frutiger recognised as the proto-
type skeleton, is what enables familiarity. Uncommon letter-
forms are a priori not as legible as the common ones.
According to Nedeljković, Jovančić, and Pušnik (2020, p.
15): “practitioners interested in the relationship between type-
face construction and legibility should consider the commonness
of the humanistic skeleton when creating or choosing typefaces.”
Some common typefaces
A “good” typeface might actually be one that is more or less “in-
visible” to readers (Goldenberg, 1993; Scieszka, 1998; Melin,
2011). We shouldn’t be too concerned with the design of the type-
face. Typefaces in common use are all more or less equally legible
(Paterson and Tinker, 1932; Tinker, 1963, 1965). However, read-
ers are likely to have strong preferences about the aesthetics of
typefaces. One important aspect of the design of a typeface is the
perceived size of the individual characters. Some type looks big
and some type looks small. This depends on the design of the
characters and their x-height.
Next to the x-height, the shaping of the various letters is im-
portant. The counters are important for printing and also for the
recognition of words. In desktop publishing all parts of the letters
must be clear and distinct. Clear contrasts increase the legibility,
115
and uniformity reduces it. A typeface can influence our appraisal
of a printed message. Thus, it might be important to make a
choice so that typography reinforces the message.
In this illustration it is easy to see both differences and similar-
ities between Georgia, Helvetica, Times New Roman, and Ver-
dana, all are set in the same type size.
As mentioned earlier, thousands of fonts are available. In the
practical work with graphic design for information, we need only
a few typefaces in different versions. Times New Roman was cre-
ated for the London newspaper The Times. Today Times New
Roman is available worldwide in most computers and it is used
in a large number of documents. Common font families like Bas-
kerville, Berling, Bookman, Garamond, New Century School-
book, and Palatino can be used successfully for the body text in
Georgia
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I J K L M N O P Q R S V W X Y Z , . ; : ! ? ” ( ) / & % + - = > <
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Helvetica
a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B C D E F G
H I J K L M N O P Q R S V W X Y Z , . ; : ! ? ” ( ) / & % + - =
> < * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Times New Roman
a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B C D E F G H I J
K L M N O P Q R S V W X Y Z , . ; : ! ? ” ( ) / & % + - = > < * 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Verdana
a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B C
D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S V W X Y Z , . ; : ! ? ”
( ) / & % + - = > < * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
116
printed books. Modern newspaper typefaces include Stone
(1987), Swift (1985), Gulliver (1990), and Utopia (1989). These
are all serif typefaces. Like Times New Roman they have large x-
heights and good legibility.
In many situations it is enough to select just a few typefaces
for a document. Georgia, Helvetica, Times New Roman, and Ver-
dana are presented below, and on the following pages.
117
Georgia
The type designer Matthew Carter created the two typefaces
Georgia and Verdana for the Microsoft Corporation. The new
typefaces were released in 1996. Georgia is a transitional serif
typeface specifically designed for clarity, especially on computer
screens. It is rather similar to Times New Roman, but it is larger
and more robust at the same point size. Georgia has a large x-
height, and open and wide characters. Thus, Georgia has good
legibility on computer screens, even at small sizes. Times New
Roman is narrow with a more vertical axis. Serifs in Georgia are
almost horizontal, blunt, and wide. The Georgia typeface is very
common for text in documents at the Internet. Georgia is used
for the main texts in this book.
Georgia (left) is compared with Times New Roman (right), in
the same size.
The theoretical part of Information Design, as well as message
design, is called infology. It has been defined as the “science of
verbal and visual presentation and interpretation of messages.”
On the basis of man’s prerequisites, infology encompasses stud-
ies of the way a combined verbal and visual representation
should be designed in order to achieve optimum communication
between a sender and a group of receivers.
Georgia: a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B C D
E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S V W X Y Z , . ; : ! ? ” ( ) / & %
+ - = > < * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Georgia has a large
x-height, open and
wide characters.
Times New Roman has
a large x-height, but
narrow characters.
118
Helvetica
The Swiss typeface designer Max Miedinger (1910–1980) created
Helvetica in 1957. Helvetica has endured over time as an exam-
ple of a clean, durable, malleable, rational, and universal type-
face. This all-purpose font is everywhere, particularly in com-
mercial use representing all kinds of brands. It is the ultimate
design of the Bauhaus–Swiss–International schools. Helvetica is
designed with simple, striking lines in a compact way.
Like Times, Helvetica has been developed in many typefaces
and font versions. Helvetica typefaces are very useful for cap-
tions, headings, tables, and titles, but they might be hard to read
in running text. The similarities between upper-case I and lower-
case l will cause real problems in words like “Illustration.” (See
the illustration at Verdana). Running text in Helvetica will need
extra space between the lines. Helvetica is often used for reader
slides, overhead transparencies, PPP, and in business graphics.
According to Collier and Cotton (1989) Helvetica typefaces may
be the most widely used sans serif typefaces in the world today.
In this book Helvetica is used for labels and captions within illus-
trations.
The theoretical part of Information Design, as well as message
design, is called infology. It has been defined as the “science of
verbal and visual presentation and interpretation of messages.”
On the basis of man’s prerequisites, infology encompasses stud-
ies of the way a combined verbal and visual representation
should be designed in order to achieve optimum communication
between a sender and a group of receivers.
Helvetica: a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S V W X Y Z , . ; : ! ? ” ( ) /
& % + - = > < * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
119
Times New Roman
The British type designer Stanley Morison (1889–1967) created
the original Times New Roman for Monotype in 1932, to be used
in the London newspaper The Times. He worked together with
Victor Lardent (1905–1968), an advertising designer and drafts-
man at The Times. Their mission was to produce a new, first-
class and easy-to-read typeface with very good legibility even in
small sizes for the newspaper. The production methods for The
Times newspaper were far above the world standard at that time.
Times New Roman was designed for hot-metal print and the ro-
tary letterpress printing.
Times New Roman combines the classic elegance of type-
faces for books with modern demands for economy of space. Sev-
eral versions of Times New Roman have been developed. Type-
faces and fonts belonging to “the Times family” are all easy to
read. They are probably the most widely used serif typefaces in
the world. Times typefaces are used in newspapers and maga-
zines as well as in books. However, Times New Roman cannot be
successfully used on computer screens, and laser printers cannot
yet print the very fine lines in small letter sizes.
The theoretical part of Information Design, as well as message design,
is called infology. It has been defined as the “science of verbal and vis-
ual presentation and interpretation of messages.” On the basis of man’s
prerequisites, infology encompasses studies of the way a combined ver-
bal and visual representation should be designed in order to achieve
optimum communication between a sender and a group of receivers.
Times New Roman: a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S V W X Y Z , . ; : ! ? ” ( )
/ & % + - = > < * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
120
Verdana
The type designer Matthew Carter created Verdana as a human-
ist sans serif typeface for computer screens. It was specifically
designed for clarity. Verdana has no serifs, large x-height as well
as open and wide characters. The space between characters is
loose. In contrast to Helvetica similarly shaped characters have
emphasized distinctions. Thus, Verdana has good legibility on
computer screens, even at small sizes.
The theoretical part of Information Design, as well as
message design, is called infology. It has been defined
as the “science of verbal and visual presentation and in-
terpretation of messages.” On the basis of man’s prereq-
uisites, infology encompasses studies of the way a com-
bined verbal and visual representation should be de-
signed in order to achieve optimum communication be-
tween a sender and a group of receivers.
Comparisons of the characters 1, l, and I in Georgia, Helvetica,
Times New Roman, and Verdana.
Typeface
Digit 1
Lowercase l
Uppercase I
Georgia
1
l
I
Helvetica
1
l
I
Times New
Roman
1
l
I
Verdana
1
l
I
Verdana: a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x
y z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S V W X Y Z
, . ; : ! ? ” ( ) / & % + - = > < * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
121
Verdana is very useful for titles, headings, captions, and ta-
bles of various kinds but it might be hard to read in running text.
In this book Verdana is used for the book title, the names of au-
thor and publisher, and for headings, levels 1–3.
In 2009 the international furniture company IKEA changed
the typeface in its catalogue from the classical typeface Futura to
the modern Verdana. The company expressed a desire to unify
its branding between print and web media.
Visual poetry
Before modern and postmodern forms of typography emerged,
visual poetry broke with the traditional conventions of typogra-
phy (Hillner, 2009, p. 14). The beginnings of the “visual poetry
movement” are usually attributed to the early twentieth century.
In protests against the mechanisation of reading, visual poets re-
turned to the use of pencil and paper.
The French poet Guillaume Apollinaire (pseudonym för Wil-
helm Albert Vladimir Apollinaris de Kostrowitzky, 1880–1918) is
considered one of the foremost poets of the early 20th century.
At the beginning, Apollinaire drew his poems by hand. Later, he
commissioned letterpress artists to print his poems. Apollinaire’s
ideograms escaped the conventions of traditional linear writing.
He forced readers into a perceptual struggle.
A visual poem confronts the reader with an initially confus-
ing piece of information. These readers cannot tell if they are
looking at an “image-like text”, or if they are looking at a “text-
like image”.
Paper and ink
In all graphical media the quality of the paper and ink is of vital
importance for the final result. The paper has its specific bulk,
finish, grain, texture, and weight. It may be floppy or stiff. It may
be glossy and shining or matte, and maybe dull. It may be thick
or thin. Thin lines, in serifs on small type sizes, may require a
harder paper than normal lines and larger type. The printing
122
technique used will affect the type of paper needed. The quality
of ink is also an important factor in graphical communication.
All these factors affect legibility and our reading comfort,
and also our perceived value of the entire product. The degree of
contrast between the colour of the ink and the colour of the paper
should be optimum. For text printed in black all paper surfaces
are equally legible if they have a reflectance of at least 70%. The
most legible combination is a black text on a light-yellow back-
ground. In a normal reading situation, black print on white paper
is over 10% more efficient than white on black (Pettersson, 1991).
Cost effective typography
If a document is to have many readers who will try to read and
understand it during working hours, the cost of reading the doc-
ument will by far be the greatest expense it incurs. Even though
it may be expensive to produce information sets, it usually costs
even more to store, access, and use the information content.
Therefore, the more people who will partake of certain infor-
mation, the greater the total cost will be. Because the cost of read-
ing is closely linked to the type of material in the document and
to the various groups of readers it targets, there will be great op-
portunities to reduce the total costs and save money by present-
ing the information in a suitable fashion.
To facilitate our work with cost effective typography and
graphical form, we may need a number of guidelines, or rules of
thumb. In an international organization such as a multinational
corporation advice and guidelines may be developed according
to the following criteria and requirements:
1. The text must exhibit good legibility. Because the typogra-
phy should provide ease of reading without being “visible”
(that is, without arousing special notice), we must avoid un-
usual typefaces.
123
2. Our point of departure should primarily be the reader's psy-
chological capacity for perception, and secondly the poten-
tial performance of the technical equipment at hand.
3. It should be as easy as possible for technical writers and edi-
tors to handle templates for graphical forms. Thus, these
people should be given the necessary training to handle
computer programs and the like where these templates are
available.
4. Size ratios in typography and layout should be based on con-
ventions of typography and on research findings in percep-
tion psychology.
5. The typography and layout should be acceptable in many
countries, even though national tastes may vary widely.
6. The typography should be adapted to the technology, that is,
it should look good when printed on a laser printer, and
when copied on an ordinary office copying machine. Look
for and adapt to the week part in the production chain.
7. The typefaces should be available as standard selections in
computers and laser printers all over the world. Even so, we
have to accept the fact that printouts made by different
printers will not be identical in appearance.
8. The typography should usually be “economical.” It should be
possible to accommodate a great deal of information in a
limited space without a crowded appearance.
9. We should choose typefaces with high x-height for good legi-
bility, even when small type sizes are used.
10. The typography and layout should produce good results on
standard paper. In Europe, the standard paper size is A4
(210 x 297 millimetres), whereas in the USA, US letter
(215.9 x 279.4 millimetres) is the standard. We deal with
these differences by varying the margins on the page.
11. The dimensions of pages and length of lines are given in cen-
timetres or millimetres. Type sizes are given in “points,” the
typographical unit of measurement. Note that there are dif-
ferent systems in USA and in Europe. In the Pica system 12
124
points = 4.2333 mm. In the Didot system 12 points = 4.511
mm. In the Mediaan system 12 points = 4.205 mm. The
most common programs for desktop publishing use the Pica
system, giving points as “pts.”
12. It should be possible to print a document and insert the
pages directly into a loose-leaf binder. This means that
right-hand and left-hand pages should have the same ap-
pearance, basically a right-hand page layout.
13. If a document is to be reproduced using conventional tech-
nology, it should be possible to use printouts of it from a la-
ser printer or from a phototypesetter as a basis for direct re-
production. When A4 is reduced to 80.4%, the result con-
forms to the conventional printing format, G5 (169 x 239
millimetres).
14. Before conventional printing, the layout of right-hand and
left-hand pages may easily be changed.
15. All documents might be coded in accordance with the SGML
standard, so that it is easy to use the information in different
ways, and in different formats. Sometimes other standards
may be used (like HTML, and XML).
16. Reduction through successive refinement is the best way to
reach clarity. To create an elegant solution, anything that is
not essential to the communication task has to be removed.
125
Typography and language
Pušnik et al. (2014) studied how different languages influences
the legibility of typefaces that are specially designed for use on
computer screens at different viewing conditions. The study in-
cluded two groups of 25 participants, three languages (Croatian,
English, and Slovene) and three typefaces (Georgia, Tahoma, and
Verdana). These typefaces are all designed for use on screens.
However, there are some small differences between them. Geor-
gia was designed to be legible on computer screens, as well as for
printouts on paper. Tahoma is mainly ideal for the use in user
interfaces. Verdana was designed to be legible at small sizes on
computer screens. Tahoma and Verdana are often used for very
short text segments.
In reading tests, the text samples included eleven lines with
a total of 200 words of popular science material. Each test person
performed two tests, one in a native language (Croatian or Slove-
nian) and one in the foreign English language. All participants
randomly performed the test twice, in their native and in English.
The authors used an eye-tracking device to measure reading time
and number of fixations for each reader.
On average Verdana required the shortest time for reading
and also for comprehension, followed by Tahoma, and Georgia.
However, results showed that the average reading times for Slo-
venian language and Croatian language were almost the same. In
this study questions related to text content showed a very high
degree of correct answers.
The average reading times for the text in English was about
20 percent higher than for the native languages. This may prob-
ably depend more on differences in language skills than legibility
of typefaces. The answer to the research question (Is legibility of
typefaces designed for screen use the same for different lan-
guages?) seems to be “yes”.
Typography is the visual representation of verbal infor-
mation. All typographic arrangements constitute “images of
words”. Typography is said to be “para-verbal”, i.e. the visual
126
appearance of type primarily serves to materialize language
(Pflaeging and Stöckl, 2021, p. 8). Typography convey metaphor-
ical meanings over and above the text only on a secondary level.
The functions of typographic design choices may be to high-
light parts of a text, to subdivide and structure writing, to create
inter-modal harmony (e.g. between image and text), or to lend a
piece of communication qualities.
Projected typography
In audio-visual instruction and in audio-visual materials, such as
overhead transparencies, slides, filmstrips, and computer-based
presentations, lettering must be considered carefully in order to
improve legibility. Type must be large as well as bold enough to
see. In verbal presentations, many of the projected images con-
sist only of text. In written documentation, this type of infor-
mation should be worked into the body of text instead.
This main section includes the following sections: OH and
PP, and Slides.
OH and PP
According to the standard for OH, overhead transparencies (SIS
62 23 01 SD A4L), the actual plastic film is 210 x 297 mm. The
picture surface is 190 x 245 mm, which is a height-to-width ratio
of 1:1.289. Administrative data are put in the 35 mm right mar-
gin. The top margin is 15 mm, bottom margin 5 mm and left mar-
gin 17 mm. In some organizations there is a need for more ad-
ministrative data, such as logotype and/or name of the organisa-
tion, name of author, document name, security classification, re-
vision, publication date and document number. These data are
put in the bottom margin. Here the picture surface may be 170 x
270 mm, which is a height-to-width ratio of 1:1.588. In the old
PowerPoint the height-to-width ratio is 1:1.328, now 1:1.778. The
size of the image can be adjusted to the situation on the computer
screen. Administrative data should not be projected on the pro-
jection screen.
127
The layout to the left is the OH-standard SIS 622301 SD A4L.
The layout to the right is used in some organizations.
Many speakers use text transparencies, or word-visuals,
containing key words in an attempt to supply an overview, clar-
ify, reinforce, and summarize complicated arguments. These
texts must be brief and concise. They must also be easy to read.
For good legibility, characters should be large, distinct, and bold,
not less than six millimetres high to be projected in a room the
size of a normal classroom. Larger rooms require larger charac-
ter sizes.
In oral presentations, it is not enough that a picture has an
interesting content and is well executed with a high technical
quality. The picture must also be used under optimal conditions.
A poor picture will always give a poor projected image that will
be perceived as having low quality. A good picture with high qual-
ity contents and execution may be perceived as having anything
between low and high quality.
128
I have seen hundreds of really bad images of this kind in bor-
ing OH-presentations and PP-presentations by “experts” in dif-
ferent disciplines. This is a true example from one very boring
presentation. I asked the presenter for a digital copy of his ma-
terial. He was very pleased. Here, I have removed his name
and his affiliation.
In this case the heading says: “Some Examples of Good Presen-
tations at the Conference.” However, both from a “graphic de-
sign point of view” and from an “information design point of
view” this image is a real disaster. But, in fact, it is a very
good example of “what not to do”. Always avoid this type of
word-images with far too much information, many spelling
mistakes, and very bad layout and typography. The changing
hue of the background makes the text even harder to read.
Why is the background increasingly darker?
129
This kind of image is better for OH- and PP-presentations. It is
too much to show that letters vary with respect to colour, height,
line, size, style, and width in one single image. Here it is very
clear that the x-heights of Garamond, Georgia, and Verdana in
the same nominal size actually are very different.
Normal text, containing both uppercase and lower-case let-
ters, is easier to read than texts using only uppercase letters.
Overhead transparency texts should often consist of black char-
acters on a light background. Text transparencies may very well
be useful adjuncts for the speaker but they are sometimes very
boring to members of the audience. In verbal presentations,
many of the pictures consist only of text. For good legibility of
projected texts, we need to consider the following aspects:
• A good general guideline for reader slides is to use a light or a
dark background colour appropriate to the content, and then
use a colour with good contrast for the text colour.
• Avoid graduated and tonal background fills.
• Be consistent in the use of uppercase and lowercase letters.
• Check the spelling. Check the spelling again.
130
• Edit the text into sections that are easily read.
• Maintain a good contrast between foreground and back-
ground. Good colour combinations are yellow–black, and
white–blue.
• Overhead transparencies should be projected in a correct way
and not in any way distorted.
• Overhead transparencies should preferably be horizontally
presented.
• Put all the necessary identifications data on each transpar-
ency.
• Restrict fancy and stylized typefaces to opening slides.
• Text must also be legible to spectators who are sitting at the
rear of the room. The minimum size of letters in overhead
transparencies is six millimetres (Helvetica or Verdana 18
points).
• Text should have maximum legibility. It may be a good idea
to use a linear typeface such as Helvetica or Verdana; for ex-
ample, 36 and 30 pt for headings, 24 pt for the body text, and
18 pt for texts within illustrations.
• Text should usually be left justified.
• Use no more than six rows of six words each in one overhead
transparency. The line distance should consist of the size of
the typeface plus 15 to 20% of extra empty space.
• White–yellow, red–green, and red–blue are all very bad col-
our combinations. Don’t use them.
In written documentation, this type of information should be
worked into the body of the text instead. Basically, these guide-
lines for overhead transparencies are also relevant for presenta-
tions with PowerPoint, and other similar systems.
Slides
A slide’s subject should appear against a black background. Text
slides should only be used to a limited degree. Texts should be
light (white or yellow) on a dark background (black or dark blue).
131
Many colour combinations are hard or even more or less impos-
sible to read when they are projected on a projection screen.
According to the standard for 5 x 5 slides, SIS 62 23 03, the
individual part of the film for each picture is 24 x 36 mm. The
surface of the projected image is 22,5 x 34,5 mm, which is a
height-to-width ratio of 1:1.533. This is quite close to the golden
mean (1:1.618). The actual frame for each picture is 5 x 5 cm.
This image shows comparisons of four projected images. Note
that the old PP had the same format index as traditional TV (75),
and the new PP has the same format index as high definition TV
(56).
In verbal presentations, many of the pictures consist only of
text. We should consider the following aspects for good legibility
of projected word-visuals:
• A total of 15–20 words in a slide is maximum for effective
communication.
• Avoid graduated and tonal background fills.
• Edit the text into sections that are easily read.
• Lettering height should be no less than one 25th of the height
of the artwork to be transferred to film.
• Letters should be medium to medium-bold.
• Maintain a good contrast between foreground and back-
ground. Good colour combinations are yellow–black, and
white–blue.
• Restrict stylized and fancy typefaces to opening slides.
132
• Slides should preferably be horizontally presented.
• Text may be centred.
• Upper-case letters are often used in slides. Be consistent in
the use of uppercase and lowercase letters.
• Use no more than six rows of six words in each image, set in
a linear typeface, with characters large and bold enough.
• White–yellow, red–green, and red–blue are all very bad col-
our combinations. Don’t use them in slides.
In written documentation, this type of information should be
worked into the body of the text instead. Basically, these guide-
lines for slides are also relevant for presentations with Power-
Point, and other similar systems.
Screen typography
Compared with traditional graphic presentations any presenta-
tion of information on visual displays, such as computer termi-
nals, telephones, small screens on machinery, and television sets,
is very limited. Still, information may be presented in many dif-
ferent ways with respect to typography and graphic design.
This main section includes the following sections: Visual dis-
plays, User interface design, The message on the screen, and
Computer print-outs.
Visual displays
Visual displays can be built in many ways and in many sizes. A
colour television set, an advanced computer terminal, and a liq-
uid crystal display all have different characteristics. We view tel-
evision sets at a distance of more than a couple of metres, com-
puter terminals at 40–60 centimetres, and telephone screens at
20–30 centimetres. Our perception of text and pictures on visual
displays are, of course, to a large extent dependent on the quality
of the screen.
Some computer terminals may be built with a screen resolu-
tion of 72–82 dots per inch. Today, an ordinary television image
133
consists of about 250,000 image points, or picture elements,
which vary with respect to both grey scale and colour infor-
mation.
High Definition Television (HDTV) uses 1,125 scanning lines
and can contain five or six times more information than the pre-
sent NTSC standard colour television system, with 525 lines.
(The European PAL-system has 625 lines.) HDTV developments
of flat PAL 625 screens will also give increased technical possi-
bilities to present text and pictures. So far most visual displays
have a resolution far below a printed page. However, laser print-
ers and phototypesetters are becoming better year-by-year.
In discussions on technology, colour is related to measurable
amounts of light. In 1931 an international body called the Com-
mission International de l’Eclairage (International Commission
on Illumination), or CIE, defined standards of light and colour.
In this context colour primaries are the basic colour stimuli used
for the synthesis of any colour, by addition or subtraction. Addi-
tive combinations of a very limited amount of radiation are used
for colour synthesis of a range of colours in a cathode ray tube
(CRT) and in a visual display unit (VDU).
A colour CRT is a vacuum tube, enclosing one or three elec-
tron guns for generating beams of electrons, a system for focus-
ing the beam to produce a spot of visible light at the point of im-
pact on the phosphorous screen, and for electric field deflection
of the beam, suitable deflection electrodes. The thousands of
small phosphorous dots are grouped into threes, called triads,
emitting red, green, and blue. Red, green, and blue are called the
“three primaries,” RGB. One lumen of white is given by 0.30 red
+ 0.59 green + 0.11 blue.
134
This is an early version of videotex showing a map and text on
a tv-screen. In 1979 there were 96 alphanumeric characters,
seven colours plus black background, and 64 mosaic characters.
Internet offers much better opportunities for graphic design.
Any two primary colours may be mixed to produce other col-
ours. Red and green added can produce a range of hues around
yellow. Green and blue produce a range centred on blue-green,
while red and blue mixtures produce a red-blue range. The total
number of colours that can be produced in a CRT depends upon
the number of steps or grey levels obtainable for each phospho-
rous dot. Advanced systems are capable of producing up to 256
simultaneously visible colour stimuli chosen from a palette of 16
million. However, in most cases only a few colour stimuli are
needed at the same time.
The uncertainties in the coordinates of colours are rather
large as a consequence of the heterogeneous distribution and ef-
ficiency of the phosphorous over the screen, the defects in elec-
tron beam convergence, and the departures of the relations be-
tween the values of the colour signals and the digital counts. One
135
consequence of additive combinations in colour television is that
characters presented in white (the three-colour combination) are
less sharp than those presented in yellow, blue-green, or red-blue
(all two-colour combinations). In a similar way, the latter colours
are less sharp than red, green, and blue (pure colours).
Sometimes colour rims may be seen at the characters with
two- or three-colour combinations. The additive combination
starts in dark adding light to produce colour. Thus, another con-
sequence of additive combinations is that secondary colour stim-
uli will always appear brighter than the primaries.
Luminance is a photometric measure of the amount of light
emitted by a surface (lumen/steradian/sq.m.). Radiance is a ra-
diometric measure of light emitted by a surface (watt/stera-
dian/sq.m.). It should be noted that neither luminance nor radi-
ance is the equivalent of brightness, which is the experienced in-
tensity of light (bright-dull). In colour displays it is very difficult
to distinguish brightness from lightness (white-black). When the
signal to the display is increased, the brightness of the total
screen is increased. If a signal to a specific part on the screen is
increased, the lightness of the area is increased compared with
the total screen.
It is usually possible in a CRT to adjust the luminance, the
hue, and the saturation. Like brightness and lightness, hue and
saturation are also psychological dimensions. Hue is the basic
component of colour corresponding to different wavelengths.
Saturation is most closely related to the number of wavelengths
contributing to a colour sensation. We should always remember
that the production of colour, by additive or subtractive methods,
has nothing to do with the actual perception of colours.
In a CRT some 8,000–20,000 volts of tension are required
to form an image on the screen. Screens with several colours even
require up to 30,000 volts. The electrostatic field of the CRT is
positively charged. Thus, the person sitting in front of the screen
is negatively charged and a strong field is created. The field af-
fects the movement of dust particles in the air. Since the majority
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of the particles are positively charged, they are attracted to the
operator. The rate of deposit can reach 10,000 particles per
square millimetres of skin an hour. Thus, skin and eyes become
irritated. People suffering from allergies can experience extreme
discomfort. The electrostatic field can be eliminated with the
help of a grounded filter, mounted on the screen.
The large magnets used to direct and focus the electron beam
on the CRT screen and create the electromagnetic field. The elec-
tromagnetic radiation consists of two components of which one
can be shielded. It is not clear as to whether this radiation affects
the adult human body unfavourably. However, it is known that
this radiation might be injurious to unborn children when preg-
nant women work too many hours in front of the screen.
User interface design
User interface design (UI), or user interface engineering, is the
design of user interfaces for machines and software. There is a
range of electronic devices in cameras, cars, cash registers, com-
puter systems, household scales, telephones, TV sets, vacuum
cleaners, and many other objects. The goal is to make the user's
experience and interaction as efficient and simple as possible.
User interfaces
A user interface refers to the elements seen on displays and
screens that can be used to directly influence the status of a prod-
uct or be a part of the process that influences the status (Westen-
dorp, 2002, p. 19). Such elements may be graphic elements indi-
cating grouping such as colours, dialogue boxes, lines, numbers,
shapes, and very short texts. For defining the usability of soft-
ware products standards have been developed as far back as the
1980s.
Icons are graphic devices displayed as parts of user inter-
faces displayed on screens in order to help the user navigate com-
puter-based systems. These graphic devices are typically non-al-
phabetic and non-numerical.
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A human-computer interface is a communications channel
between a user and a computer. An interface includes both 1)
physical components, and 2) conceptual components. Physical
components are devices for input and output of information. In-
put devices may include data gloves, eye trackers, joysticks, key-
boards, microphones, speech recognizers, and touch panels. Out-
put devices may include sound or speech synthesizers, and visual
displays. Conceptual components include command languages,
menus, screen layout, and typography.
Graphic design and typography support the usability of a
user interface (Norman, 2002). User interface design requires a
good understanding of user needs. The graphical user interface
reference model proposes four dimensions to structure user in-
terfaces (Bass et al., 1992).
• Access, a functional or technical dimension.
• Communication and support, an organizational dimension.
• Feel, a dialogue dimension.
• Look, an input–output dimension.
The multi-part international standard ISO 9241, from the Inter-
national Organization for Standardization (ISO), describes the
dynamic, ergonomic characteristics of human system interac-
tions. Originally the standards had the title Ergonomic require-
ments for office work with visual display terminals. From 2006
the title is Ergonomics of Human System Interaction.
Organization and presentation of information is described in
Part 12 of the standard. This can be regarded as the “look” of the
interface. Each recommendation supports one or more of seven
attributes: clarity, comprehensibility, conciseness, consistency,
detectability, discriminability, and legibility.
Interdisciplinary
User interface design is interdisciplinary. It may involve concepts
and facts from many fields such as cognitive psychology, commu-
nication, computer science, education, engineering, graphic
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design, human computer interaction, industrial design, infor-
mation architecture, information science, interaction design,
software design, typography, web design, and visual design.
The information processing model of cognition is used in
cognitive psychology. It establishes that: 1) our working memory
is limited to five to seven “chunks” of information; 2) our atten-
tion must frequently be refreshed; and 3) recalling information
requires more cognitive effort than recognizing information.
Novices and casual users prefer menus to command languages.
It is easier to recognize an option than to remember a command.
Touch panels in information kiosks and graphic displays in most
video games overcome many psychological limitations. They
share the “load” between cognitive and physical activity. Imme-
diate feedback and easy reversibility will invite user exploration.
The psychological theory of mental models, or schemas, has
also been applied to user interface design. Users develop mental
models for objects, events, and ideas. These internal and mental
representations are incomplete and often inaccurate, but they
will help people to deal with their systems.
Metaphors
A common approach in user interface design is to define meta-
phors that links existing user knowledge to the functions of the
system. The desktop metaphor may be the best-known example.
However, a more fundamental metaphor is the screen as a scroll
of paper. Metaphors are useful, but they can also constrain the
user's view of a system. Concern with ease of learning can even-
tually interfere with skilled use.
Rules and principles
As previously noted Dreilinger (1993, p. 6) wrote about aesthetics
and usability as the yin and yang of interface design, and Bagger-
man (2000, p. 11) wrote that all design elements in interface de-
sign should serve a purpose. The first rule of interface design is
“communicating with the user” (Baggerman, 2000, p. 69).
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Research in psychology has led to a number of principles for
better user interface design. Perhaps the most basic principle is
that an interface should be designed around the needs of the user
rather than added on after a system has been completed, thus
serving the constraints imposed by the system. Marchionini
(1991) provided the following seven design principles:
1. The interface should compensate for human physical and
cognitive limitations whenever possible. However, the inter-
face should be “transparent,” not getting in the way of the
user's actions or impeding his or her progress. The interface
itself should not overload the user with complexity or unnec-
essary “bells and whistles” that interfere with or distract
from the task at hand.
2. The physical components of the interface should be ergo-
nomically designed, considering the comfort and health of
the user as well as his or her special needs and characteris-
tics. For example, a touch panel design for a word pro-
cessing program demands far too much arm movement for
lengthy sessions but serves quite nicely in an information ki-
osk of a shopping mall when positioned to be touchable by
users of various heights.
3. The interface should be consistent. For example, selection
methods, positioning of important text and buttons, text
fonts and styles, and window layout and management
should be consistent in all parts of an interface.
4. Non-command interaction styles such as direct manipula-
tion and menus are preferable to command languages, alt-
hough the expert user should be given “type ahead” capabil-
ity to quickly move through layers of menus.
5. The interface should handle errors by providing simple and
concise error messages that assist the user in recovery and
future avoidance.
6. The interface should support reversible actions (e.g., the
UNDO capability in many systems).
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7. The interface should be subjected to usability testing early in
the design process and as each iteration of the product
evolves.
Computer systems are becoming increasingly interactive, and
this trend will continue as new interfaces are developed. Interac-
tivity will be supported by new input and output devices that take
fuller advantage of the many communication channels humans
employ.
The development of interfaces that support multiple input
and output devices in parallel will be important. For example, an
interface that accepts voice and gesture concurrently will give
richer control to users who must move about while controlling
systems. Likewise, video and sound output together provide a
more powerful communication channel for information flow. In-
telligent agents are also under development. Agents can be as-
signed specific tasks by the user and then sent out to execute
those tasks.
The number of elderly people is growing rapidly. Hsiao et al.
(2017) noted that elderly has gradually become more isolated. El-
derly people were born before the age of the technology revolu-
tion. They have to acquire familiarity with digital systems, and
interact with technology at an older age. They are “digital immi-
grants.” The technology gap between the young generation, the
“digital natives,” and the “digital immigrants” has become
marked.
Design of user interfaces are important in human computer
interactions. However, today the design of user interfaces lack
concern for accessibility and usability and of the elderly. Seniors
often have problems in operating conventional interface devices.
Hsiao et al. (2017) made an intuitive user interface design of dig-
ital devices for seniors, based on hand gestures, such as “grab”,
“move”, “release” to operate a digital media interface system.
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The message on the screen
This section deals with the legibility of messages on screens and
visual displays. The message on the screen may consist of text,
numeric data, and visuals. The layout of the message is important
for our perception. See book 4. Information Design–Image De-
sign for a discussion about different kinds of screens and visual
displays. They range from very small to very large. General de-
sign rules should be employed in the design of screen displays.
Text on the screen
The quality of visual displays is important for our perception of
the message. Colour as well as blank “empty” space is essentially
free and might be used to increase legibility. A presentation of
text on a visual display depends on the type of characters used,
the design of the information, the background, the content, and
also the actual screen. The characters may vary with respect to
font, size, lowercase and uppercase letters, colour, and contrast
to the background. Legibility of the text depends on the execution
of the individual character and the possibility for each one to be
distinguished from all the others.
Early research
Experiments with 11,000 judgments of perceived reading efforts
of text on visual displays showed that colours presented on col-
our displays were ranked in the same order as surface colours in
traditional print media (Pettersson et al., 1984a). Here are the
main findings:
• A text can be easy to read in any colour, provided the back-
ground is carefully selected.
• Reading efforts of colour combinations are independent of
the gender of the subjects.
• The best background colour is black, which has good contrast
to most text colours.
• Blue was most popular colour.
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• The best combination is black text on a white or yellow back-
ground.
• The best text colour is black, which causes good contrast to
most background colours.
• There was no difference between colour blind (red-green) us-
ers and users with normal vision.
• When text is shown on a visual display, there is no easily read
colour combination. About thirty-five of one hundred and
thirty-two combinations are acceptable.
In the early days of personal computers subjects generally pre-
ferred reading text printed on paper rather than reading text on
screens with low resolutions (Dillon and McKnight, 1990; Wright
and Lickorish, 1983). People performed slower and less accurate
on instructional tasks when they had to read from computer
screens and not from paper (Wright and Lickorish, 1983). Proof-
reading of a text from a print on paper was 20–30% faster than
proofreading from computer screens (Gould and Grischowsky,
1984). All this is very different today. The quality of visual dis-
plays has increased dramatically.
A presentation of text on a visual display depends on the type
of characters available and used, the background, and also the
content. The characters may vary with respect to font, size, low-
ercase and uppercase letters, colour, and contrast to the back-
ground (Grabinger, 1989). Legibility of a text depends on the ex-
ecution of the individual characters and the possibility for each
one to be distinguished from all the others.
In the early days of personal computers people conducted a
lot of work to create legible characters for different kinds of
screens. According to Knave (1983) a minimum of ten to twelve
raster lines per character was required. When characters are
built by dots in a dot matrix, the characters will be round or
square and not elongated. A dot matrix of seven by nine dots was
often regarded as a minimum. The height of the characters
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should be a minimum of four millimetres for a viewing distance
of sixty centimetres.
Rambally and Rambally (1987) showed that blinking and
flashing of a text on a computer screen was an accenting tech-
nique that would grab the attention of the user. Subjects disliked
fast scrolling text on computer screens (Burg et al., 1982; Kolers
et al., 1981; Pettersson et al. 1984b).
Colours and reading efforts
Subjects disliked the use of more than three or four text colours
on the same “page,” and considered colour coding to be a good
way to show that something is especially important (Pettersson
et al. 1984b). When working with typography and colour the
most important consideration for computer screens is to achieve
an appropriate contrast between text and its background (Carter
et al., 2007). They wrote (p. 80):
It has long been considered that black type on a white back-
ground is the most legible (combination). While this combi-
nation remains an excellent choice, other alternatives may
offer equal if not improved legibility due to improved digital
and printing technologies, and the fact that colour is a rela-
tive phenomenon. … Generally, all legibility guidelines re-
lated to working with colour and type in print apply also to
type appearing on a computer screen.
Bradshaw (2001) found that the background colour of a com-
puter screen should be “fairly light” or “fairly dark,” depending
on the content. The text displayed on a screen should have an
opposite (“fairly dark” or “fairly light”) colour. When the screen
resolution is average or poor, sans serif is more legible (Bernard
et al., 2001). Strand (2007) concluded that the traditional choice,
black type on white background, is a good choice for a colour
combination on small computer screens like iPods.
Research concerned with perceived reading efforts of text on
visual displays and altering colours of the actual equipment
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found that the close context is really important for the perceived
reading effort. The colour of a terminal should be rather subdued
(Pettersson, 1984).
The best of ninety combinations were black text on a white
screen with a dark grey terminal, closely followed by the context
colours black, white, and light grey. It was also found that it was
an advantage when the context colour was the same as the colour
of either the colour of the text or the background on the screen.
The combination of context and text/background colours must
match against each other. If they clash the reading effort in-
creases. Further experiments with altering ambient light levels
showed that this was of no or very limited importance for the per-
ceived reading effort.
Use of modern typefaces
Some typefaces have been specially designed for use on modern
computers. Examples are Georgia, Trebuchet and Verdana (Bias
et al., 2010; Hoffman et al., 2005; Josephson, 2008).
Strand (2007) found that regular type, and lower-case type
is a good choice for small computer screens like iPods. The pre-
ferred number of lines with text is four.
Kovačević et al. (2014) studied the legibility of a short popu-
lar science text presented in serif and sans serif typefaces on a
computer screen for a total of 40 subjects. An eye-tracking device
recorded the number of fixations and the reading time for each
subject. The subjects also had to answer questions about the con-
tent of the text. According to traditional belief serif typefaces
should be easier to read than sans serif typefaces. Thus, the au-
thors expected fewer fixations and shorter reading times for serif
typefaces.
The sans serif typefaces were Arial, Tahoma, and Verdana.
The serif typefaces were Georgia, Palatino, and Times News Ro-
man. Georgia and Verdana are especially designed for use on
computer screens. The other four typefaces were designed for
printing purposes.
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The results showed that the average number of fixations was
smaller for the serif typefaces (183) than for the sans serif type-
faces (194,5). However, the average reading time for the sans
serif typefaces (77.63 s) was somewhat shorter than for the serif
typefaces (78.77 s). The differences were small compared with
the average of all fixations (6%), and very small compared with
the average of all reading time (1,5%).
The authors claimed that Georgia and Verdana were not
“better” than the other four typefaces. However, the “popular sci-
ence texts” were very short, probably too short to show any sig-
nificant differences between the typefaces. In this study all texts
consisted of only 12 lines with 200 words. Usually readers will be
expected to spend much longer time reading an instructional ma-
terial, a paper, or a report.
Jumbled letters
Pušnik et al. (2018) compared reading performances of 1) short
texts where some words had jumbled letters, and 2) short texts
with only correct words. The short simple texts in English and in
Slovene were set in Georgia Bold typeface style, presented on
grey and white backgrounds on a computer screen. The authors
used an eye tracking device to gather data from 80 subjects at the
University of Ljubljana.
Analysis of eye movements showed that it was more compli-
cated for subjects to read texts with jumbled letters in both lan-
guages. Jumbled letters increased the number of fixations and
reading time. For these subjects the easiest text was in Slovene
set against the white background. Furthermore, more complex
long words provide greater number of eye fixations and longer
reading time than ordinary words with some jumbled letters.
Five letter words
Since all of us constantly are confronted with displayed and
printed words, information designers should always use a suita-
ble typeface to make all reading comfortable and easy for the in-
tended readers. In one study in a laboratory setting Weingerl,
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Nedeljković and Pušnik (2022) studied legibility and visibility of
five-letter words in different experimental conditions. In order to
reduce the amount of reflection they painted the laboratory en-
vironment in a grey colour.
The authors prepared a special web application to automat-
ically determine typeface and position of words displayed on a
grey screen. They prepared a pool of 200 randomly selected
words for each trial, including lower-case, sentence-case, and up-
per-case. There were no replacements for missed words. Each
word was randomly displayed in one of four positions on the
screen. The system examined the minimum time for the subjects
to recognize the words. The study included 30 subjects for each
of three sessions. Ages of subjects ranged from 20 to 30 years (M
= 22.7 years). This study used the following five different type-
faces: Calibri, Georgia, Swiss 721, Trebuchet, and Verdana.
The results showed that the usability of the typefaces were
ranked in the following way: 1) Georgia, 2) Calibri, 3) Trebuchet,
4) Verdana, and 5) Swiss 721. The three authors remarked that
despite the general opinion that typefaces belonging to the group
of linear typefaces are better for screen display, this experiment
showed the opposite. The Georgia typeface performed the best
regardless of the other conditions. The time to read upper case
letters was much shorter than lower case and sentence case let-
ters. For words presented in the upper positions of the screen,
the recognition time was shorter than for the lower positions of
the screen. Different combinations of variables showed that
some were better suited for on-screen use.
Numeric data on the screen
Computer graphics hardware and software are widely available.
It is easy to create business graphics. However, bad designs make
communication difficult or even impossible. Bertin (1967), Cos-
sette (1982), McCleary (1983), and Pettersson (1983, 1989) all
discussed the importance of individual design variables in visual
language. Ehlers (1984) pointed out problems of legibility in
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business graphics. Direction, pattern and texture of graphic ele-
ments appeared to be important factors as well as colour and size.
Use of colour in business graphics
The greater the difference is between the colours in a graphic
presentation, the more distinct is our perception of the borders
between the colour spaces (Fahlander and Zwierzak, 1985).
On white background the following colour combinations are
suitable to use: black combined with yellow, yellow-red, red,
blue, green or the mixtures of red-blue (magenta), blue-green
(cyan), and green-yellow.
On black background the following colour combinations are
suitable to use: white combined with yellow-red, red, blue, or the
mixtures of red-blue. On white as well as on black background
the following combinations are suitable to use: yellow combined
with red and blue, red combined with blue-green or green-yel-
low, red-blue combined with green or green-yellow.
Some colours used in business graphics have much higher
aesthetic values than others (Azoulay and Janson, 1985). Blue,
red, and green were judged as the most aesthetic colours. Pet-
tersson and Carlsson (1985) studied the relationships in business
graphics between: 1) Variables, and 2) Parts of a whole. The find-
ings, based on more than 2,300 individual assessments, were
concluded in the following points:
• Colours like blue, red, and green are liked very much but they
do not improve our possibility of reading the message accu-
rately.
• Design of graphic elements is important to consider. Most
available patterns are probably less good. Patterns should be
subdued and not disturbing.
• Different parts in graphic figures should have about the same
luminance and radiance. The true differences between areas
can be hard to see when shaded differently.
• Graphical information is good in conveying a survey of a sit-
uation.
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• When accuracy is needed, graphical information should be
combined with actual figures.
• When parts of a whole are presented, comparisons of areas
can be used as well.
• When relationships between variables are presented, com-
parisons of lengths give the best results.
Effective chart design
In Choosing the Right Chart ISSCO (1981) supplied 21 practical
guidelines and pointers on effective chart design, such as: “Make
bars and columns wider than the space between them.” In a study
Ek and Frederiksen (1986) studied effective chart design. Forty
subjects assessed the difference in size between two bars in a bar
chart with six bars. The bars had one of three possible widths
(1/60, 1/30, and 1/15 of the screen width). The distance between
the bars had one of six possible values, from zero to more than
twice the bar width. The bar charts were produced and displayed
at random and always presented with blue bars on black back-
ground. The findings, based on 3,600 individual assessments,
showed that:
• The bar width has no influence on our perception of size.
• The space between bars has no influence on our perception of
size.
This study confirmed earlier findings where subjects considered
it easy to see the difference between vertical bars as well as be-
tween horizontal bars (Pettersson et al., 1984b). It can be con-
cluded that we can make screen design according to aesthetic ap-
peal. Finally, it may be stated that it is extremely easy to convey
misleading information about statistical relationships by using
misleading illustrations. Those who are serious in their work
should seek to avoid these mistakes.
Visuals on the screen
Our perception of visuals on visual displays are of course to a
large degree dependent on the quality of the screen, especially
149
when pie charts are used. An ordinary television image consists
of about 250,000 image points or picture elements that vary with
respect both to grey scale and colour information. Hayashi
(1983) reported on the development of High Definition Televi-
sion (HDTV) in Japan. HDTV used 1125 scanning lines and could
contain five or six times more information than the NTSC stand-
ard colour television system with 525 lines. HDTV developments
of flat plasma screens gave increased technical possibilities for
better perception of visual information.
Windows on computer displays
For good legibility text in windows on a computer display may be
set in 14 pt Verdana, or Georgia, with 16–18 pt line spacing, and
an additional six points of space after each paragraph. The line
length may be up to 120 millimetres. A window heading may be
set in 18 points bold Verdana with 24 pt line spacing and an ad-
ditional six points of space after the paragraph. For text in illus-
trations, I recommend 10–12 pt Verdana. Blank space in printed
material increases cost, since more paper is required. Thus, it is
not often used. However, colour as well as blank space on a visual
display are essentially free and might be used to increase legibil-
ity and readability.
The layout of an ideal window for a computer screen should
be adapted to the need of showing both separate pictures and
video sequences. An ordinary television screen corresponds with
a 60 to 90-millimetres-wide picture on a computer screen. Thus,
the window should be at least 90 millimetres wide.
The layout of an ideal window for a computer screen should
be adapted for easy transfer of traditional, and page related elec-
tronic documents into an electronic document. Moving pictures
between different formats and different media should be as easy
as possible: documents on paper–documents on computer
screens–overhead transparencies–slides–video.
It is a good idea to only use a limited number of document
templates with agreed standards for typography and layout. The
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agreed layout limits the size of pictures. The picture width is the
most critical; it is often limited by the text column width. The
picture height is limited by the column height, usually the height
of the paper reduced with upper and lower margins. Sometimes,
there are problems with the picture widths, but almost never with
the picture heights. The window height should be adapted to the
normal text height, and the height of the most common pictures
including captions.
In search of an ideal window for a computer screen a sum-
mary of all these criteria, the lowest common denominator, re-
sults in an information window (143 x 190 millimetres) with a
text and picture area, an “information area,” (120 x 160 millime-
tres) with the same format (index 75). This active text and picture
area has the same format index as standard film, and almost the
same as a television screen (75,8). Each information material
may be regarded as a reel of film in a feature film, with film-
frames instead of pages in a book. Contrary to the situation with
film, we can move as we wish, from frame to frame in the com-
plete information material. The window is designed from the side
ratio 3:4 (index 75).
Above the information area there is a field with administra-
tive information, such as the company name, the title of the in-
formation material, the document number, and the current num-
ber of the “frame” or page. This information only has a limited
value in the electronic document, where all the administrative in-
formation may be put together in the last frame. This infor-
mation is important when printing one or more frames.
Computer print-outs
In visual displays, an additive mixture of red, green, and blue
produces the colour image. However, in the production of hard
copies, computer printouts as well as in painting, printing and
also colour photography a subtractive method of combining inks,
dyes and pigments is used.
151
Most colours can be generated in printing with the use of yel-
low, cyan (blue-green) and magenta (red-blue). Together these
primaries produce black. However, pure black is often included
as a fourth printing colour because the three primaries that pro-
duce the best chromatic colours usually do not produce the best
black. Subtractive systems begin with a white surface. Colours
darken as more wavelengths are absorbed. (However, in some
colour hard copy printing, both additive and subtractive colour
combinations can occur.)
The difference in the production of colours creates some
problems. It should also be remembered that colour coding will
lose its meaning when monochrome printers, as well as displays,
are used. There are many hard copy systems and possibilities to
make computer printouts for text as well as for pictures. Today,
however good quality laser printers are often used.
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Layout
The layout—the juxtaposition of text within a document—plays
an important and yet often overlooked role in communication
(Waller, 2012). Layout is generally understood as the positioning
of graphic elements in the space of the two-dimensional page
(Pflaeging and Stöckl, 2021, p. 4). Layout can best be studied by
decomposing the page – the central semiotic organizing space of
a genre – into various constitutive graphic elements (Pflaeging
and Stöckl, 2021, p. 6).
A finished layout is the practical result of work in the graphic
design process. The purpose of this work is to find a suitable
presentation for the content with respect to the receiver, the sub-
ject matter, the medium, and the overall financial situation.
Within a given area–such as a page in a book, a poster, or a label–
the graphic designer may arrange and distribute text, pictures
(drawings and photographs), and the background (margins,
space, patterns, and designs without any significant picture ele-
ments). Layout provides a large number of possibilities to make
the structure in a document clear (Benson, 1985; Tinker, 1963,
1965). The graphical form should help the reader to benefit from
the contents of a document.
This chapter includes the following main sections: A page,
Text layout, and Layout of text and pictures.
153
A page
An “empty” page can be considered as an available area or space.
This area may be and should often be used in different ways. In
all printed matter, space can be used to convey the structure of
the information. The information can be grouped in various
ways. There may be plenty of white space on a printed page.
Headings, margins and “empty space” can be used to aid com-
munication when used in a consistent way (Hartley and Burnhill,
1977a, 1977b).
This main section includes the following sections: Composi-
tion of a page, Page size, Text-face, Religious seeing, The classic
model for page design, The golden canon, Margins, Grid sys-
tems, Oppositions, Paper sizes, and E-books.
Composition of a page
Here the term “composition of a page” refers to a “visible area for
display of text and pictures.” This information can be printed on
paper (or any other material), or displayed on a screen as a
“screen page.” The composition of a page will depend on many
factors such as the format of the page, the ratio between the
height and the width of the page, the sizes of the margins, the text
column or text columns, the number of headings, and the pic-
tures. Different formats have their positive, and their negative
characteristics—it all depends on the situation and the intended
audience.
Compressing too much content on a page leaves little white
space for visual relief (Adler, 1991). Learners are most able to
build connections between verbal and visual representations
when text and illustrations are actively held in memory at the
same time. This can happen when text and illustrations are pre-
sented in close connection on the same page in a book, or when
learners have sufficient experience to generate their own mental
images as they read the text (Mayer et al., 1995).
According to Baggerman (2000, p. 64) most designers don’t
consider print design in terms of its interface. However, since
154
desktop publishing has revolutionised the options for page lay-
out, the professional designer must use the interface of print de-
sign in order to connect directly with the user.
In the mid to late twentieth century the book designer, cal-
ligrapher, and typographer Jan Tschichold popularized page
construction based on methods and rules that had been gradually
developed during many centuries (Tschichold, 1991).
Page size
There are no specific rules or guidelines that might suggest to
writers, designers, or printers why they should choose one par-
ticular page size in preference to any other (Hartley, 2004, p.
917). Page sizes vary a lot. The smallest book in the world
measures only 3.5 by 3.5 mm (1.23 cm2). You need a magnifying
glass to see the text, and tweezers to turn each page.
As previously noted Pettersson and Strand (2006) found
that there is a large variety in the values of what a harmonious
book page is. On average the most harmonious book page is 22.7
cm by 16.6 cm (382 cm2). Book sizes vary based on the content
in each individual book. Publishers determine sizes of book pages
based on artistic, economic, and practical factors.
Some newspapers used to have large pages. One example of
a broadsheet format is 56 x 38.5 cm (2 156 cm2). However, in
order to save costs many newspapers have downsized their page
sizes. One example of a tabloid format is 38.5 x 28 cm (1 078
cm2).
Print on paper
In traditional as well as in desktop publishing the available paper
defines the possible page sizes. The use of standard page sizes
can aid communication. Hartley and Burnhill (1977b) are strong
advocates of international standard paper sizes. Their own ex-
perimental materials are printed on A4 paper. We may choose
from different kinds of page formats. A quadratic format is static.
It is often considered uninteresting and it is seldom used. Wide
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formats correspond with our vision. In printed materials wide
formats may be used to present pictures in large sizes. Tall for-
mats are very suitable for presentation of printed text and are the
most common format for books. Classical formats are based on
the proportions of the golden section and the Fibonacci num-
bers: 3:5, 5:8, 8:13, 13:21, 21:34, etc. Each new number in the
scale is the sum of the previous two numbers. Many experiments
have shown that there is an optical centre on a page.
In our daily lives we often use A4 paper–with a width-to-
length ratio of 1:1.41–for copied/printed matter. The text-face or
type area (the portion of the page that will contain text and pic-
tures) should be large enough, in order for the information to fit
in. To satisfy a requirement for single-sided printouts that can be
inserted into a loose-leaf binder, while at the same time being
able to make double-sided printouts that can be bound in book
form, right-hand and left-hand pages should be identical. In a
traditionally printed and bound book, however, we can use dif-
ferent inner and outer margins, and adapt the page layout for
even more convenient reading.
If one wants to fill the whole width of the page with text, the
text must be written in a large type, with ample distance between
each line. It is preferable to have narrower lines than the whole
width. If pictures are used, it might be suitable to allow them to
fill the entire text-face from margin to margin. Necessary admin-
istrative information, the chapter title, and the page number may
be provided in the top or bottom margins.
In documents with only text, or with text and very few pic-
tures, two columns of text may function very well on an A4 page,
and on an US letter page. In such a layout, a column width of 80
millimetres with text in 12 points is quite satisfactory. However,
in documents that have plenty of pictures, two or more columns
will pose some difficulties and often demand a good deal of extra
work. As long as a document is subject to recurring amendment,
supplementation and other updating measures, a layout with
only one column is preferable.
156
Display on screens
The rapid development of affordable handheld computing de-
vices has provided new options for us to share texts. Electronic
books, e-books, refer to publications in digital form, often avail-
able on the Internet.
E-books may be read on most computer screens, but also on
special “e-book readers,” such as the Amazon Kindle, Adobe Dig-
ital Editions and others, even mobile telephones. In these cases,
we can talk about “screen pages.” Each “screen page” is designed
to fit on the screen, and can usually be printed. Here, there is no
use for wide margins.
This picture shows the proportions and the format indexes for
five screens. Note that the format index for the old version of PP
is the same as traditional TV (75) and that the format index for
the new version of PP is the same as for HDTV (56). The format
index for a horizontally held modern (57) phone is close to
HDTV. For a vertically held mobile phone the format index is
HDTV (175). The screen on the phone is higher than the golden
ratio (162).
Today we can see two simultaneous developments. Since we
basically experience the world on a horizontal, rather than a ver-
tical plane, projection and television screens are horizontally ori-
ented. When high definition television, HDTV, was developed in
the 1980s researchers found that people really preferred the as-
pect ratio of 3 x 5, or 9 x 16, rather than the then traditional 3 x 4
ratio of television systems. The format indexes for these televi-
sion formats are 56, 60, and 75. The image area on a horizontally
157
held iPad Air2 has index 75, and when the iPad is held vertically
the index is 133.
The other development concerns mobile phones. Mobile
phones seem to grow vertically in a rapid speed. The screen on
one modern mobile phone had the ratio of 9,3 x 5,3 cm, and a
screen format index of 175, which is far more than the golden ra-
tio (162). And the camera in the mobile can have more than eight
million pixels to handle vertically oriented pictures.
Text-face
The print space, text-face, or type area is the portion of the page
that contains the printed text and often also pictures. This area
should be large enough for the purpose, for the necessary infor-
mation to fit in. Decorations and pictures might sometimes reach
out in the margins.
The appearance of a page in any document is governed by
the fact that Western readers begin at the top left of a page and
read to the right, one line of text at a time until they get to the
bottom of the text column. Often the main part of the page is the
text-face. Depending on the page size the page may be used for
one or more columns of text and pictures. Hartley and Burnhill
(1977a, 1977b) made extensive research regarding psychological
research on typography based on basic principles of typographic
decision-making. They worked with the following three main
principles:
• Use typographic space in a consistent way in order to convey
the structure of the information.
• Use standard page sizes.
• Use grids for pre-planning of pages.
By clearly grouping headings, paragraphs, illustrations, and cap-
tions the designer aids communication. An “empty line” might
separate paragraphs, two lines subsections, and three- or four-
lines sections. In this process the principles from the Gestalt the-
ory can be utilized. When we use space in order to group graphic
158
components, we employ the “proximity principle,” or “proximity
law.” When we use a consistent type to signal a particular kind of
graphic component, we employ the “similarity principle.” When
we use grid systems these are based on the “closure principle,”
together with the “continuity principle.”
Religious seeing
According to Plate (2012) words are images, and the so-called
“word-image split” ignores the visuality of layout, script, and
typeface. Regardless of their semantic meanings, all displayed
and printed words exist in and through their material, and medi-
ated forms. By extension, sacred texts themselves are material
forms and they are engaged through our ears and our eyes. The
visible forms of words can stir emotional and even sacred re-
sponses in the eyes of their beholders.
The way words appear to readers will change their devotion,
their interaction, and also their interpretation of the intended
content in a text. Thus, words can function “iconically”, affecting
a mutually engaging form of “religious seeing”.
Since “words are the visual design of the text” Plate (2012)
argues that there can be no clear-cut distinction between the se-
mantic dimensions of texts and the iconic and performative di-
mensions. The way words appear to readers will change their de-
votions, interactions, and interpretations of the specific words.
Examples range from modern popular typography to European
Christian print culture to Islamic calligraphy. The rationality of
semantics is not separable from the experiential visual appear-
ance of words. According to Watts (2006, p. 137), scriptures “are
material objects that convey religious significance by their pro-
duction, display, and ritual manipulation”.
The classic model for page design
Today often the main part of a page printed on paper is the text-
face. White or “empty” space on a page can contribute to the cre-
ation of a harmonious and functional product. One old method
159
of deciding the appropriate sizes for margins and text-faces on a
spread in printed books, where pages have the proportions 8/5,
is based on geometry. This is a summary of the process:
Draw two diagonals on the spread, from the upper outside
corners to the lower outside corners.
Draw a vertical line in the middle of the paper, through the
crossing 0f the two diagonals.
Draw two diagonals from the lower outside corners to the
point where the upper corners meet the top of the vertical line
(2).
Draw two vertical lines from the top of each page down to the
points where diagonals cross on each page.
Draw two lines from the two points where the vertical lines
meet the top of the two pages, down to the lower left corner
on the other page.
Draw a line to the right, parallel to the page edge, from the
point where diagonal 3 and line 5 cross, to diagonal 1. Line 6
will establish the top margin on the right page.
Draw a line, parallel to the page, from the point where diago-
nal 1 and line 6 cross, down to diagonal 3. Line 7 will establish
the right margin on the right page.
Draw a line, parallel to the page gutter, from the point where
line 5, line 6 and diagonal 3 cross. Line 8 will establish the left
margin on the right page.
Draw a horizontal line from the point where diagonal 3 cross
line 7 to the left. Line 9 will establish the bottom margin on
the right page.
Mirror steps 6–9 to establish the four margins, and the text-
face on the left page.
As can be seen in the illustration on the next page this method
creates large margins, with the text-face covering only one-third
of the page. West (1987) called this model “ideal” and “classic.”
160
This is an illustration of the construction of a classic model for
page design in printed books. The shaded green areas are the
text-faces with the same proportions as the pages.
The proportions between text-faces and pages are main-
tained for books printed in different sizes. Since Gutenberg’s
time printed books have often been designed and printed in an
upright position, that conform loosely to the golden ratio.
The golden canon
The design model golden canon of book-page design is based on
a set of very simple geometric rules for proportion. These rules
are not at all related to the proportion rules of the golden ratio.
Some researchers believe that medieval scribes and printers of
early modern Europe sometimes used these geometric rules
when they planned their page layouts and they wanted to pro-
duce specific text-to-page ratios (Tschichold, 1991). In this geo-
metrical system and design model the text areas will always have
the same proportion as the pages. The outside margin will always
be twice the width of the inside margin, and the bottom margin
will always be twice the width of the top margin.
The ratios of inside margin to top margin, and outside mar-
gin to bottom margin, are always the same as the ratio of the
width of the page to its height. The relative sizes of the margins
are approximately: top margin 1.4, outside margin 2, bottom
margin 2.8, and inside margin 1. Researchers have found many
161
examples of medieval books that fit this model. However, there
are also many examples of the contrary.
If we want to use an A3-paper in order to make a golden
canon design of a left-hand and a right-hand A4-paper with a
text-face A-5 this is the process:
1. Draw two diagonals on the A3-paper, from the upper outside
corners to the lower outside corners.
2. Draw a vertical line in the middle of the A3-paper, through
the crossing 0f the two diagonals.
3. Draw two diagonals from the lower outside corners to the
point where the upper corners meet the top of the vertical
line (2).
4. Position an A-5 paper on the A3-diagonal (1) on the left-
hand page and move it along the diagonal until the upper
right corner meets the left A4-diagonal (3). Mark all the cor-
ners and connect them.
5. Repeat 4 on the right-hand page.
As we can see in the illustration on the next page also this method
creates large outside and bottom margins, with the text-face cov-
ering half of the page.
Here are the basic lines for design of left-hand and right-hand
A4-papers with help of the golden canon. In this case the green
text-faces have the A5 size.
162
In this A3–A4–A5-case the margins on an A4-page have ap-
proximately the following sizes: top margin 2.9 cm, outside mar-
gin 4 cm, bottom margin 5.8 cm, and inside margin 2 cm.
Max (2012) used a special computer program to analyse pho-
tographs of old manuscripts as well as printed books. The Geom-
eter’s Sketchpad calculated the degree to which the golden canon
might have been used to place the text area on the pages. In many
cases the layouts closely matched what the proportional rules
predicted. One object of study was the Gutenberg Bible. How-
ever, in this case Gutenberg should have used 43 wider lines in
order to meet the criteria. Here the outside and bottom margins
have more space.
Margins
On each page the text-face is surrounded by four margins: a top
margin or header, an outside or outer margin, a bottom margin
or footer, and an inside or inner margin. In all corners two mar-
gins overlap each other. Taylor (1964) noted that a surrounding
of white space brings attention to any object being surrounded.
Margins are functional (Hartley, 2004). They provide space
for comments, running heads (or running feet), illustrations,
page numbers, personal notes, and they provide space for our
fingers to hold a document while we are reading it.
Headers should provide information that will help the
reader navigate in a document. In some books every left-hand
page has the title of the book, and every right-hand page have the
name of the chapter. Headers may also carry page numbers.
Footers should provide information that will help the reader nav-
igate in a document. Footers often carry page numbers. There
may also be footnotes.
163
The classic model for book page design creates large outside
margins and very large bottom margins. Here, the gutter has
the same with as the outside margins.
Size of margins
A general guideline may be to make all margins one inch on a
standard page (Bradshaw and Johari, 2000). However, there are
a number of exceptions to this guideline for margins. Actually, all
four margins on a page may differ in size.
According to Hartley (1994), Lichty (1994) and Misanchuk
(1992) readers expect margins to occupy 40–50% of a standard
8 1/2" x 11" page, although this amount can be reduced in profes-
sional or scholarly texts. Some guidelines call for even larger
margins (Burns, Venit, and Hansen, 1988).
In fact, guidelines for margins vary a lot (Ander, 2003; Berg-
ström, 1998; Berndal and Frigyes, 1990; Bohman and Hallberg,
1985; Hartley, 2004; Hellmark, 2000a, 2000b; Koblanck, 1999;
Lohr, 2010; Misanchuk, 1992; White, 1983). A margin of about
10 mm is necessary at the top and the bottom of the page. A mar-
gin of about 25 mm is usually necessary for both the left- and the
164
right-hand margins (Hartley, 2004, p. 918). Recommendations
for top margins are often between 14–35 millimetres, for outside
margins 6–53 millimetres, for bottom margins 14–34 millime-
tres and for the inside margins 8–28 millimetres.
Pettersson, Strand, and Avgerinou (2008) studied margins,
and placements of page numbers in books and used three re-
search perspectives: 1) Opinions expressed by “readers,” 2) How
“experts” design their own books, and 3) The actual situation in
printed books in our bookshelves. There were 71 readers, 11 ex-
perts, and randomly selected 36 nonfiction and 36 fiction books
in this study. See the table below for suggested measurements for
margins in pages printed on standard paper formats.
Suggested measurements for margins in standard paper for-
mats (in millimetres).
Type of margin
A5
210 x 148
G5
239 x 169
A4
297 x 210
US Letter
279.5 x
216
Top margin
18
20
25
25
Outside margin
18
20
25
25
Bottom margin*
(23)
(25)
(30)
(30)
Inside margin
18
20
25
25
* Please note that the size of the bottom margin should be adjusted to
the choice of typography, especially the size of type. The height of the
text-face should be adjusted to the needs for a specific number of
lines.
When we are reading a book the pages naturally curve in to-
ward the binding. With very thick books, the part of the page that
is bound will have a section that is very hard to see. Thus, thick
books need to have wider inner margins than other books. The
space of the two inner margins is called the gutter.
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Page numbers
In all kinds of reference materials, it is important to have page
numbers, folios. The reader can find information in the material
by using the table of contents and/or the index, or indexes. Page
numbers should be clear and always easy to find in the same po-
sitions in a document. There are many possibilities for placement
of the page numbers.
Page numbers can be put to the left, in the middle, or to the
right in the top margin or in the bottom margin. Page numbers
are sometimes also put at the top, in the middle or at the bottom
of the outside margin. I have even seen page numbers in the in-
side margin as well as inside of the text-face.
Page numbers should be clear and always easy to find in the
same position in a document. There are many possibilities for
placement of the page numbers, and there are many opinions.
Misanchuk (1992), Lohr (2010), and Lipton (2007) prefer
page numbers in the outside corner of the top margin. According
to Lipton (2007, p. 134) readers are likely to first look for page
numbers in the margin at the bottom of the page. The position in
the middle of the bottom margin is normally a good place, re-
gardless of the size of the page (Bohman and Hallberg, 1985; Pet-
tersson, 2007). Several authors recommend that page numbers
should be put in the outside corner of the bottom margin (White
1983; Berndal and Frigyes, 1990; Wileman, 1993; Bergström,
1998; Hellmark, 2000a, 2000b; Pettersson et al. 2004).
Ander (2003) and Koblanck (1997) recommend the middle
of the outside margin for page numbers. It may be hard to read
page numbers in the inside margins, and graphic designers ad-
vice against any placement here. It is very rare to find the page
numbers somewhere in the text-face. It happens but we don’t
recommend it.
Page numbers usually indicate arbitrary divisions of the text.
For technical reasons many books may contain more than one
series of page numbers. For example, technical manuals and in-
structional materials often use a separate numbering series for
166
each chapter. Then a single chapter can be updated without re-
printing the whole manual. Here running heads often includes
the name of the publication, the issue date, or other material.
Grid systems
Grids have been used for centuries as an essential compositional
organising tool in graphic design. According to Tondreau (2009)
a grid is used to organize space and information for the reader. It
maps out a plan for the overall project. In addition, a grid is a
holding pen for information and a way to ordain and maintain
order. Birdsall (2004), as cited by Tondreau (2009, p, 5) argued
that: “Grids are the most misunderstood and misused element in
page layout. A grid is only useful if it is derived from the material
it is intended to handle.” Look at different books, magazines, and
reports, and study the variety of page sizes and page designs.
Tondreau (2009) presents a range of principles and rules re-
lated to the use of grid systems while touching on other layout
essentials such as colour, space, and typography. She concludes
(p. 200): “the primary rule is to relate the design to the material.
Make the hierarchy of information clear, paying attention to ty-
pography, whether it’s classical and clear or a lively mix of differ-
ent faces and weights. In layout, craft counts. Work in balance
and with consistency.”
It is very easy to create complicated typography and page
layout. However, simplicity and consistency are always very im-
portant. Complexity usually interferes with communication.
Readers should not be forced to search on the page for headings
and page numbers. Typographic grids may be used to ensure that
space and print are used consistently. It is important that the
printed page provides a reliable frame of reference from which
the learner can return without confusion.
Traditionally graphic designers work with grid sheets
printed in light blue ink. The “non-repro” blue ink will not show
up on films, printing plates, or in the final print. The grid is used
167
to ensure that type and graphic elements are pasted on correct
locations.
In electronic page layout systems, the software can create
electronic grids. They are called master pages. A master page is
shown on the screen but does not print.
By dividing a page into smaller sections, a specific topic may
be presented in a variety of combinations of grid sections. A grid
establishes a structure to build upon. Effective grid-based design
requires both careful planning and a willingness to adjust to the
content itself when this is needed. Fitting the content to the grid
should be seen as a way of regularizing the information and in-
creasing its internal consistency in order to improve communi-
cation.
There are different kinds of grid systems. We can distinguish
between: 1) One-column grids, 2) Two-column grids, 3) Multi-
column grids, 4) Modular grids, and 5) Irregular grids.
One-column grids
Many books and other documents use a standard page with a
fixed text-face, a live area. Type and other graphic elements oc-
cupy the text-face. The grid establishes the location of the text-
face, the top and bottom margins, the inside and outside margins
on each page.
One-column layouts are common in instructional materials.
It is easy to work with, especially when materials may have to be
frequently revised. In many books the page has only one column,
which is very good for continuous, undisturbed and easy reading.
However, a wide page has to be divided in columns. Too wide
lines impair reading.
Two-column grids
Two-column grids afford flexibility and can be used to control a
lot of text, or to present different kinds of information. This grid
can have columns with equal widths, or columns with different
widths. Book pages with two columns are quite common.
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In columnar grids the text flows from one column to another.
Dictionaries and telephone directories are examples of simple
columnar grids. In parallel columnar grids the text flows in col-
umns that are related horizontally. This system is sometimes
found in multilingual manuals with the same text content pre-
sented in different languages.
Multi-column grids
Multicolumn grids afford greater flexibility than single or two-
column grids. Three-column grids can be used, e.g., in dictionar-
ies, in reference books, and in websites to handle ads, stories, and
videos. Pages with four or more columns are very rare in books.
Davies et al. (1986) suggest that one, two, or three columns per 8
1/2" x 11" page are reasonable for articles, reports, and other sim-
ilar documents.
In magazines it is common that different sections have their
individual page designs. One section may have three columns,
another section four, and a third section five columns. Pages with
six or more columns are very rare. In newspapers it is common
that a page has six, seven, or eight columns. Newspaper pages
with four or five as well as with nine or ten columns may also be
used. Pages with eleven or more columns are very rare.
Modular grids
A modular grid is based on regular rows as well as columns,
based on the classical Swiss grid. For example, it is possible to
use columns with different widths to present texts and illustra-
tions. Usually “topic frames” are rectangular. The purpose is to
create clear visual gestalts. Modular grids can handle complex in-
formation in calendars, charts, newspapers, and tables.
Irregular grids
Many tabloid newspapers, have irregular grids. The topic frames
are often not rectangular. Editorial stories are mixed with adver-
tising items. The purpose of irregular grids is actually to prevent
169
clear visual gestalts. The reader can never get an understanding
of the page at only one single glance.
Oppositions
By tradition page layout is based on symmetrical page design.
Centred as well as justified texts are examples of symmetrical lay-
out. Symmetry is axial balance. It is logical and simple to design.
Symmetrical page design is static and may be perceived as bor-
ing. An asymmetrical layout can be based on contrasts of size,
strength, shape, area, or colour. Unjustified text flushed left or
right are examples of asymmetrical layout.
Symmetrical as well as asymmetrical layouts can have a good
balance. The favouring of uniformity in the use of design ele-
ments is regularity. The opposite, irregularity, emphasizes the
unusual and the unexpected. A layout may be built on simplicity
using few and simple elements and simple forms. The opposite
strategy is based on complexity. Dondis (1973) discussed the use
of several pairs of oppositions as effective techniques of making
expressive visual communication. These oppositions are:
Paper sizes
Traditionally, a large number of different paper sizes were de-
fined for large sheets of paper. Local paper sizes were defined by
the name of the sheet and by the number of times it had been
folded. Different paper sizes were used for different purposes.
The aspect ratio varies a lot in many standards for paper sizes.
Accuracy – Distortion
Activeness – Stasis
Balance – Instability
Consistency – Variation
Economy – Intricacy
Flatness – Depth
Neutrality – Accent
Predictability – Spontaneity
Regularity – Irregularity
Repetition – Episodic
Sequential – Random
Sharpness – Diffusion
Simplicity – Complexity
Singularity – Juxtaposition
Subtlety – Boldness
Symmetry – Asymmetry
Transparency – Opacity
Understatement – Exaggeration
Unity – Fragmentation
170
ISO paper sizes
Today there is one widespread international ISO standard and a
local standard used in North America. Paper sizes affect cards,
envelopes, printed documents, stationary, and different kinds of
writing paper. All ISO paper sizes are based on a single aspect
ratio of the square root of two, approximately 1:1.4142. The base
for the system is the A0 paper (A zero). An A0 paper has an area
of 1 m2, with the sides 841 and 1189 millimetres (33.1 × 46.8 in).
The A-series can be traced back to a French law from 1798 for
certificate papers.
The A series
Successive A-series paper sizes are defined by halving the pre-
ceding paper size along the larger dimension. The system with
scaling is a significant advantage. The most frequently used pa-
per size is A4 210 by 297 millimetres (8.3 × 11.7 in). A standard
A4 sheet made from standard 80 grams per m2 paper weighs five
grams. Size A0 (A zero) is 841 × 1189 mm, A1 594 x 841, A2 420
× 594, A3 97 × 420, A4 210 × 297, A5 148 × 210, A6 105 × 148,
A7 74 × 105, A8 52 × 74, A9 37 × 52, and A10 26 × 37 mm. The
number after each A accounts for the number of folds.
The B series
The B series is less common than the A series. The area of a B
series sheet is the geometric mean of successive A sheets. The B-
series is widely used in the printing industry. Many posters use
B-series paper or a close approximation, such as 50 × 70 cm. Size
B0 (B zero) is 1000 × 1414 mm, B1 707 × 1000, B2 500 × 707, B3
353 × 500, B4 250 × 353, B5 176 × 250, B6 125 × 176, B7 88 ×
125, B8 62 × 88, B9 44 × 62, B10 31 × 44 mm.
The C series
The C series is used only for envelopes. The area of a C series
sheet is the geometric mean of the areas of the A and B series
sheets with the same numbers. A letter that is written on A4 pa-
per fits inside an envelope in size C4. Size C0 (C zero) is 917 ×
171
1297 mm, C1 648 × 917, C2 458 × 648, C3 324 × 458, C4 229 ×
324, C5 162 × 229, C6 114 × 162, C7 81 × 114, C8 57 × 81, C9 40
× 57, and C10 28 × 40 mm.
D, E, F, and G formats
In Sweden the ISO system of A, B, and C formats is supplemented
by adding D, E, F, and G formats. G5 (169 × 239 mm) and E5 (155
× 220 mm) are popular for printing dissertations.
North America
The four most commonly used paper sizes in North America are
called Ledger, Legal, Letter, and Tabloid. A ledger size paper is
432 x 279 mm (17 x 11 in). A legal size paper is 215.9 x 355.6 mm
(8.5 x 14 in). A letter size paper is 215.9 × 279.4 mm (81⁄2 × 11 in).
Letter size is also known as American Quarto. A tabloid size pa-
per is 279 x 432 mm (11 x 17 in). Note that a ledger size paper and
a tabloid size paper have the same size, but ledger is vertically
oriented and tabloid is horizontally oriented.
Other series
Arch is a series of paper sizes used in architecture. In this series
the aspect ratios vary, 4:3 and 3:2 are common. Five successive
paper sizes are defined by halving the preceding paper size along
the larger dimension. Here the aspect ratio varies between 3:4
and 2:3. Arch A is 9 x 12 in (229 x 305 mm), Arch B 12 x 18 in
(305 x 457 mm), Arch C 18 x 24 in (457 x 610 mm), Arch D 24 x
36 in (610 x 914 mm), Arch E 36 x 48 in (914 x 1219 mm), Arch
E1 30 x 42 in (762 x 1067 mm), Arch E2 26 x 38 in (660 x 965
mm), and Arch E3 27 x 39 in (686 x 991 mm).
E-books
Based on the size of the traditional G5-format (23.9 x 16.9 cm)
combined with the rapid development of a great number of “dig-
ital devices” Pettersson and Strand (2018) suggested a page for-
mat of 24 x 16 cm for “e-books.” This is a 3/2 page, with the page
format index 150. This e-book-page-format will work on many
172
digital devices, even the smaller ones since they usually have very
good screen resolutions.
We divided the page area (24 x 16 cm) in a number of rectan-
gles in different sizes. Several practical tests with different rec-
tangles showed that it was a good idea to divide the page in 96
equal squares (2 x 2 cm). We found that a text-face of 10 x 6
squares (20 x 12 cm), surrounded by equal margins, 2 – 2 – 2 –
2 cm, is a good solution for non-fiction books. The text-area will
cover 62.5% of the page, with a text-face index 166.7. The text-
face can easily handle one column of text, Georgia 12/16. It is also
possible to have two columns of text on the text-face, for example
for bibliographies and other lists.
An e-book-page-format of
24 x 16 cm will work on
many digital devices, with
good screen resolutions.
There are plenty of space for pictures and tables in different
sizes. When a document needs a very strict structure it is possible
to make good use of the grid structures with 96 squares on the
page and 60 squares on the text-face. Pictures in sizes 4x4 cm,
4x6 cm, and 6x6 cm can have their captions on their left or right
173
sides. When a document may have a freer structure pictures and
even tables may sometimes stretch outside the text-face and into
the side margins. In an e-book it is a great advantage to be able
to enlarge pictures and study interesting details. Furthermore,
the author may include video sequences.
However, for fiction books and classical texts with longer pe-
riods of continuous reading we recommend a lower text-face (9 x
6 squares, 18 x 12 cm), surrounded by margins 2 – 2 – 4 – 2 cm,
and one column of text. Here the text-area will cover 56.2% of the
page, and the text-face index is 150.
A good place for the page-number is in the middle of the bot-
tom margin, a bit below the text-face, on all pages where you
want a page number. A natural way to read text on digital devices
is one page after another, and not spread by spread. There will
never be problems with lines bending, curving, and disappearing
into a “gutter.” All pages will be flat and easy to read. Sometimes
it may be possible to listen to the authors, or actors, reading parts
of their scripts.
174
Text layout
Lupton and Miller (1999, p. 33) started their chapter about “Pe-
riod Styles” in these two classical ways:
GREEKANDLATINMANUSCRIPTSWEREUSUALLYWRITTEN
WITHNOSPACEBETWEENWORDSUNTILAROUNDTHENIN
THCENTURYADALTHOUGHROMANINSCRIPTIONSLIKE
THE.FAMOUS.TRAJAN.COLUMN.SOMETIMES.SEPARATED.
WORDS.WITH.ACENTERS.HOWEVER.ALSO.TEXT.WITH.
ACENTERS.IS.ACTUALLY.VERY.HARD.TO.READ.
This is a modern version of this text segments:
“Greek and Latin manuscripts were usually written with no space
between words until around the ninth century AD although ro-
man inscriptions like the famous Trajan column sometimes sep-
arated words with accentors. However, also this kind of text with
accentors is actually very hard to read.”
This main section Text layout includes the following sec-
tions: Typographic variation, Justified or unjustified text? Line
length, Interline distance, Space, Headings, Paragraphs, Ta-
bles, Captions, Quotations, and Lists.
You may also see the sub-section Reading and layout in the-
book: 2 Text Design.
175
Typographic variation
Today graphic designers use typographic variation to present the
content in a text in a clear way. Reference materials, such as tel-
ephone books and dictionaries are examples of highly structured
information. Here, a carefully thought-out, functional layout can
facilitate the reader’s ability to find the desired information
quickly, easily, effectively, and reliably.
Text must have a typography that facilitates and supports its
legibility. Headings, sub-headings, main text, captions, boxes,
and summaries must be clearly distinguished from one another.
For reports, and similar documents, it is reasonable to use one,
two, or three columns on the page (Hartley and Burnhill, 1977a,
1977b). Consistent use of columns will help to establish a regular
pattern throughout a project (Lipton, 2007, p. 120).
In typography a “widow” is the first line of a new paragraph
alone at the bottom of a column or page. Sometimes a widow re-
fers to the last line of any paragraph with only a few words. The
first line of a paragraph should not, as a rule, begin on the last
line of a text column. Similarly, the last words in a paragraph
should not be placed alone at the top of a new page or a new col-
umn. Many word processing programs automatically eliminate
awkward phenomena like these. An “orphan” is the last line of a
paragraph when it is alone at the top of the next column or page.
In some kinds of documents all lines need numbers. Non-
arbitrary numbering systems include the numbering of lines
where line endings are meaningful. This might be the case in
computer programs, in dictionaries, and in texts used for linguis-
tic analysis. Non-arbitrary numbering systems also include the
numbering of paragraphs and the numbering of headed sections.
There are vast possibilities of text design. The whole page
may be used for one column of text. The left or the right margin
may be wide to leave space for notes. The text-face may also be
divided into two or more columns.
The text may start down the page in each new chapter. Sub-
headings are often located within the text column, but they may
176
poke out in the margin. There may also be printed notes in the
margin.
Justified or unjustified text?
A text may be justified or unjustified. An unjustified text can be
flushed left, centre justified, or flushed right. As we can see in the
four examples below there are advantages and disadvantages
with each system.
Justified text fragment
The theoretical part of Information Design, as well as message
design, is called infology. It has been defined as the “science of
verbal and visual presentation and interpretation of messages.”
Flushed left text fragment
The theoretical part of Information Design, as well as message
design, is called infology. It has been defined as the “science of
verbal and visual presentation and interpretation of messages.”
Centre justified text fragment
The theoretical part of Information Design, as well as message
design, is called infology. It has been defined as the “science of
verbal and visual presentation and interpretation of messages.”
Flushed right text fragment
The theoretical part of Information Design, as well as message
design, is called infology. It has been defined as the “science of
verbal and visual presentation and interpretation of messages.”
Justified text
A number of authors argue that justified text (sometimes called
right-justified text or full text) is aesthetically pleasing and that
it is easier for people to read lines of the same length than reading
lines with markedly varying right-hand ends (Lang, 1987; Lichty,
1994). Justified text is commonly used for running text in books,
magazines, as well as newspapers. In this book most text col-
umns are justified.
177
To achieve a justified text the technical system inserts extra
space between words and between characters. According to
Kleper (1987). The practice of having text justified is a tradition
in the publishing industry that originated with the scribes who
copied text by hand before the invention of movable type. At that
time, paper was expensive and the scribes attempted to put as
much text as possible onto every page, filling each line com-
pletely.
Burns, Venit, and Hansen (1988) pointed out that the use of
metal type required that the right edges of type align in the page
form so that the type could be locked into place. Until recently
most publishers had regarded anything other than justified text
as unprofessional. Lang (1987) argued that justified text is aes-
thetic, it serves to define the right margin, and it is familiar to the
readers. Also, Lichty (1989) argued that it is easier to read lines
of the same length than lines with markedly varying right-hand
ends. According to Machin (2007) justified text may be seen as
authoritative, efficient and formal.
Hartley (1985), and Hartley and Burnhill (1977a) argued that
justified text is not a good idea for instructional materials. The
variable spacing between words as well as the use of hyphenation
makes reading less smooth and more difficult.
When justified text is set in too short lines, there will be “riv-
ers of space” between words, or characters spaced out to fill the
lines. Justification should be avoided with narrow columns in
multi-columnar layouts (Davies, Barry and Wiesenberg, 1986).
Misanchuk (1992) claims that there are no good arguments at all
for using justified text.
Flushed left text
Today flushed left text, or unjustified text; with a “ragged–right–
hand” edge is commonly used for running text in books, maga-
zines, and some newspapers. A century ago flushed left text was
restricted to poetry. At that time, it was considered very odd and
peculiar and most publishers regarded the use of anything other
178
than justified text as very unprofessional. According to Machin
(2007) flushed left text may be seen as less formal and more re-
laxed than justified text.
Some authors argue that flushed left text is a much better
choice than justified text (Hartley, 1994; Misanchuk, 1992). The
exact spacing between letters and between all the words in un-
justified text retains the optimal spacing between letters and be-
tween words and so keeps the visual rhythm constant. This aid
reading, especially for young, inexperienced and poor readers
(Gregory and Poulton, 1970; Zachrisson, 1965).
Trollip and Sales (1986) experimented with justified and
flushed left text. Their results indicated a significant increase in
reading time for groups reading justified text. No differences in
comprehension were detected.
Poor readers have difficulty reading justified text (Gregory
and Poulton, 1970; Zachrisson, 1965). However, if the text is jus-
tified or unjustified causes no significant difference in search
time and comprehension of the information for advanced read-
ers (Hartley, 1987). Many readers find justified text much more
aesthetically pleasing than flushed left text. They may even
strongly feel that the ragged right is rather ugly and repulsive.
Centre justified text
Symmetrical centre justified texts may be seen as formal, grave
and momentous (Machin, 2007). However, without symmetry
centre justified texts may be seen as energetic, informal and play-
ful. Symmetrical centre justified texts are often used for menus,
quite often used for poetry, and sometimes it is used for short
captions and tables of contents. In films and in television pro-
grams the participants are usually listed centre justified.
Flushed right texts
Flushed right texts can be used for captions that are positioned
to the left of the pictures, and for tables of contents. This is, how-
ever, only possible when the line length is short. Since flushed
right texts demand more effort to read they suggest more
179
confidence than justified texts (Machin, 2007). Regardless of jus-
tification system the ends of sentences should be determined by
syntax rather than by an idea of a set width of the line (Hartley,
1980; Bork, 1982).
Line length
It is easy to change the length of lines. According to Tinker
(1963), readers tend to dislike both very short and very long line
lengths. Tinker made extensive studies of typography. He worked
with characters in sizes of nine to twelve Pica points and recom-
mended ten to twelve words per line. This results in a line length
of eight to ten centimetres. Based on research there are, however,
several other recommendations of line length.
Some recommendations of line length.
Number of charac-
ters per line
Researchers
35–40
West 1987
40–50
Lipton 2007; Pettersson 1989; Walker 1990
50
Parker 1988
–60
Burns et al. 1988; Zwaga et al. 1999
60–65
Miles 1987
60–70
Schriver 1997
Quite often the optimum line length seems to be about 1 1/2
alphabets–42 characters (Pettersson 1989; Walker 1990). This is
nine to eleven centimetres with optimum character size, ten to
twelve points, for a normal reading distance. A text column may
be widened up to 120–140 millimetres to accommodate more
text, and still be easy to read for an experienced reader. It is quite
clear that too wide lines impair reading.
180
In my opinion the maximum line length should not include
more than about 60 characters. The optimum line length should
be found for each individual purpose and each intended audi-
ence. However, costs often force people to use more characters
on each line, so that the total number of pages can be reduced
together with a reduced cost for printing. The longer the lines the
wider the vertical space between them needs to be (Waller, 1987).
In this book the line holds about 50 characters, which probably
is good for the intended audience.
The length of a line will affect reading speed (Duchnicky and
Kolers, 1983). Different kinds of publications should use differ-
ent line lengths. The optimum line length should be found for
each individual audience, and purpose. The width of a line of type
is traditionally measured in picas or Cicero. A pica, as well as a
Cicero, equals 12 points. As systems for desktop publishing be-
come more common, line lengths will be measured in inches or
centimetres instead of picas or Cicero’s. Regardless of the page
size the line length may vary considerably. The longer the line is,
the larger the type size should be in order to maintain the same
legibility. The shorter the line is, the smaller the type size can be.
In the following four pages there are four examples of a text
segment presented with different line lengths: 1) Too short lines,
2) Short lines, 3) Optimum line length, and 4) Long lines. Three
examples have the same type size. In the fourth example the type
size is smaller here, because in this book the page size is too small
to present really long lines. All four examples are presented with
unjustified as well as with justified lines. All examples use the
same rules for hyphenation. Short lines cannot handle justified
setting very well. We get white “rivers” of empty space between
words or spaced out characters in the text column.
Zwaga, Boersma and Hoonhout (1999, p. xxii) argued that
there is no such thing as the “best” column width or line length.
The typographic features of printed matter should be chosen in
relation to the requirements of the material to be printed. The
use of different line lengths can be relevant when sentences are
181
grouped in paragraphs, but is less important when there are also
tables, lists, diagrams and mathematical formulae in a docu-
ment. Constraints of a narrow column might be a disadvantage.
On a few occasions I have come across books with “more ex-
treme line lengths”. In a book about a famous artist, the book
page is 30.3 x 22.0 cm. Here, the area of the text face is 23.3 x
16.6 cm. The typography is chosen so that there is room for 39
lines with text per page, with more than 80 characters per line.
This is really far from the classic model for book page design. In
addition, someone has chosen to make very long paragraphs,
sometimes only two or three per page. I’m used to reading books,
but here it’s really hard. In this case, however, there are many
full-page pictures of excellent quality.
The following pages provide four examples with different
lengths of lines relative to this page: Too short lines, Short lines,
Optimum line lengths, and Long line lengths. All eight texts com-
pare justified text segments with unjustified text segments using
Georgia 12/16.
182
Too short lines 1
Producers of infor-
mation and learn-
ing materials can
facilitate communi-
cation, and the
learning processes
of the readers.
Complicated lan-
guage, in both texts
and pictures, will
impair the under-
standing of the
message. Active
voice, clarity, com-
prehensibility, con-
sistency, legibility,
precision, readabil-
ity, reading value,
simplicity, and
structure are the
key concepts in in-
formation design.
Any graphical mes-
sage should be legi-
ble, readable, and
well worth reading
for the intended au-
dience and any au-
dio message should
be audible, distinct,
and well worth lis-
tening to.
Too short lines 2
Producers of infor-
mation and learning
materials can facili-
tate communica-
tion, and the learn-
ing processes of the
readers. Compli-
cated language, in
both texts and pic-
tures, will impair
the understanding
of the message. Ac-
tive voice, clarity,
comprehensibility,
consistency, legibil-
ity, precision, read-
ability, reading
value, simplicity,
and structure are
the key concepts in
information design.
Any graphical mes-
sage should be legi-
ble, readable, and
well worth reading
for the intended au-
dience and any au-
dio message should
be audible, distinct,
and well worth lis-
tening to.
183
Short lines 1
Producers of information
and learning materials can
facilitate communication,
and the learning processes
of the readers. Compli-
cated language, in both
texts and pictures, will im-
pair the understanding of
the message. Active voice,
clarity, comprehensibility,
consistency, legibility,
precision, readability,
reading value, simplicity,
and structure are the key
concepts in information
design. Any graphical
message should be legible,
readable, and well worth
reading for the intended
audience and any audio
message should be audi-
ble, distinct, and well
worth listening to.
Short lines 2
Producers of information
and learning materials can
facilitate communication,
and the learning processes
of the readers. Compli-
cated language, in both
texts and pictures, will im-
pair the understanding of
the message. Active voice,
clarity, comprehensibility,
consistency, legibility, pre-
cision, readability, reading
value, simplicity, and
structure are the key con-
cepts in information de-
sign. Any graphical mes-
sage should be legible,
readable, and well worth
reading for the intended
audience and any audio
message should be audi-
ble, distinct, and well
worth listening to.
184
Optimum line length 1
Producers of information and learning materi-
als can facilitate communication, and the
learning processes of the readers. Complicated
language, in both texts and pictures, will im-
pair the understanding of the message. Active
voice, clarity, comprehensibility, consistency,
legibility, precision, readability, reading value,
simplicity, and structure are the key concepts
in information design. Any graphical message
should be legible, readable, and well worth
reading for the intended audience and any au-
dio message should be audible, distinct, and
well worth listening to.
Optimum line length 2
Producers of information and learning materi-
als can facilitate communication, and the learn-
ing processes of the readers. Complicated lan-
guage, in both texts and pictures, will impair the
understanding of the message. Active voice,
clarity, comprehensibility, consistency, legibil-
ity, precision, readability, reading value, sim-
plicity, and structure are the key concepts in in-
formation design. Any graphical message
should be legible, readable, and well worth
reading for the intended audience and any au-
dio message should be audible, distinct, and
well worth listening to.
185
Long line length 1
Producers of information and learning materials can facilitate communication, and the
learning processes of the readers. Complicated language, in both texts and pictures, will im-
pair the understanding of the message. Active voice, clarity, comprehensibility, consistency,
legibility, precision, readability, reading value, simplicity, and structure are the key con-
cepts in information design. Any graphical message should be legible, readable, and well
worth reading for the intended audience and any audio message should be audible, distinct,
and well worth listening to.
Long line length 2
Producers of information and learning materials can facilitate communication, and the learn-
ing processes of the readers. Complicated language, in both texts and pictures, will impair
the understanding of the message. Active voice, clarity, comprehensibility, consistency, legi-
bility, precision, readability, reading value, simplicity, and structure are the key concepts in
information design. Any graphical message should be legible, readable, and well worth read-
ing for the intended audience and any audio message should be audible, distinct, and well
worth listening to.
As we can see from these examples with different lengths of
lines, short lines cannot handle justified setting very well, but this
is no problem with long lines. We may get white “rivers” of space
in the text column. A line of 40 to 50 characters or “strokes” re-
sults in a line length of 75 to 90 millimetres in a book or a report.
A text column may be widened up to 135 millimetres to accom-
modate more text on the page, and still be easy to read for an
experienced reader. In this book the column is 120 millimetres
wide, and I only expect experienced readers.
Interline distance
The interline distance, interline spacing, line space, or vertical
spacing is the vertical distance between the different baselines in
a running text. In Times a 12-point text may be set on a 14-point
line. This is written as 12/14, and read as “twelve on fourteen.”
The term leading refers to the extra space between the lines, the
“line–to–line” spacing. In this case the interline distance is 14
186
points, and thus the leading is two points. The leading may vary
considerably between different kinds of texts and different kinds
of printing. In this book the ordinary text is set with Georgia
12/16. Here the leading is four points. In my view the typeface
Georgia needs more space between the lines than the typeface
Times, especially when it is to be read on a computer screen. For
Georgia it is usually enough with 12/15, with a leading of three
points, when the text is printed on paper.
The term leading is derived from the days of hot metal type
when thin strips of lead were inserted between lines of type to
provide the right line spacing (in this text four points). However,
today the word leading is sometimes used to measure the vertical
distance between the baselines in a text (in this text 16 points).
The extra space is important for good legibility. As previ-
ously noted the longer the lines, the larger the vertical distance
should be. The reader needs to be able to find the start of the next
line without too much trouble. In general, the opinion is that as
the line length is increased, the need for more leading and larger
type increases (Lipton, 2007; Misanchuk, 1992; Pettersson,
1989). Here the x-height is important. Typefaces with small x-
heights do well with less leading than typefaces with large x-
heights.
For maximum legibility of the running text in a book a lead-
ing should be between one and three points when text sizes and
also the line lengths are optimal (Benson, 1985; Hartley, 1987;
Kleper, 1987; Lichty, 1989; Lipton, 2007; Pettersson, 1989,
Tinker, 1963). Texts on wall charts and overhead transparencies
need even more space between the lines. Children and inexperi-
enced readers need more leading than experienced readers.
The following pages have six examples of a text fragment
with ten short lines. Georgia 12/10 is compared with 12/12. Geor-
gia 12/14 is compared with 12/16, and 12/18 is compared with
12/20. For better and easier comparisons of the lines, the left ex-
ample in each pair is flushed right and the second example is
flushed left.
187
Georgia 12/10
The theoretical part of Infor-
mation Design, as wellas mes-
sage design, is called infology.
It has been defined as the “sci-
ence of verbal and visual
presentation and interpretation
of messages.” On the basis of
man’s prerequisites, infology
encompasses studies of the way
a combined verbal and visual
representation should be de-
signed in order to achieve opti-
mum communication between
a sender and a group of receiv-
ers.
Georgia 12/12
The theoretical part of Infor-
mation Design, as wellas mes-
sage design, is called infology.
It has been defined as the “sci-
ence of verbal and visual
presentation and interpretation
of messages.” On the basis of
man’s prerequisites, infology
encompasses studies of the way
a combined verbal and visual
representation should be de-
signed in order to achieve opti-
mum communication between
a sender and a group of receiv-
ers.
Georgia 12/14
The theoretical part of Infor-
mation Design, as wellas mes-
sage design, is called infology.
It has been defined as the “sci-
ence of verbal and visual
presentation and interpretation
of messages.” On the basis of
man’s prerequisites, infology
encompasses studies of the way
a combined verbal and visual
representation should be de-
signed in order to achieve opti-
mum communication between
a sender and a group of receiv-
ers.
Georgia 12/16
The theoretical part of Infor-
mation Design, as wellas mes-
sage design, is called infology.
It has been defined as the “sci-
ence of verbal and visual
presentation and interpretation
of messages.” On the basis of
man’s prerequisites, infology
encompasses studies of the way
a combined verbal and visual
representation should be de-
signed in order to achieve opti-
mum communication between
a sender and a group of receiv-
ers.
188
It is obvious that there should be a little extra space between
the lines in order to facilitate reading. As previously noted a line
with 12 pt type needs an interline distance of at least two points
(Times) or three to four points (Georgia). Generally speaking,
one can use the type size plus 15–30% for this ratio.
Space
Space is an important tool in typography (Hartley, 1985, p. 27):
“It is space that separates letters from each other. It is space (with
punctuation) that separates phrases, clauses and paragraphs
from each other; and it is space (with headings and sub headings)
that separates subsections and chapters from one another.” Con-
sistent spacing in a document will help the readers to:
Georgia 12/20
The theoretical part of Infor-
mation Design, as wellas mes-
sage design, is called infology.
It has been defined as the “sci-
ence of verbal and visual
presentation and interpretation
of messages.” On the basis of
man’s prerequisites, infology
encompasses studies of the way
a combined verbal and visual
representation should be de-
signed in order to achieve opti-
mum communication between
a sender and a group of receiv-
ers.
Georgia 12/18
The theoretical part of Infor-
mation Design, as wellas mes-
sage design, is called infology.
It has been defined as the “sci-
ence of verbal and visual
presentation and interpretation
of messages.” On the basis of
man’s prerequisites, infology
encompasses studies of the way
a combined verbal and visual
representation should be de-
signed in order to achieve opti-
mum communication between
a sender and a group of receiv-
ers.
189
• Increase the rate of reading because they are more able to see
redundancies.
• Access the more personally relevant pieces of information.
• See the structure of the document.
We can add space between words and between characters. We
can also add space between lines, and between sections (see In-
terline distance; Headings: Placement of headings).
Space between words
Space between words varies in each line depending on the actual
words and the actual line length. First the computer system adds
word spacing and then, if the space between words becomes too
excessive, the system will add letter spacing.
The distance between words shall be smaller than the dis-
tance between lines, and larger than the distance between char-
acters. According to Walker and Reynolds (2004) a word space
that is too wide or too narrow can ruin the design of a font. Space
between elements should be used as a legibility tool (Lipton,
2007, p. 122). Text with a generous amount of space within it is
rated as “easier” and “more interesting” than text that has a more
solid appearance. For comfortable reading it must be easy to dis-
tinguish between words. The distance between words should be
relatively small. When the text has optimal spacing we can keep
the reading rhythm constant.
Wendt (1979) inserted additional space between the constit-
uents of the sentences to better convey the phrase structure of
the text but found no difference in learning efficiency when com-
pared with traditional text in one or in two columns.
Lines with text can be broken and hyphenated according to
different principles. According to one principle, lines can be bro-
ken only between words. According to another principle, lines
can be broken also within words. This can be done phonetically
or according to etymology. In mechanical word breaks, lines are
broken at the most convenient point, regardless of meaning. It is
known that poor readers may have difficulty reading hyphenated
190
text (Gregory and Poulton, 1970; Lichty, 1989; White, 1983).
Among others Misanchuk (1992) provided guidelines for hy-
phenation.
Space between letters
The amount of space between letters in a text varies in each line
depending on the actual words and the actual line length. Space
between letters in text should not be too loose, or too tight. Visual
design should be based on perceptual, rather than on physical
phenomena. Compensation for shortcomings of our human vi-
sion is often required. Acute and rounded shapes need to be en-
larged and extended in order to appear to be of equal height com-
pared with a square. Visual alignment depends on careful optical
adjustment to compensate for differences in shape of the element
being aligned.
Acute and round shapes appear to be too low compared with a
rectangle or a square.
Walker and Reynolds (2004) showed school children four
texts with varying letter spacing and four texts with varying word
spacing. Results showed that more children noticed differences
in letter spacing than differences in word spacing.
The distance between characters is sometimes too long. This
is especially true for headlines in capitals. In traditional hand
typesetting people used thin strips of metal, from 0.5 point up-
wards, for “correct” spacing of type.
In computer systems “empty space” is added automatically
between the words and between individual letters when the text
is set with justified lines. In photo typesetting it is possible to
191
automatically and systematically increase the distance between
characters in order to expand the text. It is also possible to reduce
the distance between characters in order to condense the text.
This is also possible in some systems for desktop publishing.
There may be too much space between some letters in large
fonts (upper example). Here it is necessary to apply kerning
(lower example) and correct the distances between characters
to achieve a much more legible type.
In photo typesetting, and also in some systems for desktop
publishing, kerning is used to individually correct the distance
between characters to achieve a better type. For example, when
a capital A and a capital V are set without kerning, there is too
much space between the letters. The A and V have slanted
shapes, and the space between these letters is exaggerated.
With kerning, selected pairs of letters can be pushed to-
gether and overlap to create a better optical visual spacing be-
tween the letters. In optical spacing we need to equalize the area
rather than the distance between characters. In typography, the
tightest letter spacing is reserved for adjacent characters with
curved edges or horizontally projected strokes. The widest spac-
ing is allotted to character pairs with adjacent vertical strokes.
Hewson (1988) noted that it isn’t worthwhile kerning any
type under 18 points. Kerning is important for headings in books,
192
handouts, pamphlets, reports and other printed documents, and
also for texts on OH transparencies, PP presentations and wall
charts.
Headings
Clear headings, or headlines, attract the attention of the readers.
The headings make the subject matter readily apparent, and also
indicate the relative importance of different items in the docu-
ment (Cisotto and Boscolo, 1995; Jonassen, 1982; Mayer, 1993a).
Show structure
Composition, intentional use of size, space, and placement of
headings show the structure in information material and help the
readers to “get the message” (Jonassen, 1982; Wileman, 1993, p.
88). Headings should always be relevant and clearly identify the
subject matter. Use a large font size in the main title to clearly
distinguish it from all other texts (Bergström, 1998).
To achieve a clear structure, we can use a combined number-
ing and lettering system (Jonassen, 1982). Main points in a text
are traditionally labelled with Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV
etc..). Sub-points of the first degree are traditionally labelled with
capital letters (A, B, C, D etc..). Second-degree sub-points are tra-
ditionally labelled with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.). The la-
belling hierarchy is I., A., 1., a., (1), (a). In Europe it is common
to use a numbering system only (e.g., 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4; 2, 2.1,
2.2, 2.3, 2.4; 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 etc.).
Headings in large type may be printed in colour. In order to
increase the contrast, it is a good idea to use larger as well as
bolder type when headings are printed in colour. Headings on
different hierarchic levels will provide the readers with reference
points and help them organize information cognitively for better
retention and recall.
Size of headings
According to Williams and Spyridakis (1992) relative differences
in text heading sizes provide the most distinguishable cues to
193
hierarchical level. Main headings should be significantly larger
than subheadings (Berndal and Frigyes, 1990; Misanchuk, 1992).
However, we should avoid overly dramatic differences in size be-
tween headings and subheadings (Bergström, 1998).
According to a rule of thumb, called the “Rule of X’s,” the
height of the uppercase X of a smaller typeface should be the
same as the height of the lower-case x of a larger typeface in a
hierarchy. For a ten point running text headings may be 10, 14,
18 and 24 points. For a twelve-point running text headings may
be 12, 16, 22 and 28 points.
Style of headings
Headings set in different type versions aid comprehension of the
text content (Jonassen, 1982; Mayer, 1993a). However, such a
mix appears strange to some European readers. In Europe there
are national differences concerning the use of typefaces with and
without serifs in books and newspapers.
Scandinavian newspapers, for example, often use Modern
Style typefaces, whereas England and France prefer Transitional
Style, or Old Style typefaces. In Germany they have serif as well
as sans serif typefaces.
Sometimes headings only have uppercase letters (White,
1983; Berndal and Frigyes, 1990; Strömquist, 1996). Then we
sometimes need to adjust the spaces between each letter to get a
harmonious word image (Bergström, 1998). (See Kerning in the
previous sub-section ”Space between letters”.)
A sub-subheading may be bold or italic in the same size as
the running text (Jonassen, 1982; Misanchuk, 1992; Bergström,
1998).
Numbering and lettering systems can be combined with ty-
pographic cueing of headings. Headings set in different type ver-
sions aid comprehension of the material. We can use a special
typeface for headings, for example a sans serif typeface like Avant
Garde, Futura, Gill, or Helvetica. However, some linear fonts in
subheadings can be clumsy and too large (Koblanck, 1999).
194
Placement of headings
The use of space and the actual placement of a heading can be
used to enhance the hierarchic structure (Jonassen, 1982; Ko-
blanck, 1999; Hellmark, 2000a). Headings shall be placed above
and close to the following text. This distance shall be smaller than
the distance to the previous paragraph (Bergström, 1998;
Hellmark, 2000a; Koblanck, 1999; Miles, 1987; Misanchuk,
1992; Pettersson, 1993; Lipton, 2007).
The heading “belongs with its own text.” In the two examples
below the total space for the heading is the same but the positions
of the headings are different. One heading has a “good place-
ment,” while the other has a “bad placement.” Distinguishing
headings with extra white space make a document easier to
search and easier to read.
The distance between the heading and the text below the head-
ing should always be smaller (left) than the distance between
the heading and the previous text (right).
The amount of white space surrounding headings should
correspond to the heading hierarchy. A major heading needs to
have more space than a minor heading. However, too much
empty space between the end of a paragraph and the next head-
ing may “split up the page.”
We need to provide space
enough for the headings in a
text.
Good placement
The distance between the
heading and the text below
the heading should always be
smaller than the distance …
We need to provide space
enough for the headings in a
text.
Bad placement
The distance between the
heading and the text below
the heading should always be
smaller than the distance …
195
A subheading must always have at least one, preferably three
lines of text below it when it ends at the bottom of a page. A sub-
heading at the top of a page does not need blank space above it
(Hellmark, 2000a).
White space and reading
Typographic hierarchy establishes an order of importance of dif-
ferent text elements. In order to emphasize certain elements ty-
pographers often make them big and bold. Furthermore, design
practice claims that white space contributes to a certain extent to
the perception of the visual hierarchy (Jovančić, Keresteš, and
Nedeljković, 2020).
In advertising some studies have proven that white space in-
fluences consumer perception of the advertised product (Jacobs
and Poillon, 2012; Olsen, Pracejus and O'Guinn, 2012).
However, the effect of white “empty space” on text scanning
has not been experimentally examined. Jovančić, Keresteš, and
Nedeljković (2020) examined if white “empty space” could con-
tribute to the effectiveness and speed of our text scanning and
page navigation. They used eye-tracking technology to collect ac-
curate quantitative and visual data.
In this study the results from a total of 29 subjects did not
show that white space impacts answer correctness, answer time,
nor text structure memory. But the results showed that subhead-
ings surrounded by white space generally require fewer fixations
and fewer eye revisits. From both quantitative and visual data,
the authors noted a difference in the eye-movement patterns,
and concluded that more research is needed.
The headings in this e-book
All my twelve ID books are primarily meant to be read on com-
puter screens, but it is also possible to make print-outs on paper.
These books have the following typography for headings, H1 –
H5.
196
H1 Chapter – Verdana 18/20 pt, bold, dark red, centre justified,
no space above the heading, 12 pt extra space below the heading,
page break before the heading.
H2 Main section – Verdana 16/18 pt, bold, dark red, flushed left,
14 pt space above the heading, no extra space below the heading.
H3 Section – Verdana 14/16 pt, italic, dark red, flushed left, 16
pt space above the heading, no extra space below the heading.
H4 Sub section – Georgia 12/16 pt, bold, black, flushed left, 8 pt
space above the heading, no extra space below the heading.
H5 Sub-sub section – Georgia 12/16 pt, italic, black, flushed left,
8 pt space above the heading, no extra space below the heading.
Paragraphs
A paragraph is a unit of text dealing with an idea or a particular
point. A paragraph consists of one or more sentences. There are
a few possibilities to emphasize paragraphs. Paragraphs may be
indented and/or separated with extra space for emphasis.
Paragraph indents
An indent is the distance between the lines in a text and the text-
face, usually the right part of the left margin. Paragraphs may be
indented and/or separated with extra space. First line indents
are the distance between the beginning of the first line in a para-
graph and the left margin. They are often used for the running
text in books. There are also negative indents, hanging indents,
nested indents and full paragraph indents. It is considered to be
bad typography to allow an indent on the bottom line of a page.
To avoid this, it might be possible to edit the text until it fits.
First line indents
In order to emphasize the beginning of paragraphs in running
text the first lines may be indented and start with empty spaces.
The width of an em dash is commonly used for paragraph inden-
tation. This width is equal to the height of the type. So in 12 point
197
Georgia an em dash is 12 points wide. However, other widths are
also common as in the example on the next page.
-----In this book first line indents are used in all paragraphs in
the text, with the exception of those paragraphs following head-
ings and certain citations. In this example the indent is marked
with five red and bold hyphens. Headings may also be indented.
According to Tinker (1963) indenting of the first sentence of
each paragraph improves legibility by 7% for both single and
double line spacing. According to Frase and Schwartz (1970) in-
denting the first sentence of each paragraph improves compre-
hension of printed materials. Indenting of every sentence will,
however, slow down the reading speed.
Negative indents
The indent on the first line of a paragraph may also be directed
back into the left margin (or sometimes even forwarded into the
right margin). This is called a negative indent and may be used
for reference lists, numbered lists and lists with bullets, and other
characters like stars, squares etc. Negative indents may also be
used in texts where it is very important to draw attention to each
new paragraph.
In this paragraph the first line starts out in the left margin. This is
an example of a negative indent (bold and red). Here the follow-
ing lines align with the margins. Also, headings may have nega-
tive indents, as well as some lists.
Hanging indents
Hanging indents, or outdentions, are often used in reference
lists, numbered lists, and lists with bullets, and other characters
like stars, squares etc. All lines, except the first lines, begin with
an empty space. In contrast to texts with negative indents all the
texts always remain within the text column. Indents make it easy
to find single references.
198
Pettersson, R. (1989). Visuals for Information: Research and
----- Practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
----- Publications.
Pettersson, R. (1993). Visual Information. Englewood Cliffs,
----- NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
This little fragment from a “reference list” demonstrates hanging
indents, here marked with bold and red hyphens.
Nested indents
Nested indents are a form of indention in which each subsequent
indent is set relative to the previous indent, and not relative to a
margin. Nested indents may be used to graphically show the re-
lationship between chapters, sections, sub-sections and para-
graphs within a text. Tables of contents often have nested indents
to show each successive level.
Chapter A
---- Section 1
-------- Sub-section 1A
-------- Sub-section 1B
---- Section 2
---- Section 3
Chapter B
---- Section 1
---- Section 2
Chapter C
This fragment of a “table of contents” demonstrates nested in-
dents, here marked with bold and red hyphens.
Full paragraph indents
Long quotations should be distinctly separated from the rest of
the text. Quotations are often indented, sometimes also on the
right side. Full paragraph indents may also be used for lists and
tables.
199
In this book quotations are set in Georgia 12/16 pt, normal,
black, justified, with 0.8 cm full paragraph indents, and 8 pt ex-
tra space above and 8 pt extra space below the text.
Extra space
Readers prefer small text paragraphs to big ones. Often it is quite
easy to divide the text in hierarchic and natural parts, portions,
or sections. Natural breaks emphasized by typography are help-
ful. Providing “extra white space” between paragraphs and be-
tween larger portions of the text provides valuable cues to the
learners that a new section or a new type of activity follows (Wal-
ler, 1987). The extra space between paragraphs may vary, de-
pending on the material.
Marks
The end of a sentence should be determined by syntax rather
than by a set width of a line (Hartley, 1980; Bork, 1982). There
are usually no problems with continuation of text in books. The
text fills up page after page, and chapter after chapter. However,
in magazines and other periodical publications, it is sometimes
necessary to use special continuation marks. These marks may
be arrows or triangles and references to page numbers. In these
situations, it might also be a good idea to use terminal marks af-
ter the last paragraph in the article. Such a mark is often a circle
or a square, filled or unfilled. Sometimes the terminal mark is the
initials or the signature of the writer.
Rules
Vertical and horizontal straight lines that are used in typography
and layout are called rules. Horizontal lines can be used to sepa-
rate sections in a text and rows in a table. Vertical lines can be
used to separate columns of text on a page or columns in a table.
It is; however, often better to use white space as a separating de-
vice. Rules wider than 12 points are called bars or bands. Some-
times horizontal bars have type in them. Rules may be in colour.
200
Tables
Numeric data can be used to illustrate several different situa-
tions, such as chronological changes in single quantities or sets
of quantities, parts of a whole, and relationships between two or
more variables. There are different ways to present numeric data.
In print media numeric data can be presented in text, as figures
and digits, in tables, or in various graphical formats. No more
than one or two items of numeric data should be presented in
prose form. Tables are often, but not always, a good solution. Ta-
bles may show the maximum amount of information in the min-
imum amount of space.
Many people find tables confusing and difficult to under-
stand (Wright, 1968). Tables should be structured and compact
for easy accessibility. Sometimes a diagram or a graph may be a
better choice.
Readers prefer vertically oriented tables rather than hori-
zontally oriented tables. In vertically oriented tables it is easy to
see the target entries, and then quickly find the data in the table
cells to the right (Wright, 1968; Wright and Fox, 1972; Ehren-
berg, 1977). It is easy for us to compare data “side by side.” See
tables 1–3 on the following pages.
Horizontally oriented tables are harder to use and more dif-
ficult to understand than vertically oriented tables (Wright,
1968; Wright and Fox, 1972). It is complicated to compare data
“up and down.” See tables 4–6 on the following pages.
There are obviously many ways to design even a simple table.
It is easy to agree with the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (1996, p. 121) where the American
Psychological Association concludes “that an author’s thoughtful
preparation makes the difference between a table that confuses
and one that informs the reader.”
Vertically oriented tables
The following three examples, Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3,
demonstrate how vertically oriented tables may look. In these
201
examples the data that are used has no interest at all. Table-titles
are often, but not always, put above the actual tables. They in-
clude descriptions of the table contents. However, in these exam-
ples the table-titles only comment on the design of the tables.
Table 1. This is a vertically oriented table with thin ruling.
Products
Sales in $
2018
2019
2020
Product 1
100
120
110
Product 2
200
180
210
Product 3
200
220
210
Product 4
300
320
350
Product 5
400
420
410
Table 2. This is a vertically oriented table without any ruling.
Products
Sales in $
2018
2019
2020
Product 1
100
120
110
Product 2
200
180
210
Product 3
200
220
210
Product 4
300
320
350
Product 5
400
420
410
202
Table 3. This is another vertically oriented table without any
ruling. However, in this case the columns are very wide. The
large distance between the numerical data in the columns
makes it hard to read the table below.
Products
Sales in $
2018
2019
2020
Product 1
100
120
110
Product 2
200
180
210
Product 3
200
220
210
Product 4
300
320
350
Product 5
400
420
410
Horizontally oriented tables
The following three examples, Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6,
demonstrate how horizontally oriented tables may look. As in the
previous examples of tables the data has no interest at all and the
table-titles only comment on the design of the tables.
Table 4. This is a horizontally oriented table with thin ruling.
Sales in $
Products
Product 1
Product 2
Product 3
Product 4
Product 5
2018
100
200
200
300
400
2019
120
180
220
320
420
2020
110
210
210
340
410
203
Table 5. This is a horizontally oriented table without ruling.
Sales in
$
Products
Product
1
Product
2
Product
3
Product
4
Product
5
2018
100
200
200
300
400
2019
120
180
220
320
420
2020
110
210
210
340
410
Table 6. This horizontally oriented table is not only very ugly;
it is also very confusing and it provides very poor legibil-
ity. Please note that all the data are the same in this table as in
the previous five tables. However, this is not so easy to see. This
is a good example of a very bad design of a table.
Sales
in $
Products
Product 1
Product 2
Prod-
uct 3
Product 4
Product
5
2018
100
200
200
300
400
2019
120
180
220
320
420
2020
110
210
210
340
410
Provide “good tables”
Tables that communicate the quantitative aspects of data are ef-
fective only when the data are arranged so that their meaning is
obvious at a glance (Ehrenberg, 1977). After deciding what data
to present, but before designing a table, we need to consider that:
1) Rounded-off values may display patterns and exceptions more
clearly than precise values, 2) A reader can compare numbers
204
down a column more easily than across a row, and 3) Column
and row averages can provide a visual focus that allows the
reader to inspect the data easily.
Type size
According to Tinker (1963) the type used in tables should be no
smaller than 8-point, and no larger than 12-point (Tinker, 1963;
Wright and Fox, 1972, p. 241). Like pictures, all tables should be
integrated with the text content, in the flow of text. In a text, ta-
bles should preferably be put between paragraphs, and not
forced to break paragraphs and thus disturb the reading. Sans
serif typefaces are usually used in tables. Good examples are Hel-
vetica and Franklin.
Table layout
Heavy borders, heavy colouring of table cells, and heavy shading
will provide poor or even very poor legibility. See the example
Table 6 above. When tables fade into the background, the data
stands out. Avoid dark and grey backgrounds with heavy lines in
tables. However, thin rules can be used.
Redundant abbreviations of units should not be included
within the table entries (although they should be included in the
column or row headings). Use bold type, or a larger font in the
table in order to highlight certain entries as “landmarks” or “sub-
headings” (Wright and Fox, 1972). Do not indent every tenth en-
try in the table (starting with 10, 20, 30, etc.). This system seems
to be ineffective and possibly confusing for the reader.
It is useful to have adjacent columns printed in different
fonts to distinguish between them. That is, there is less risk of
erroneous reading of the table if the column of target entries is in
normal text (for example) and the column of associated answers
is in boldface text. Related pairs of items in adjacent columns
should be spaced closely together (i.e., the eyes should not have
to traverse a great distance between the target entry and the as-
sociated answer). Whenever possible, columns should be ar-
ranged so that the target entries are to the left of the answers.
205
Tables for the general public
Wright and Fox (1972, p. 241) offered guidelines for the construc-
tion of tables aimed for the general public and non-professional
audiences. It is important to present all the information the
learner will need in the table. The learner/reader should not be
required to combine entries, draw inferences, interpolate, or oth-
erwise manipulate the contents of the table in order to determine
the correct answer. Rather, the learner should only be required
to scan the list of data in order to find the correct target entry.
Type size used in the table should be between 8–12 points.
Items should be arranged vertically in the table rather than hor-
izontally (i.e., the list of target entries should be vertical). Items
within columns should be grouped and separated from other
groups by either white space or rules (lines) in order to facilitate
reading without accidentally moving to another row. Groups
should contain no more than five items.
Ehrenberg (1977) provided general guidelines for the con-
struction of tables for the general public and non-professional
audiences. In order to facilitate for learners/readers we should
round off numbers and use no more than two significant figures.
Then it is easier to make comparisons. In order to make compar-
isons of individual cell entries we should provide averages of
rows and columns (as appropriate). We should put the most im-
portant comparisons into columns (rather than rows), as col-
umns make for the easiest comparisons. Arrange numbers in
rows or columns in some meaningful order whenever possible
(e.g., increasing or decreasing).
In friendly graphs (Tufte, 1983; 1990), words are spelled
out, they run from left to right (in western societies), and data are
explained. Elaborately encoded shadings, cross-hatching, and
colours are avoided. Colours are easy to distinguish, type is clear
and precise, and is done in upper and lower-case with serifs. In
unfriendly graphs, abbreviations abound, words run in many di-
rections. Graphics are repellent and cryptic with obscure coding.
The design is insensitive to colour-deficient viewers Red and
206
green are used for essential contrasts, and type is clotted and in
all capitals in sans serif.
Use plain figures
Bigwood and Spore (2003, 2013) discussed how to present
charts, numbers, and tables for easy communication. They pro-
vided the following six rules of plain figures: 1) Put figures in a
logical order, often from the largest to the smallest. 2) Add focus
to figures. Arithmetic means and medians make it easier to see
exceptions and patterns in the data. Percentages show propor-
tions. Totals provide overviews. 3) Keep numbers to be com-
pared close. This proximity aids comparisons. 4) Round figures
for clarity.
In many situations, exact numbers, with four decimals, does
not matter. It may often be a good idea to use variable rounding
and convert exact numbers to two, or three, effective digits, re-
gardless of the size of the number. 5) Provide written summaries
in the text of the charts, numbers, and tables. 6) Use layout to
guide the eye and avoid distracting and unnecessary decorative
elements that interfere with the content in the graphs.
A few years later Bigwood and Spore (2017) noted that many
believe that tables are intrinsically less interesting when infor-
mation graphics and digital data visualisation have become very
common. However, in several instances, tables outperform
charts. Examples are reference tables, when readers need exact
numbers, when tables include more than one unit of measure,
and when data has a wide range. In reader-friendly tables the lay-
out is as simple and logical as possible, with focus on the num-
bers.
Captions
Most pictures are capable of several interpretations until an-
chored to one by a caption (Barthes, 1977). McDougall and
Hampton (1990, p. ix) concluded that photographs nearly always
207
need a partnership with words that will confirm, clarify and re-
inforce their messages.
Placement of captions
Each picture should have its own caption, unless two pictures or
a series of pictures are put closely together. A caption may be
placed in many ways. The caption should always be located close
to the picture. Readers usually expect to find the captions be-
neath the pictures. However, captions can also be placed above,
to the left, or to the right, of the picture, but never inside the pic-
ture frame.
Use flushed right text when you want to put the caption to
the left of the picture and flushed left text for a caption to the
right of the picture. When the caption is put above or beneath the
picture, we can use justified text or flushed left text and some-
times even centred text. Sometimes triangles or arrows pointing
from the caption towards the picture are used, especially when
pictures are gathered together many on a page.
Placing the caption inside the picture makes it harder for
people to read the picture as well as read the text. Nor should the
caption be located on some other page, as happens far too often
in reference books and textbooks used in schools.
Typography for captions
The caption should have a different typographic size or even a
different typeface so it is always easy to distinguished it from the
main text. The captions should not be in negative form in a colour
picture since the slightest misalignment in printing makes the
captions extremely difficult to read. Never make the caption type
larger than the main text. The title of the caption could be printed
in boldface.
In this book the captions are set in Georgia 12/16 pt, italic,
black, justified, and 8 pt extra space below the text.
208
Quotations
Sometimes quotations are included in a text. Short quotations
can be integrated into the body text, but long quotations should
be distinctly separated from the rest of the text. Quotations are
often indented, sometimes also on the right side. Any quotation
that is used must have the source of reference cited, in keeping
with common rules of writing. There is an example of a short text
segment (blue) with an embedded quotation (green) on the next
page.
On occasion, unfortunately, communication does not seem to
function. This may depend on insufficient information, but it
may also be because we have difficulty reaching each other. By
way of example the following text is cited as a warning in The
Technical Writer's Handbook by Young (1989, p. 206):
------ Conditional symbolic modified single-digit arithmetic us-
------ ing optical content-addressable memory logic elements:
------ Conditional symbolic modified signed-digit arithmetic op-
------ erators.
Esoteric and impenetrable jargon like this can be perceived as in-
comprehensible by the uninitiated. Since readers who do not
know the code are left out, its use poses the risk of “one-way-
only” communication and has no value outside of initiated cir-
cles.
In this example, the paragraph indent for the quotation (green)
is shown with red hyphens. Here the body text (blue), as well as
the quotation, is set with Georgia 12/16.
Quotations are quite often set in a smaller type than the run-
ning text. Between the text and the quotation, there are empty
spaces that each corresponds to half a line, in this case eight
points. Blank space blank lines) like these can be used in various
contexts to provide (space above and below, for example pic-
tures, tables, and lists. In fact, we may use “empty lines” for
209
vertical separation of text elements rather than printed lines of
any kind. Note that the firsts paragraphs below quotations and
examples are not indented in this book.
Lists
A list contains related ideas presented in a vertical array. Putting
information into list form can facilitate comprehension (Hartley,
1987; Frase and Schwartz, 1970). There are several types of lists
used in technical documentation. A book, for example, usually
contains a table of contents, a subject index, and a bibliography.
It may even contain lists of pictures, tables, authors or other per-
sons. The text in the book may have various lists of characteris-
tics, criteria, prospects, or requirements.
Within a body text, there may be various lists of characteris-
tics, criteria, items, persons, products, and requirements. Bullets
and numbers are used for items of the first degree. Hyphens are
used for lists within such a list. In a numbered list, the various
items are ordered according to their importance, unlike the un-
numbered list. In an unnumbered list items may be ordered al-
phabetically, or not at all. It is also possible to use upper-case let-
ters or upper-case roman figures for items of the first degree,
numbers in Arabic figures for the second degree, bullets for the
third degree, and hyphens for the fourth degree.
Table of contents
The table of contents may have justified or unjustified text. The
important thing is that the structure of the content in the docu-
ment is clearly visible to the reader.
The table of contents immediately follows heading level one,
(“Contents”) and may be set in 12 pt normal type with 14 pt line
spacing, left-aligned, and without any extra space before each en-
try. Chapter designations may be set in bold face, while section
designations usually are set in normal typeface. Page-numbers
follow each text on the same line. Sometimes they are flushed
right.
210
When a table of contents is extensive, it may be rendered in
two or more columns. References to page numbers are often
shown for heading levels one, two and three, with indents for
each successive level. Heading levels four and more are usually
not shown in a table of contents. This would impair the possibil-
ity to get an overview and understanding of the overall structure.
In this book the table of contents have three levels. Content
level 1 is set in Georgia 12/14 pt, bold, black, left justified, with 6
pt extra space above the text. Content level 2 is set in Georgia
12/14 pt, normal, black, left justified. Content level 3 is set in
Georgia 11/14 pt, normal, black, left justified, with 0.9 cm hang-
ing indents.
Bibliographies
References to cited works are usually put in a reference list at the
end of a chapter or at the end of a book. When each chapter has
its own bibliography, the heading “Bibliography” or “References”
may be set as a heading 2 in the document. When there is only
one bibliography for a factual study book, heading level 1 is used.
Bibliographies are often voluminous and may take up a great deal
of space. Since the reader will usually peruse such a list to find
only certain entries, they should be made easy to find. Therefore,
the text should be distinct even though it is relatively compact.
One common bibliography may be a good idea when several ref-
erences are the same in more than one chapter.
In a printed book, bibliographies may be set in ten pt type
with 12 pt line spacing, with 12 pt negative indents. Above them,
there may be two or three points of space, but no extra space is
needed below. Indents make it easy to find single references.
A bibliography may be laid out to cover the full width of the
column. If the bibliography is very extensive we should divide it
into two columns that are equal in size, even if the body of the
text in the document is arranged in one wide column.
211
In this book references to cited works are set in Georgia 11/14 pt,
normal, black, justified, with 0.5 cm hanging indents, and two pt
extra space above the text.
The subject index
A well-constructed subject index, “Index,” is often an indispen-
sable tool for quickly finding information in printed books. As is
the case with bibliographies, the readers are usually looking only
for certain information when they refer to a list of this kind.
A subject index may be set in three 50-millimetres-wide col-
umns, in ten pt type on 12 pt lines, with 12 pt indents. It is often
not necessary to have extra space between the lines. However,
there may be a half a line of space between groups of words that
begin with successive letters of the alphabet. The title of the sub-
ject index may be set as a level 1 header.
Since it is possible to easy search through the whole text vol-
ume there is no need to have a subject index in an e-book.
Lists of items
Within a body text, there may be various lists of characteristics,
criteria, items, persons, products, and requirements. Bullets and
numbers are used for items of the first degree. Hyphens are used
for lists within such a list.
In a numbered list, the various items are ordered according
to their importance, unlike the unnumbered list. In an unnum-
bered list items may be ordered alphabetically, or not at all. It is
also possible to use upper-case letters or upper-case roman fig-
ures for items of the first degree, numbers in Arabic figures for
the second degree, bullets for the third degree, and hyphens for
the fourth degree.
In this book unnumbered lists of items are set in Georgia
12/16 normal, black, justified text with 0.63 cm hanging indents.
There is a half line, 8 pt, empty space above and below each list.
212
Notes
Notes tend to fray the reading fabric. If notes are required, they
may be collected in a numbered list at the end of each chapter
immediately before the bibliography and arranged like a list of
items with numbers instead of characters to mark them. Occa-
sional notes and brief references may be placed as footnotes at
the bottom of the page, or sometimes in the left or right margin
or at the end of the chapter or article. Usually a smaller type size
or a different typeface is used for footnotes. A horizontal line can
separate the footnotes from the running text. When there are two
or more columns on a page footnotes should be placed at the end
of the document.
The title pages
A book begins with a title page with the title of the book, the
name(s) of the writer(s), and the name of the publisher. On the
second page, the imprint page, administrative information such
as the name of the document, a document number, a security
classification, revision or version number, and date of publica-
tion may be provided at the top of the page. Information about
the ISBN- or the ISSN-number and the copyright holder are usu-
ally provided at the bottom of the imprint page. There is usually
no pagination on the title and imprint pages.
On the third page in a book, there is the preface. The header
“Preface” may be set as heading one. A preface will usually not
exceed two pages. Page three is usually the first page with pagi-
nation. On the fifth page, or the first odd page after page five, the
table of contents starts. The header “Contents” may be set as
header one. However, in e-books intended for reading on screens
the table of contents may start on page four. There is no idea to
have empty pages in an e-book.
The pages with preface and table of contents are often pagi-
nated with lower-case roman numerals. The rest of the book is
numbered with Arabic numerals.
213
Layout of text and pictures
A typical page in a telephone directory is almost filled with text.
There are no pictures, and margins are narrow. Here the text may
cover 90 percent of the page. In dictionaries the text covers 75–
80 percent, and in specialist books and factual study books the
text often covers 50–60 percent of the page. In pure literature
and children’s books, the text-face is often even smaller than
that. When a picture covers the entire page, there is no space for
text or margins. The third extreme is an empty page.
This main section includes the following sections: Different
layouts, From one to two columns, Balance in design, and The
picture area index.
Different layouts
A picture without a caption has limited informational value. A
picture is too ambiguous on its own. A picture caption must de-
scribe the picture and guide the reader to the interpretation the
informer wished to convey to the reader. Both words and pictures
may possess an emotive force that is not easily foreseen. A num-
ber of different value judgments may slip into a text when the
purpose of the text is merely to supply information.
Newspaper layout
In newspaper layout many different messages have to be com-
municated. The problem is to communicate a series of discon-
nected messages of infinitely varying significance within a lim-
ited space, time, and economy with a recognizably consistent
style for each section of the paper. Many readers will only spend
time on a limited amount of information in a newspaper. It is
known that elements like drawings, headlines, information
graphics, and photos attract attention and often are entry points
into a page. Size and placement of such elements influence how
the reader will read a page. It is possible that many readers may
jump over too large pictures and never look at them at all. Visuals
may be very large also in magazine layout.
214
Informative layout
The reader’s emotions may be aroused by seemingly insignificant
details in a visual or nuances in the wording of a text. So suffi-
cient effort must be invested in the editing of both texts and pic-
tures. Interest can be focused on the central message in pictures
through careful picture selection and editing, primarily by means
of cropping, which is, deleting non-essential portions. Some-
times different visuals benefit from being presented in a group.
This may be the case for a photograph and an explanatory draw-
ing, or several photographs or drawings forming a mini-series or
related picture sequence.
When texts and visuals are collected for informative pages
and spreads, “message transmission” must be a central consider-
ation. As previously noted this kind of “information layout” dif-
fers from a “decoration layout” in which purely aesthetic aspects
are allowed to predominate.
Quite often the visuals have no or a very limited contact with
the text. Here White (1987) have asked for “less typographic
amusement and more serious character building.” Fiction layout
certainly does not work very well in instructional message de-
sign. However, even in traditional non-fiction publishing, it may
often be very hard to access the information.
In the past picture placement has often been based on aes-
thetic rather than instructional characteristics. The appearance
of elements on the page can provide powerful cues to the reader.
Thus, visuals should be located in close proximity to the parts of
the text in which pictured motifs are discussed. Visuals plus their
captions should preferably be inserted into the text between two
paragraphs, not in the middle of a paragraph, so they do not dis-
rupt reading rhythm.
Captions and visuals are often piled up in different areas and
sometimes even on different pages. Here, an effort should really
be made to achieve the best possible interplay of words and vis-
uals. Visuals interact with their captions, headings, maps, other
visuals, running text, and tables on a page and on a spread in a
215
book, a magazine, or a newspaper. The layout of the whole spread
should be attractive. However, the mere use of a lot of pictures is
not at all enough. In an artistic layout all the pictures may actu-
ally hide the message. The message is more effectively conveyed
in an informative layout.
The basics for instructional message design could be sum-
marized in the ABCDEFGH-way: “Select Arrangement, Balance
and Colour to maximize Dynamism, Emphasis, Fidelity and
Graphic Harmony.” Then you get good results.
Maps
The preparation and production of maps is called cartography.
The product of a cartographer’s efforts is a mathematically de-
fined depiction of a reality based on actual measurements. Maps
describe reality and shed light on a number of conditions, such
as terrain, political subdivisions, and the prevalence of certain
types of minerals, and soil etc. The utilization of variations in
shape and colour creates map symbols that provide a picture of
the reality they represent. A carefully processed map contains
more information per square inch than any other form of printed
information.
From one to two columns
Galli, Colangelo, and Guizzardi (2020) surveyed 35 academic
medical journals that was founded before 1960, some before
1900. The authors looked for the journals change in format over
time, and how this was explained to the readers.
Most of these journals started off with a one-column format.
In some cases, this lasted for a considerable amount of time. The
average transition from one to two columns occurred around
1969. It took longer for older journals to switch to a two-column
format. By comparison, on average an abstract for each article
were introduced around the year 1973.
The main reason why the two-column format was so broadly
adopted was mainly economic factors. The editors had to publish
216
more articles within fewer printed pages. The cost-effective an-
swer was smaller fonts, and two-column page formats. Scientific
texts, such as academic articles, are mostly referential in nature.
Readers read the articles strategically, with the purpose of ex-
tracting relevant information quickly. However, most editors
acknowledged that the new layout was somewhat more modern,
or pleasant, or legible, thus confirming the relevance of this as-
pect of text composition in providing access to the content of the
journal and its articles
According to Galli, Colangelo, and Guizzardi (2020) now a
growing awareness for waste consumption and ecological con-
cerns may possibly promote the use of on-screen reading over
paper printing. Most publishers offer the choice between a PDF
file with standard, printer-friendly two-column formatting and
an html-encoded version for digital reading.
Balance in design
In nature balance is normal. A design should usually display
“good balance.” Elements of the design should fit together in an
aesthetic and harmonious relationship in a manner that is inter-
esting but not distracting. Man has an intuitive sense of balance.
When a single element is too large or too small, too light or too
dark, too prominent or too indistinct, the entire design will suffer
from this imbalance. However, good balance is something sub-
jective. Different people may have quite different opinions on any
aesthetic issues.
A composition is balanced when the visual weight of graph-
ical elements on either side of the centre of balance are approxi-
mately equal. As with a physical balance, lighter elements can
balance heavier elements if their size or value is increased, or if
they are moved farther away from the centre of balance. It is also
possible to move the heavier elements closer to the centre of bal-
ance. Mullet and Sano (1995, p. 51) noted that altering even a sin-
gle attribute of one part in a complex composition could have a
significant impact on the balance, the unity, and ultimately the
217
harmony of the whole. The entire design suffers when a single
element is too large or too small, too light or too dark, too prom-
inent or indistinct.
Imbalance creates an uncomfortable feeling in the reader
and should often be avoided. Imbalance, however, can be used to
attract attention within a picture or within a material. Unex-
pected, irregular, and unstable design will attract attention. As
soon as instability is introduced in a design the result is a provoc-
ative visual expression. The eye will struggle in order to analyse
the relationships and the balance within the picture.
Balance can be formal with total symmetry or informal. For-
mal balance is felt to be static and harmonious. Informal balance
contributes to a feeling of dynamism. However, the mind needs
stimulation and surprise. Contrast and imbalance can dramatize
a design and attract attention. Several artists use a visual strat-
egy, such as combinations of dark and bright, large and small,
round and square, to sharpen meaning.
If the lines used as pointers to elements in a picture are heav-
ier than the lines in the picture itself this will create noise and
clutter in the illustration. Pointers should be light in comparison
with the lines in a picture.
Nuhoğlu-Kibar and Akkoyunlu (2017) found that visual de-
sign models lack guidance and specifics strategies on how to ef-
fectively apply and integrate multiple visual design concepts in
order to create higher quality visuals.
Image placement
Pictures are frequent in most factual study books. A picture may
be placed on a page in many different ways. It is usually, but not
necessarily, adjusted to the width of the text column. A page with
more than one column has more possibilities for placement of
pictures. Usually, pictures are placed in a column of text, and are
centred. As a rule, pictures may be placed where they best serve
the presentation. Very small pictures can be placed in the narrow
column. On the other hand, wide pictures may cover the entire
218
text-face of the page. Too many pictures will confuse the layout
and reduce the chances of the reader getting involved in the text.
Too few pictures appear to increase the size of the body text.
A picture may expand beyond the width of the column and
cover the margins and sometimes the whole page. “Bleed” (cov-
ering the entire page, with no margins) may be used to expand
the impact of certain images. Avoid too much text in pictures.
Necessary key words may be set in nine pt Helvetica with ten pt
line spacing. Single words that are especially important or have a
comprehensive function may be shown in bold face. In English
texts, key words usually begin with capital letters.
As previously noted many authors have noted that in mate-
rials for information a picture should be located as close to the
relevant text passage as possible. It is usually a good idea to put
pictures between the appropriate paragraphs in the text to get
maximum impact (Pettersson, 1989, 1993). Pictures that are put
within a paragraph will interfere with the reading of the text.
Above the picture, there should be at least one blank line, if, of
course, the picture is not at the top of the page, in which case the
upper margin will provide sufficient empty space.
A picture can be tilted on the page. This may draw special
attention to it. Pictures on odd-numbered pages attract more at-
tention than pictures on even pages. In newspapers and maga-
zines, it is quite often a correlation between placement of pictures
and perceived importance. The higher up on a page a picture is
placed, the more important it is considered to be (White, 1987).
Many visuals have a built in “direction,” e.g., a person on a pho-
tograph may be looking to the left. Such a picture should usually
be placed on the right page for the person to look into the gutter
and not out of the book or the magazine.
People who have not learned to read or write do not neces-
sarily look at pictures in the order that has been intended by the
designer. Therefore, it often proves helpful, as messages are be-
ing tested, to ask several groups of people to arrange the individ-
ual message into a sequence that seems most logical to them
219
(Zimmermann and Perkin, 1982; Wileman, 1993, p. 105). This is
a way to better get to know the intended audience.
Image framing
A frame or box around an image, or sometimes around an illus-
tration and a text, may have different functions. Image framing
can improve attention, and also function. A frame will separate
the image from the surrounding context and draw special atten-
tion to information within the frame. In a newspaper, framing is
a way of helping the readers to combine the corresponding text
and pictures on the page.
Interplay of visuals
In many situations it is a good idea to use more than one visual.
We can use image pairs or sequences of images.
Image pairs
In many situations it is a good idea to use pairs of visuals in which
one is true-to-life, such as a photograph, and the other represents
an analytical representation, such as a simple line drawing. The
analytical visual makes it easier for us to understand the content,
and the realistic visual enables us to believe in the content. So,
the two visuals should be closely linked in a carefully thought-out
relationship.
The actual size of two pictures may reflect a natural relation-
ship of scale, but it may also reflect a relationship of importance.
To enhance communication, it is very good if there is a logical
relationship between pictures placed next to each other. This re-
lationship may be based on consistency or on continuity.
Image sequences
Sometimes it is necessary to divide a message content into a se-
ries of visuals. The amount of details can be great or the content
can include a certain period of time. Time scales and charts pro-
vide a reference in time and space. A sequence of pictures can be
used to explain a development over time. It can be used in in-
structions. A sequence of pictures telling parts of the same story
220
can be used to hold a chapter together, and also to enhance the
depth dimension in a printed material. A series of pictures can
approximate the impression of a motion picture sequence. Sev-
eral consecutive enlargements of a specific part will help the
reader to understand the detailed structure of an object.
Understanding of a series of pictures is dependent upon the
ability to recognize that the object or person in each frame is the
same. For an exhibition, pictures and prints can be put on a wall
or on a board in many different ways. Balance in the layout can
be achieved by putting all pictures on a joint base line or bottom
edge. Balance can also be achieved by putting all pictures centred
on a “central” line. A third possibility is to put all the pictures on
the wall with a joint upper edge. When we want to have two rows
of pictures on the wall we can achieve balance with reference to
a central line or cross or with reference to joint bottom and upper
edges and joint side edges. A fourth possibility is to put all the
pictures in a vertical sequence.
An experiment with eye-tracking technology
Pušnik et al. (2016) used a questionnaire, and eye-tracking tech-
nology for testing aspects of design in magazines in Serbia. They
used real pages and experimental pages from four popular mag-
azines. The two groups of subjects included 11 and 13 individuals.
In one magazine most subjects made one of their first three
fixations on the logo. Here the logo was placed at an angle. The
other three magazines had horizontally positioned logos. These
logos did not attract any special attention.
When a text was set in upper-case letters it required a
slightly longer average reading time than the same text presented
in traditional lower-case letters. The differences between reading
time for upper and lower-case letters increased with wider char-
acters and longer lines.
Participants paid more attention to an advertisement when
it was placed to the left side of the page compared to the right
side. The advertisement had text and one large and one smaller
221
picture. In three magazines a negative colour combination re-
quired a slightly higher average number of fixations than a tradi-
tional positive colour combination. A serif typeface was slightly
more legible than a linear typeface.
In this experiment all the differences were very small, and
probably not significant. Results also showed a strong connec-
tion between the answers and the eye movements. In many cases
a higher number of fixations resulted in more accurate answers
on the questions.
Individual expectations
Tomita (2017, 2018, 2022) studied how 25 undergraduate stu-
dents engage with instructional materials of various visual de-
signs. Twenty-five undergraduate students selected and studied
one out of four sets of finite mathematics study materials. All four
sets had the same content but different designs and different for-
mats. Tomita observed the entire process, and she interviewed
the students about their experiences of selecting and engaging in
the instructional material.
Results showed that students selected instructional materi-
als that met their individual expectations. These expectations
were dependent on their previous individual experiences and
based on their holistic impression of the materials. Some stu-
dents selected their materials primarily based on the ease of nav-
igation, while others based their decisions on the attractiveness
of the materials, especially the cover designs. These decisions
were almost immediate.
Many students estimated that the length of the texts in the
four study materials were different. However, the same words
were included in all study materials. Differences in perception of
contents suggested that the “affective perception” of the design
was powerful enough to influence the “cognitive perception” of
the content. There is no universal design that will satisfy every
student. If possible, designers should provide instructional con-
tents in multiple formats.
222
The picture area index
Evans, Watson and Willows (1987) discussed the use of visuals
in Canadian textbooks. They analysed 11,236 textbook pages.
8,304 pages had illustrations. Like Willows, Borwick and
Hayvren (1981) they used two different methods of measuring
visuals/pictures/illustrations. They calculated an index of fre-
quency, that is the number of pages with any visuals in percent
of all pages (except the title pages and the indexes). The average
index of frequency was 74%. In lower grades, almost all pages
had illustrations (95–99%). For higher grades the index of fre-
quency went down considerably.
In textbooks, however, many pages have more than one pic-
ture. When visuals are used for information the “actual number
of illustrations” seem to be much more important than the num-
ber of pages with illustrations. A picture index, defined as the av-
erage number of pictures for 100 pages, will no doubt be a better
measure and more suited for international and inter-cultural
comparisons of textbooks (Pettersson, 1990).
It is possible to calculate both the index of frequency and the
picture index from the detailed data given by Evans, Watson and
Willows (1987). Here the index of frequency and the picture in-
dex really give complementary information about the characters
of the different textbooks. It is easy to see how the character of
these textbooks changes from the lower to the higher grades
within each group of subject matter.
Evans, Watson and Willows (1987) also indexed the sizes of
illustrations according to the percentage of the page occupied by
the illustrations, picture size index. Illustrated pages were men-
tally divided into quarters and each illustration coded as occupy-
ing up to 25% of the page, 26–50% of the page, 51–75% of the
page, or more than 75% of the page. For lower grades illustra-
tions usually covered more than half of the page size. For higher
grades the average picture size usually decreased.
Metallinos et al (1990) mentally divided the page into six
equal parts, sixths, and indexed the sizes of illustrations in
223
secondary school geography textbooks. The most common size
was 1/6 in Australia and Japan, and 2/6 in Greece, Sweden and
the USA. They defined the “average picture size” as the average
part of a page covered by pictures.
It is not enough to get information about the sizes of the pic-
tures. We can also use an index showing how the available
printed area in a book is divided between text and pictures. The
“picture area index” is defined as the average percentage of the
text-face utilized for pictures. A book without any pictures will
have a picture area index of 0 (zero). When the index is 50, half
of the total text-face in the book is covered with pictures. A pic-
ture area index of 100 leaves no room at all for any text in the
book (except for texts printed inside the actual pictures).
Some samples among textbooks for the 9-year Swedish com-
prehensive school showed that 60–80% of the text-face was cov-
ered by illustrations in textbooks used for elementary level (year
1–3). For intermediate level (year 4–6) the percentage was 50–
70, and for senior level (year 6–9) it was 30–60, with a big dif-
ference between various textbooks (Pettersson, 1991).
In order to judge the quality of “mental indexing” of picture
sizes, and also the possibility to use such data for calculations of
picture area indexes the following study was done. One chapter
in each of three textbooks were used and the picture area indexes
were calculated with three different methods. (Melin and Pet-
tersson, 1991, studied these three textbooks with respect to cap-
tions.)
Exact measurement
For each textbook the text-face was measured and calculated.
Then all the pictures were measured. The heights and widths
were measured in millimetres. The areas of the pictures were cal-
culated and added up to a total picture area. Then the picture
area index was calculated. In the table below these results are
called "the real picture area index".
224
Estimation with quarters
Based on the method used by Evans, Watson and Willows (1987)
the text-faces (and not the pages) in each book were mentally di-
vided into quarters and each illustration coded as occupying 0–
1/4, 1/4–2/4, 2/4–3/4, and 3/4–4/4 of the text-face. (It is of
course also easy to use a grid, drawn on a transparent foil.) Some
pictures may actually be larger than the text-face. Such pictures
are coded in the 3/4–4/4 category. The number of pictures
within each category was multiplied by the theoretical mean size
for each group (that is 12.5%, 37.5%, 62.5%, and 87.5% respec-
tively). The added total picture area was then divided by the total
text-face resulting in an “estimated picture area index.”
Estimation with sixths
Based on the method used by Metallinos et al (1990) the text-
faces (and not the pages) in each book were mentally divided into
sixths and each illustration coded as occupying between 1/6– 6/6
of the text-face. (It is of course also easy to use a grid, drawn on
a transparent foil.) Some pictures are actually larger than the
text-face. Such pictures were coded in the 6/6 category. The
number of pictures within each category was multiplied by the
theoretical mean size for each group (that is 8.8%, 25.0%, 41.6%,
58,3%, 75.0%, and 91,5% respectively). The added total picture
area was then divided by the total text-face resulting in an "esti-
mated picture area index".
Calculation of results
To be able to compare the three methods the differences between
the “real picture area index” and the two “estimated picture area
indexes” were calculated. As we can see in the table below these
differences are small with both methods.
Estimation with quarters resulted in a mean difference of
2.3%, and estimation with sixths resulted in a mean difference of
.4%. These results indicate that the method of “estimation with
quarters” is “good enough” for practical work. This method is
225
very quick and easy and far less labour-intensive than the labori-
ous method of exact measurement.
It would be interesting to make a collection of picture area
index-data for “typical textbooks” used in different countries. At
the same time, one should also calculate the “picture index,” de-
fined as the average number of pictures for 100 pages (Petters-
son, 1990).
Index summary
Average picture size is the average part of a page covered by
pictures, mentally measured by dividing pages in a document
into four or six equal parts.
Format index is used to compare formats of pages, pictures,
sheets of paper, and text-faces. A format index is calculated as
the (height/width x 100). Regardless of the size of the individual
artefacts all wide formats get indexes below 100. All square for-
mats get index 100. All vertical formats get indexes over 100.
Index of frequency is the number of pages with any visuals in
percent of all pages in a document (except title pages and in-
dexes).
Paper format index is a format index to compare sheets of pa-
per. See Format index.
Picture area index is the average percentage of the text-face
utilized for all pictures in a document.
Picture format index is a format index to compare pictures.
See Format index
Picture index is the average number of pictures for 100 pages
of a document.
Picture size index is the percentage of the page in a document
occupied by the illustrations.
Text face format index is format index to compare text-faces.
See Format index.
226
Graphic symbols
Taking up only a very small amount of space, symbols can pro-
vide or convey information, equivalent to one or more sentences
of text. Eco (1976) suggested that the verbal equivalent of an
iconic sign is not a word but a phrase or indeed a whole story.
This is, of course, also the case with the large number of Chinese
kanji-characters, designating different words or sometimes
phrases.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Use of
graphic symbols, Warnings, and Design of graphic symbols.
Use of graphic symbols
The use of graphic symbols has a long tradition. Functional, in-
structive graphic symbols are actually older than words. They are
found in every culture however primitive. In specific areas sym-
bols are a supplement to all languages to help create better and
faster understanding. Symbols first appeared as paintings or
carvings on caves and stone walls more than 52,000 years ago,
with the first depiction of humans dating back about 11,000 years
(Dewar, 1999). There is also a need for various symbols in mod-
ern societies.
This main section includes the following sections: Interna-
tional standards, Groups of graphic symbols, Objectives, and
Interpretation of meaning.
International standards
There are many international standards for designing and testing
graphical symbols (Boersema and Adams, 2017). The major in-
ternational standard-setting body is the International Organiza-
tion for Standardization (ISO) with representatives from 163 na-
tional standards organizations. ISO provides an “Online Brows-
ing Platform” (OBP) with access to codes or terms and defini-
tions, content in ISO standards, and graphical symbols. ISO doc-
uments are copyrighted and ISO charges for most copies.
227
However, there are also a number of other recognized interna-
tional organizations. Examples are: European Telecommunica-
tions Standards Institute (ETSI), International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC), and International Telecommunications Un-
ion (ITU). There are also many national standard bodies.
Since 1974, the American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA)
and the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) have
collaborated to a symbol system that will help travellers navigate
their way through airports, bus and train stations, large interna-
tional events, and unfamiliar public places. This system, 2013
consisting of 50 symbols, is designed to guide people, regardless
of age or culture, to where they are trying to go or what they are
trying to reach.
Groups of graphic symbols
I distinguish between two main categories of representations, (I)
Figurative representations, and (II) Non-figurative representa-
tions (Pettersson, 2002). Figurative representations include two
groups, 1) Visuals and 2) Graphic symbols. The group graphic
symbols include three subgroups: 1) Pictorial symbols, 2) Ab-
stract symbols, and 3) Arbitrary symbols.
Pictorial symbols
Pictorial symbols (or representational symbols) are “image re-
lated” and simplified pictures. Pictorial symbols resemble the ob-
jects they represent. They can be characterized as shadows, sil-
houettes, or profiles with no surface detail. A traffic sign with a
silhouette of a locomotive, to denote a railroad crossing, is an ex-
ample of a pictorial symbol. In the design process, some pictorial
symbols may be successively simplified into abstract graphic
symbols.
Abstract symbols
Abstract graphic symbols can look like the objects they represent
but they have less detail than pictorial symbols. Good abstract
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graphic symbols are intuitive and we should be able to under-
stand their intended meanings.
The modern symbols typically found in airports and in travel
guides are intended to convey generalities of the same order of
abstractness as words. Their characteristic graphic neutrality is
perhaps the most significant aspect of their invention by the Iso-
type Institute (Neurath, 1936). In athletic contests, like the
Olympic games, abstract graphic symbols are often used to de-
note the different sports.
Arbitrary symbols
Some figurative symbols are arbitrary symbols. They are in-
vented and constructed out of the designer's imagination. Usu-
ally arbitrary graphic symbols have no resemblance at all to the
objects or the ideas they represent. Many are based only on the
use of geometric shapes and colours. Many signposts and some
traffic signs are examples of signs with arbitrary symbols. Arbi-
trary symbols are unambiguous by convention. We agree and de-
cide on their meaning. Just as new terms have to be learned when
we begin to study a new topic; we have to learn arbitrary graphic
symbols. Every motorist has to pass a test in order to get a
driver’s licence.
Cochenour et al. (1998) studied the interpretations of 12 ar-
bitrary graphic symbols. In this case, 96 respondents showed a
wide disparity in their interpretations, with as many as 51 differ-
ent categories of meaning for a single symbol. The average num-
ber of no-meaning responses was 13.
Visual terms
Quirk et al. (1985) noted that pictograms most reliably could sub-
stitute for words in “block language”–single-word captions,
headings, and labels–as distinct from sentenced language.
Graphic symbols may be intended to convey generalities of the
same order of abstractness as verbal terms. In some cases, we can
see graphic symbols as visual terms. Symbols may be visually
more distinctive than text. Their syntax and semantics may be
229
simpler. Image perception is rapid, virtually “instantaneous.”
Reading and comprehending the equivalent message in words
takes much more time and may fail if it is hard to read the text.
So, symbols permit rapid reading and comprehension, and they
may require less time and effort for learning. This is important
in numerous situations, e.g., in traffic, in industry, and in avia-
tion.
Objectives
There are many reasons to use symbols. Graphical symbols can
be used effectively in manuals and on screens to help readers to
quickly recognize and identify a specific message. Symbols can
be used to create an overview and provide a holistic perspective.
This property is utilized in maps and informative signs as well as
in catalogues and project reports.
Graphic symbols may be used to identify information, illus-
trate spatial and geographic position, illustrate size relation-
ships, navigate in databases, provide a holistic perspective, rec-
ognize information, and represent an organization, a service, or
a product. Graphic symbols may supply information and supply
instructions. Graphic symbols have evolved to the point of uni-
versal acceptance in such areas as music, mathematics, and in
many branches of science.
Pettersson (1985, 1987) concluded that perceived image con-
tent often is different from intended image content. Even simple
pictures and also symbols may cause many different associa-
tions. A given set of basic picture elements and symbols can be
combined to form completely different images. Moriarty and
Sayre (1993) studied intended and perceived advertising mean-
ings. They also found a high level of disagreement between in-
tended and perceived messages. More than half of the responses
were different from those intended and expected by the message
creators. Symbols must be meaningful, legible, learnable, mem-
orable and used consistently (Dewar, 1999).
230
Interpretation of meaning
The meaning of a symbol is seldom easy to guess (Pettersson,
1989, 1993). Griffin and Gibbs (1993) and Olmstead (1999) found
that graphic symbols were interpreted in many different ways.
Sometimes only a few persons will understand the intended
meaning of a symbol. Thus, the sender will always have to supply
explanations for the symbols used in any specific situation.
International communication
At the end of his book on writing for science and technology,
Kirkman (1992) noted the possibility of using symbols in inter-
national communication (p. 155): “Perhaps, since use of words
causes so much difficulty in international communication, we
should abandon words wherever possible, and use icons in-
stead.” Kirkman used the term “icon” in the same meaning as I
use the term “symbol” here. Symbols may very well become more
and more common in international communication. Kirkman
commented (p. 156): “I have no doubt that we shall gradually
have to include more and more icons in our presentations of in-
formation, especially in our onscreen presentations.”
Many pictograms are culturally biased (Mangan, 1978) and
thus arbitrary to those from other cultures. For example, when
using a guidebook with symbols, we often have to look them up
in a key in much the same way as we look up unfamiliar words in
a dictionary. Their iconic origins may only become apparent after
we are aware of their intended meaning (Waller, 1987). Baron
(1981) reported that iconicity is a surprisingly unimportant fac-
tor in the learning of sign languages for the deaf, autistic, or men-
tally retarded.
Sepulchral symbols
Cochenour and Rezabek (1997) studied the interpretations of 21
sepulchral symbols. Respondents showed a wide disparity re-
garding their ability to understand the meanings of the symbols.
Nineteen percent of the responses indicated that no meaning at
all was conveyed, while 31% were considered as “understanding
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of the intended meaning.” Cochenour and Rezabek concluded
that symbols carry a variety of meanings for different people and
when used alone as a means of visual communication cannot be
expected to always convey a simple and direct meaning.
Symbols in business presentations
Griffin et al. (1994) studied how international business people
interpreted and understood commonly used clip art symbols.
The symbols were taken from a Harward Graphics software
package for business presentations. Based on 4,530 opinions ex-
pressed by 302 subjects in Japan, Sweden, Tanzania and USA,
regarding 15 of the symbols in the software package, Griffin et al.
made the following two conclusions:
• There are many ways to interpret symbols. Very few people
share the same understanding of any given symbol.
• There are strong cultural differences in interpreting the
meanings of symbols.
Four verbal symbols resulted in many interesting observations.
Symbols in this category were either understood or not under-
stood at all. There were 90% appropriate answers from the sub-
jects in the USA, and 80% from the subjects in Sweden. The cor-
responding numbers were 27% for Tanzania, and 29%for Japan.
The rank ordering of the mean numbers of appropriate answers
for seven pictorial symbols was 80% for USA, 69% for Sweden,
60% for Tanzania, and 48% for Japan.
The remaining four abstract symbols were the most difficult
symbols for all audiences to comprehend. Here definitions dif-
fered strongly by country and by symbol. It was common for the
subjects in this study to provide several meanings for each sym-
bol. For example, the 81 Swedish subjects gave 20 different in-
terpretations of a symbol with the shape of a star.
Telecom symbols
Nilsson and Lindqvist (1995) examined a random selection of tel-
ecom publications. They browsed about 1,000 pages. From this
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material they selected 100 pictures and registered about 350 tel-
ecom symbols. This study concluded that:
• A certain meaning is explained with several different sym-
bols.
• A certain symbol has several different meanings.
Within the Swedish R&D-company Ellemtel, several people de-
signed their own graphic symbols, which they used in various
combinations in schematic pictures in their own documents. In a
sample of documents, no less than 29 different “telephone-pic-
tures” were used. Some of the telephone-pictures were well-
drawn schematic pictures, some were pictorial symbols, and
some were abstract symbols. All these symbols were replaced by
two new graphic abstract symbols for telephones, one passive,
and one active, to be used in schematic pictures.
233
Warnings
Warnings are a type of hazard and risk communication intended
to give people information about potential hazards and instruc-
tions to promote safe behaviour (Wogalter and Mayhorn, 2017,
p. 331). This main section includes the following sections: Sym-
bols for warnings, Traffic signs, Project “crossing road signs,”
and Message and symbol.
Symbols for warnings
Many symbols are used for warnings. Wogalter (1999, p. 94) con-
cluded that warnings should contain certain elements:
• A signal word such as “DANGER” and “CAUTION” enables
people to recognize that the message is a warning, that a haz-
ard is present, as well as providing information on the hazard
level (with “Danger” signalling more serious and probable in-
jury than “Caution”);
• A description of the hazard, e.g. in the case of a no diving sign,
a statement such as “Shallow water” provides information
about the specific danger involved;
• A description of the consequences that could occur if the per-
son fails to obey the warning’s directions, e.g. “You can be
permanently paralysed”;
• The directions or instructions, i.e., the specific actions that
should or should not be done, e.g. “No diving.”
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI, 2012) Z535
suggests the following components for warnings:
• A signal word panel comprised of hazard related words (usu-
ally DANGER, WARNING, CAUTION) along with associated
colour (red, orange, yellow).
• A statement of the nature of the hazard (e.g. radiation).
• Instructions on how to avoid a hazard.
According to ANSI the signal word DANGER is a warning for a
hazardous situation, which if not avoided, will result in death or
234
serious injury. This is an immediate and grave danger. The signal
word WARNING is a warning for a hazardous situation, which if
not avoided, could result in death or serious injury. The signal
word CAUTION is a warning for a hazardous situation, which if
not avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
Traffic signs
Signposts and traffic signs are placed along, besides, or above a
highway, pathway, roadway, or any other route in order to guide
and help with directions, regulate the traffic and warn for dan-
gers. The symbols may also be painted on the streets, and some-
times on the walls of houses. The traffic may include many kinds
of bicycles, equestrians, motor vehicles, pedestrians, and other
travellers.
Road signs and signposts may be divided into four main
groups: 1) Warning signs, 2) Mandatory signs, 3) Prohibitory
signs, and 4) Information signs, and also the STOP sign. Today
road signs are manufactured in different materials such as alu-
minium, galvanized sheet iron, and flat or canned panel. The
symbols on the signs may be painted, printed or duplicated in
other ways. The motifs are designed in different ways even if they
carry the same or similar messages.
In order to be effective a warning must reach the intended
audience and make them adopt the desired behaviour. Several
steps are needed here. Initially any warning, and any symbol,
must attract and capture the attention of the intended audience,
the persons who need the information. The message must be leg-
ible at the appropriate distance and must often be legible when
seen for a short period of time under bad lighting conditions. A
driver on a highway may only have a second or two to read a sign-
post. Then the message in the warning must be mentally pro-
cessed and understood correctly by the intended audience. The
action to be taken should be immediately obvious. Furthermore,
the message in the warning must be able to motivate the audi-
ence to comply with the desired behaviour.
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As previously noted warnings should have large, legible
bold-faced alphanumeric characters (Wogalter, 1999). Warnings
need high contrast relative to the background and properties that
allow them to be seen in degraded conditions such as low illumi-
nation, smoke or fog (Barlow and Wogalter, 1991; Sanders and
McGormick, 1993). In addition, warnings should be adequately
lit by direct light or by backlighting and/or have good reflectance
so that they are visible under reduced-light conditions. The
United States Department of Transportation (2002) says that
roadway signs in the United States increasingly use symbols ra-
ther than words to convey their messages. Thus, it is important
that these symbols maintain a consistency in colour, layout, po-
sition, shape, space, and text.
Project “crossing road signs”
In communication senders want to communicate messages or
make information sets available to receivers or rather interpret-
ers. In the case of warning for and information about pedestrian
crossing road signs the city authorities are the senders. The
warning sign for a pedestrian crossing convey a simple, but im-
portant message to the motorists: “Look out and slow down,
there is a pedestrian crossing ahead.”
A warning sign and an information sign (from Germany and
from Lithuania). Both symbols are classified as abstract.
The warning sign is usually triangular, sometimes with soft
corners. The actual symbol consists of a wide line forming a red
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triangle on a light background. Graphical elements, dots, lines,
and areas, are combined to form a simple figurative and abstract
representation of a person. Some graphical elements may also
represent street lines showing a pedestrian crossing.
The information sign is usually rectangular, sometimes with
soft corners. This particular sign is from Lithuania. The triangle
is white. The four graphical elements representing a person and
the three graphical elements representing street lines are black.
The person appears to be running to the right. This symbol is
classified as abstract. In Lithuania there are also signs with the
person moving to the left. Graphical elements, dots, lines, and
areas, are combined to form a simple figurative representation of
a person. Some graphical elements may also represent street
lines showing a pedestrian crossing
An information sign about a pedestrian crossing convey
slightly different messages for two different groups of receivers.
The messages to the motorists and other road-users are: “Look
out and slow down, pedestrians are told to cross the street here.”
The messages to the pedestrians are: “This is the place where you
should cross the street. Be careful, you need to see that there is
no traffic.”
In several locations this information sign is combined with
or replaced by traffic lights. Traffic lights convey more distinct
and “sharp” instructions to motorists as well as to pedestrians
than pedestrian crossing warning and information road signs.
Here the instructions may be expressed as: Drive now! Do not
drive! Walk now! Do not walk! The design of traffic lights may
vary substantially. However, design of traffic lights is not in-
cluded in this study, and not the sign explaining that children
may be playing alongside the road as well as on the road.
I have studied 52 different pedestrian warning and infor-
mation crossing road signs from 32 countries (Argentina, Aus-
tralia, Austria, Belgium, Chile, China, Cyprus, Czech Republic,
Estonia, France, Germany, Ghana, Iceland, India, Ireland, Italy,
Jordan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Monaco,
237
Norway, Peru, Poland, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Turkey, and USA). Some of these road signs were
brought to Stockholm for a public exhibition in 1998. The graphic
designer Anders Körling put together the exhibition The World
Walks in Stockholm as an event during Stockholm ‘98, Stock-
holm–Cultural City of Europe 1998.
I have taken photographs of the crossing road signs at this
exhibition. I have also taken photographs during my travels in
various countries. In addition, people have provided me with
photographs of crossing road signs in a few cases. The pictures
presented in this report have been scanned and retouched using
Adobe PhotoshopTM. The design of pedestrian warning and in-
formation crossing road signs wary with respect to shape, col-
ours, size, and number of graphic elements in the symbols.
Pedestrian warning and information crossing road signs
wary with respect to their shape, colours, size, and the design of
the figurative representations. Differences in material and in the
construction of the signs and signposts are not discussed here.
Shape
Pedestrian crossing warning and information road signs vary in
shape in different parts of the world. In Europe warning signs are
triangular, and information signs are rectangular. In other parts
of the world the information sign may be rhombic or circular. On
the signs from Argentina and Australia (below) the pictorial sym-
bols are black on yellow backgrounds without indications of
street lines.
238
The rhombic sign is from Argentina. The circular sign is from
Australia. These symbols are classified as pictorial.
Colours
Pedestrian crossing warning and information road signs vary in
colour in different parts of the world. In Europe warning signs
usually have white, black and red colours. In Sweden warning
signs are yellow, red and black. In many countries the infor-
mation signs are blue, white and black. In some countries the col-
ours are white and blue; white, yellow and black; or yellow and
black. The figurative representations are usually black, on a
white, blue or yellow ground.
Size
Pedestrian crossing warning and information road signs vary in
size in accordance with different situations. In this sample the
smallest sign is 40 cm (Cyprus) and the largest is 102 cm (Argen-
tina). Most signs are between 55 and 75 cm. Thus, the impression
of the pictures printed here corresponds to the impression from
viewing the real signs on a distance of five to seven metres.
Mr. Walker
The symbol on pedestrian crossing warning and information
road signs varies to a large extent. Almost all are different with
respect to their design. The person in the symbol is always “Mr.
Walker.” Nowhere is the figure representing a woman (Jofs,
1998). (However, in 2010 Sweden introduced Mrs. Walker.) In
239
this study Mr. Walker is an abstract graphic symbol (27), or a
pictorial graphic symbol (25).
As would be expected, there are no arbitrary graphic symbols
in this sample of symbols. In one case (Australia) the sign only
shows the lower parts of the legs and the feet. For some reason
most figures on the signs (44) are crossing the street to the left.
The remaining figures (8) cross in the other direction, to the
right. Estonia and Lithuania have both versions of signs.
Most figures (42) seem to be walking across the street over
to the other side, but some (9) appear to be running. In one case
(Mexico) the figure appears to be standing and waiting for a pos-
sibility to cross the street. In two other symbols from Mexico the
person appears to be walking. Some symbols are very clear and
distinct; others are “blurred” by a large number of graphical ele-
ments.
The person is an abstract graphic symbol on the left warning
sign from Malta, and a pictorial graphic symbol on the middle
sign from Switzerland. In both cases the person is apparently
walking to the left. The number of graphical elements varies to
a large degree. On the sign to the right, from France, there are
a total of 21 graphical elements. However, Mr. Walker consists
of only one graphical element.
The numbers of graphical elements that are used to build the
Mr. Walker figure vary (1–4), as the total number of graphical
elements (2–21) in the symbols. The painted street lines form a
graphic world of their own. The number varies to a large degree.
In some cases, the street lines may actually confuse people. Some
240
signs have no street lines. I don’t know to what extent the number
of street lines varies in different countries. In Sweden there are
four graphical elements on the symbols representing the lines
painted on the streets. The number of painted lines may vary.
Message and symbol
There are probably pedestrian crossing road signs in most cities,
at least where there are cars. In accordance with international
conventions and national legislations on road signs and signals,
most road signs have a similar design. For example, the official
manual for signing in the United States is the Manual of Uniform
Traffic Control Devices. Warning signs are triangular. Infor-
mation or instructional signs are rectangular or rhombic. Prohib-
itory signs and mandatory signs are round, but with different col-
ours. However, the symbols on the signs may differ in several re-
spects. Every country has its own version, or rather versions, be-
cause some road signs differ between regions. Some of these
signs may be old versions, waiting to be replaced.
There are several requirements that must be fulfilled for
road signs to be effective communicators of information. The de-
signs of the symbols, as well as the contexts in which the signs
appear are important factors for our perception of the message.
The abstract or pictorial graphic symbol on the sign must have
good legibility and be easy to read from a distance.
Obviously, pedestrian crossing road signs must be placed in
such a way that the motorists as well as the pedestrians can see
them. Signs should be placed as necessary for safety and proper
regulation of traffic. However, the use of too many signs within a
given location severely reduces the effectiveness of each individ-
ual sign at that specific location. There is a distinct risk that we
will not pay attention to some of the signs.
It is quite obvious that traffic symbols are designed in many
different ways, even when they convey the same or similar infor-
mation to people who see them. This may not seem to be an im-
portant issue since people have to learn the meaning of all-
241
important symbols within their own society. However, with re-
spect to the fact that international travel seems to increase all the
time, and more people visit different countries, it would probably
be an advantage to have a “world standard” for a set of basic sym-
bols, including traffic signs. This would probably reduce the
number of misunderstandings and traffic accidents.
The above study supports the assumptions noted in the in-
troduction. We may conclude that:
1. A specific message may be communicated to the receiver/s
or interpreter/s with several different symbols.
2. A specific symbol may be used to communicate several dif-
ferent messages.
3. People have to learn the meaning of all-important symbols
within their own society.
The first two points may also be visually represented in the fol-
lowing two schematic pictures:
A specific message (left red circle) may be communicated to the
receiver/s or interpreter/s (right red circle) with several differ-
ent symbols (middle blue circles) as long as people learn the in-
tended meanings of the symbols.
242
A specific symbol (middle blue circle) may be used to communi-
cate several different messages (left circles) to the receiver/s
(right circles) as long as people learn the intended meanings of
the symbol.
With respect to the design and the use of symbols it may further
be concluded that:
• Receivers may interpret symbols in many ways.
– Few people share the same understanding of any given
symbol.
– People can usually not guess the meaning of symbols.
– There are strong cultural differences in interpreting the
meanings of symbols.
• The senders will always have to supply explanations for sym-
bols.
– Symbols should be used in a consistent way.
– A symbol must always have the same meaning within a
specified context.
• A good symbol is designed so it can be used in many different
situations and in many contexts. A good symbol:
– Is simple
– Is clear
– Has optimal size
– Has good contrast in form, dimension, and colour
• Graphical symbols may be intended to convey generalities of
the same order of abstractness as verbal terms. In some cases
243
we can see graphical symbols as visual terms. Graphical sym-
bols may be used to:
– Create an overview.
– Identify information.
– Illustrate position.
– Illustrate size relationships.
– Navigate in databases.
– Provide a holistic perspective.
– Recognize information.
– Represent an organization, a service, or a product.
– Supply information or instructions.
Design of graphic symbols
Many people do not understand the languages in countries they
visit. There is also an increase in international trade. In some
cases, the use of graphic symbols may be a way to solve some
problems. However, there may also be some disadvantages with
symbols. Symbols may be less efficient than text in conveying ab-
stract, as well as detailed information.
This main section includes the following sections: Iconic
symbols, Simple graphical elements, Graphic symbols and col-
our, Graphic symbols and size, and Graphic symbols and legi-
bility.
Iconic symbols
Before beginning to design new symbols, it is always a good idea
to consider employing already existing symbols. Standardisation
bodies like ISO (International Standards Organisation) and IEC
(Commissioin Electrotechnique Internationale) officially recom-
mend many symbols. There are a large number of existing sym-
bols for all kinds of human activities, and areas. Symbols are de-
signed and employed in different media. Symbols are immutable
and static in graphical media, and they may often be changeable
in computer-based media.
244
It is often an advantage that a symbol is iconic, that is, that
it actually looks like the real thing it represents. Then it may be
intuitive to the users and easy to interpret and understand. In
technical and scientific systems and documentation, hardware
may be symbolised by squares and rectangles, or the like. Softer
forms, such as circles or ovals, may represent software.
According to Keates (1982), the most common case of quan-
titative judgment on maps occurs in the use of proportional sym-
bols, that is, point or line symbols constructed to represent spe-
cific quantities. Cochenour, Lee and Wilkins (1995) provided the
following design guidelines for functional image maps on the
World Wide Web (p. 172):
• Use simple graphics.
• Use smaller rather than larger image sizes.
• Clearly define hot spots.
• Use unified rather than scattered groupings.
• Choose icons to accurately represent information.
• Design image maps to model the structure of information.
• Use a minimal number of layers.
• Limit the number of choices.
• Include site-specific help.
Designers working in different countries may be working on sim-
ilar problems, and they will often create different designs. Most,
if not all, countries have traffic signs. In order to study similari-
ties and differences in the design of a highly restricted message I
have analysed pedestrian warning and information signs. This
study is presented in the following section.
Porathe and Strand (2011) studied the visibility of traffic
signs. They compared a simple “paper and pen method” with the
more advanced “conspicuity index method” (Wertheim, 1989).
Wertheim defined conspicuity as the extent to which the object,
when viewed peripherally, is visually masked by its context. The
index for conspicuity is defined as the angle between the gaze
245
point and the target object, where the object no longer can be de-
tected.
Results from this study confirmed that Wertheims conspicu-
ity index method is useful in determining the visibility of signs in
many various contexts. The simple method with the traffic signs
that are printed on paper against different backgrounds should
be valuable for practical use by designers in an everyday setting.
This study showed that un-cluttering of the immediate back-
ground of signs, by using masks; clearly increase the conspicuity
of the signs.
The ongoing transition from conventional to remote aircraft
control will necessitate the development of novel human ma-
chine interfaces. In order to really support supervisory control of
remotely piloted aircraft systems Friedrich, Richards, and
Vollrath (2022) examined icon design for representing safety-
critical aircraft functions. In traditional pilot interfaces, icons are
often used to associate meanings with functions on the flight
deck. This will allow pilots to assimilate information effectively.
In this study Friedrich, Richards, and Vollrath (2022) designed
18 icons for integration into a ground station. These icons were
based on established icon characteristics, and represented key
safety-critical functions related to the operation of an aircraft.
In an online questionnaire study, 29 pilots rated the icons on
the icon characteristics of complexity, concreteness, familiarity,
meaningfulness, and semantic distance. The results showed that
most of the designed icons were well suited to represent their in-
tended meaning. Emphasizing concreteness and familiarity im-
proved icon-function fit, as long as the familiarity is directed at
aviation-related artefacts. Furthermore, a concept agreement
appears to be a better measure of icon-function fit than a name
agreement.
246
Simple graphical elements
Dewar (1999) pointed out that the specific criteria for individual
symbols or sets of symbols depend on their application. Legibility
distance is essential in the case of traffic signs and many building
signs, but not for symbols on maps or consumer products. Black
symbols on a yellow background is superior compared with white
symbols on black, white symbols on grey and black symbols on
white (Waller, 2007). There is a need to have as much uniformity
as possible across different information systems.
When designers in different countries are working on similar
problems they may create different solutions and different de-
signs. In each case, they may have clear intentions and objectives
with his or her information sets. However, it is always up to the
interpreter/s to conceive or misconceive information, to use or
not use it, to use or misuse it.
It is reasonable to assume that a specific message may be
communicated to the receiver/s or interpreter/s with several dif-
ferent symbols. It is also reasonable to assume that a specific
symbol may be used to communicate several different messages.
If the assumptions above are correct it would indicate that we will
normally have to learn the intended meaning of symbols.
Symbols are often composed of simple graphical elements,
such as lines, circles, ovals, squares, rectangles, triangles, or
combinations thereof. Distinctively shaped letters are often uti-
lized in modern symbols. Regular, simple, geometrical figures
are identified more quickly than complex ones. Keates (1982)
noted that discriminatory responses to map symbols depend on
contrast in form, dimension, and colour. The problem of discrim-
ination is generally more critical in monochrome maps, in which
only contrasts in form and dimensions are possible for lines and
small symbols.
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Here are some basic symbols that appear and reappear in many
different situations in various countries throughout the world.
Graphic symbols and colour
Graphic symbols often make use of bright colours to intensify
their meaning–in fact in some instances a change of colour cre-
ates a diametric change of meaning. Common hues are pure yel-
low, red, blue, green, white and black, or combinations of the
same. Colour creates instant impact. It becomes a vital part of the
first impression created. Industry employs colour coding in
many areas. The countless wires in a complex cable are instantly
traced by their hue; the colours of knobs and buttons on vehicles
and machinery signify what they control (Dreyfuss, 1972).
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Colours and their values for attention.
Hue
Meaning
Attention
Red
Alarm, danger, financial loss, fire, heat,
stop, unsafe, warning
Good
Orange
Warning
Good
Yellow
Caution, danger, hazard, oil, slow, warning
Good
Green
Go, normal state, safe, satisfactory
Poor
Light
blue
Advisory, aerated water, cool
Bad
Dark blue
Advising, untreated water
Poor
Magenta
Alarm state
Good
White
Advisory, stem
Poor
Black
Financial gain
Poor
According to Keates (1982), the use of colour on maps introduces
a large number of variables that can enhance contrast, and there-
fore extend the number of perceptual differences that can be em-
ployed in discrimination. The effect is to aid legibility, and there-
fore to increase the total range of information which the map can
present. Shape and colour components are often used for desig-
nating a link or relationship between groups of messages.
The recognition of geographical features is much enhanced
when areas are differentiated by hue. At the same time, complex
colour arrangements may raise problems in discrimination, so
that although multi-colour maps enlarge the graphic possibili-
ties, they also increase the probability of errors in the judgment
of discrimination.
However, since many people are colour-blind colour can
only be used to code the information redundantly. Colour may be
combined with shape or position. Complementary colours con-
trast and provide a warm–cool effect. Colours may have many
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different meanings; some common meanings and their attention
getting values are listed in the table on next page.
Graphic symbols and size
The graphic symbol should be simple and clear with a distinct
contrast to the background. A clear and stable figure to ground
articulation is essential (Dewar, 1999; Easterby, 1970). The fig-
ure (“foreground”) should be stable, i.e. spontaneously organised
as one unit. This is achieved by close boundaries, appropriate line
thickness and any other graphical means that help the visual sys-
tem to organise the figure as one unit. It is most appropriate to
use silhouette (side) views of certain components such as vehi-
cles (Dewar, 1999). The graphic symbol should be as symmetrical
as possible. It should appear in an optimal size.
The McDonald symbol exists in many sizes from very small to
very large. It is hard not to recognize it when you see it.
A good symbol is designed so it can be used in many different
situations and in many contexts. For example, the McDonald’s M
or “golden arch” is designed to work in every conceivable size,
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from a few millimetres high in a brochure to more than six feet
high in outdoor signs.
Graphic symbols and legibility
Warnings should have large, legible bold-faced alphanumeric
characters (Wogalter, 1999). Legibility of symbols can be en-
hanced with the application of a few simple guidelines:
• Use realistic figures rather than abstract forms.
• Make important figures and characters large.
• Eliminate unnecessary elements.
• Use solid figures, not outline figures.
• Maximize separation between features in symbols.
• Maximize the luminance between a symbol and its back-
ground.
• Maximize the colour contrast between a symbol and its back-
ground.
Also see the section Legibility of symbols in the main section
Providing clarity in the chapter Functional principles.
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Posters
Today common definitions of the term “poster” are related to
three different concepts:
• A large printed sheet with informative texts and pictures,
posted in a public place for specific, intended receivers.
• A large printed sheet with a picture, posted on a (private) wall
as a decoration.
• A person who posts something online, on social media.
In this book, the first definition of the term “poster” is mainly
based on the analysis, planning, presentation, and understand-
ing of a message, from a message design, and an information de-
sign perspective:
A poster includes carefully designed informative verbal and
visual elements, always intended for specific receivers. A
printed poster must be large enough, and posted in some
public places. A digital poster can be posted in social media
and displayed on both small and large screens.
Often posters include both verbal and visual elements. However,
some posters have only verbal elements, and some posters have
only visual elements.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Emblems,
Multi-colour posters, Educational posters, Main poster objec-
tives, and Providing poster clarity.
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Emblems
Already the “City Fathers” in the antique Athens put up notices
with written regulations for the population in the city. These no-
tices were in fact “posted messages” for specific, intended receiv-
ers.
Printing on paper started in Europe at the end of the 14th
century. Then booksellers, political agitators, and travelling the-
atre companies started to use leaflets with texts and simple pic-
tures in order to advertise their different services. Another group
of early precursors to modern posters were emblems. In Renais-
sance and Baroque Europe, the noun emblem was used for pic-
tures and texts containing allegories, allusions, and symbols in-
tended for specific receivers (Kluckert, 1999, p. 428).
Emblems influenced celebrations and festivals, painting, po-
etry, rhetoric and writing. According to Toman (1999, p. 483) an
emblem consists of three elements: a) Pictura, b) Inscriptio and
c) Subscriptio. Pictura refers to an allegorical and often dominat-
ing image, situated just below Inscriptio, which is the heading
explaining the motto for the emblem. Subscriptio is the text writ-
ten below the picture. Usually, an emblem has one main mes-
sage. This message is related to moral, nature, politics, religion,
or the specific virtue which is conveyed by the combination of the
header, the picture and its explanatory text. Emblems developed
in the 15th and 16th centuries and enjoyed an enormous popular-
ity for the next 200 years or more.
The Italian lawyer Andrea Alciato, also called Alciati, (1492–
1550), wrote a collection of short moralizing epigrams in Latin,
collected in the emblem book Emblematum liber or Book of Em-
blems. It is a collection of 212 Latin emblem poems, each consist-
ing of a motto (a proverb, or other short enigmatic expression), a
picture, and an epigrammatic text (Barker et al., 2005). The Book
of Emblems includes topics like God and religion, astrology,
awareness, beauty, friendship, life and death, love, nature, poli-
tics and virtues related to disloyalty, faith, pride, stupidity and
many more areas.
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According to Manning (2002, p. 38) Andrea Alciato is called
“the father of the emblem.” Before the actual publication of the
book Andrea Alciato had circulated his texts in un-illustrated
manuscript form. The often-single page emblems were intended
to draw the reader into a reflective examination of his or her own
life and moral.
This illustration of Potentia Amoris was used in the editions
printed in 1534, 1536, 1539, 1542, and in 1546. There was a total
of 171 editions from 1531 to the end of the 17th century. Later pro-
duction fell off dramatically, with only five later printings in the
18th century. Sometimes the printed page was about 19 cm high
and 12 cm wide. This was a convenient format, pretty close to
today’s “paperbacks”.
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Scholars have discussed whether the actual emblems are: 1)
The pictures, 2) The texts, and 3) The combined verbal and visual
messages–graphic form. However, the public soon expected em-
blem books to contain combined verbal and visual messages.
Since pictures always are subject to numerous interpretations,
readers needed to have the complete picture-text combinations
in order to be able to understand the intended meaning in each
emblem.
Thousands of books were printed throughout Europe. Em-
blem books had an enormous influence on literature and the vis-
ual arts. They have long attracted the attention of scholars inter-
ested in cultural history, decorative arts, iconography, illustrated
books, literature, painting, social history, symbolism and theo-
ries of representation. The widely disseminated emblem books,
and the many single printed sheets, launched a fascination with
emblems that lasted for two centuries in many continental Euro-
pean countries. Complete emblem books were especially numer-
ous in Belgium, France, Germany and the Netherlands. Each em-
blem is certainly much smaller than a traditional poster. How-
ever, emblems have probably meant a lot for the development of
posters. Like emblems posters often have: 1) Picture(s), 2)
Text(s), and 3) Combined verbal and visual messages– graphic
form. I see emblems as predecessors to both illustrated books,
and to posters. Furthermore, many emblems were printed and
used as single printed sheets.
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Multi-colour posters
The “breakthrough of posters” came in the 1830s, as a conse-
quence of the development of the lithographic printing tech-
nique. Many well-known artists created black-and-white picto-
rial posters of the Romantics. At the same time, purely typo-
graphical posters were developed, where the combined design of
letters, words and complete texts became very important.
The term poster was originally used in England, about 1838,
to refer to a printed sheet of paper that combined verbal and vis-
ual elements, illustrations and texts, in carefully crafted graphic
designs. All these posters were displayed in public places as ad-
vertisements, announcements, and propaganda.
The Austrian author Alois Senefelder had invented lithogra-
phy in 1798. It had been used for printing of lithographic art.
However, it had also been used for printing of advertisements,
cards, placards, and posters. Originally all lithographs were
printed from a flat, lithographic limestone on a flatbed press.
Here, the image is drawn on the flat surface of the stone with a
greasy crayon, an oily wash, or with India ink. After a chemical
treatment, the parts of the stone without the image elements are
susceptible to water. The printing ink is transferred to the paper
from the surface with the image.
The development of the chromolithographic printing tech-
nique in Europe made it possible to combine illustrations, layout,
and words in completely new ways, and print large editions of
posters. This established the poster as an advertisement medium
in the 1840s.
As early as in 1858, the multi-talented French artist, decora-
tor, lithographer and painter Jules Chéret (1836-1932) created
his first lithographic coloured poster. It had a characteristic,
sweeping style (Ormiston and Robinson, 2013).
The industrial revolution had created a “consumption soci-
ety” with an increasing demand for, and offering of both products
and services. The producers needed to advertise in order to per-
suade customers to by their different products. The simultaneous
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developments of more efficient printing methods soon made it
possible to start a cheap mass production of posters on a large
scale. From 1866 Chéret created artistic posters advertising a
wide range of everyday products. After a seven-year-long stay in
London, he returned to France in 1868 bringing modern English
printing presses with him.
Chéret developed the lithographic multi-colour technology
and printed up to 10,000 posters per hour at a very low cost.
Since the posters were printed in large numbers, the messages
reached out to many people. The contact cost was only a few hun-
dredths of a penny per person. No item or product was so simple,
and so cheap, that it could not be advertised on a poster.
Chéret drew his posters directly on lithographic stones. He
developed a pleasurable style by connecting the text to the pic-
ture in a new way. Chéret concentrated the message in a big, cen-
tral picture, in order to accomplish maximal effect and maximal
visual impact. His posters were ultra-modern.
Jules Chéret created artistic posters advertising a wide range
of products such as art exhibitions, cabarets, music halls, opera
performances, plays of touring troupes, municipal festivals, the-
atre performances, variety shows, and also several consumer
goods like beverages, cosmetics, kerosene, liquors, perfumes,
pharmaceutical products, soaps, and many more. In fact, he be-
came a major advertising force. Jules Chéret is often called both
“the father of modern advertising” and also “the father of the
poster.” Chéret produced about 1,200 posters. According to
Ormiston and Robinson (2013, p. 76) Jules Chéret “was the
doyen of the discipline to emerging artists in Paris in the last
quarter of the nineteenth century” such as Pierre Bonnard
(1867–1947), and Henri Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901).
Information aesthetics deal with aesthetic aspects of infor-
mation materials. In some situations, art may be used for infor-
mation, and information may be classified as art. A good example
of this is Henri-Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lautrec-Monfa
(1864–1901). He is one of the most well-known painters of the
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Post-Impressionist period. Toulouse-Lautrec revolutionized the
art of posters and gave the commercial poster status as an “inde-
pendent art form”. A register of his complete works shows in all
350 lithographs, of which about 30 are posters. He became “the
king of posters”.
Jules Chéret made many posters advertising consumer goods
like kerosene (left). This poster was published in 1891. The size
of the poster is 125 x 88 cm. The poster “Moulin Rouge: La
Goulue” (right) by Toulouse-Lautrec were glued on billboards,
fences and walls all over Paris in October 1891. The size is 191 x
115 cm. Both pictures: Wikimedia Commons.
258
Toulouse-Lautrec lived a bohemian lifestyle and became the
foremost portrayer of the special entertainment world in Paris.
The 27-year-old Toulouse-Lautrec became famous over a night,
when his poster Moulin Rouge: La Goulue was put on walls and
advertising pillars all over Paris in October, 1891.
Moulin Rouge was opened as a “vaudeville and dance sa-
loon” in 1889, the same year as the inauguration of the Eiffel
Tower. The Moulin Rouge poster shows the immediate and in-
tense dance performance by the two cabaret performers and au-
dience attractions Louise Weber and Etienne Jacques Renaudin
(Gelfer-Jørgensen, 1995).
The Moulin Rouge poster is one of the most well-known
posters in the history of art. Here, Toulouse-Lautrec works with
a great simplification; a very unusual composition at that time
with figures partly within and partly outside of the picture, dark
figures are seen as silhouettes towards a lighter background, and
a linear contouring of different surfaces.
This poster is the result of a high degree of abstraction and
simplifications in several steps. This process resulted in an ex-
treme reduction and stylization with “a limited interplay of lines,
surfaces, colour and text” (Arnold, 1990, p. 34). Toulouse-Lau-
trec began his work by making several preliminary sketches,
charcoal drawings with parts in watercolour and pastels. The fin-
ished charcoal drawing on rough paper is enhanced with white
and coloured parts in tempera. The poster “Moulin Rouge: La
Goulue” exists in three rather similar, but different versions. The
large red and black text on the poster has hand-written letters.
The following year, 1892, Toulouse-Lautrec exhibited his fa-
mous Moulin Rouge poster at the Salon des Indépendants along
with seven of his paintings. A few years later, in 1896, the Moulin
Rouge poster was exhibited at L'Exposition International d'Af-
fiches Artistique de Reims.
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Educational posters
While the main objective of advertising and propaganda posters
are to deliver a message, the main objective of an “educational
poster” is to aid learning. Educational posters have been a
worldwide standard feature of classrooms. Millions of people
have seen educational posters at school. Many skilled artists were
involved in the production of educational posters. There can be
no doubt that the educational posters had great significance for
both teachers and students.
In many countries many visual artists were involved in the
production of educational posters for schools. In Sweden one of
the foremost artists was Nils Tirén (1885–1935). In this book,
Nils Tirén stands as a representative of all these visual artists.
The educational poster ”Wolf” by Nils Tirén, in the series ”Swe-
dish Animals”, 1924. The size is 73 x 95 cm. My own photo.
In Sweden, the Golden Age for educational posters lasted
from 1920 to 1950 (Ekegren, 1988, p. 118). An individual school
could have several hundred educational posters. These posters
illustrated animals, history, landscapes, plants, religion etc.
Teachers told their pupils about intended contents, but there was
always a lot left for the private thoughts (Ekegren, 1988, p 40).
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Main poster objectives
In a book with a collection of one thousand posters de Jong
(2010, p. 7) concluded that:
Looking back on the last hundred and thirty years of poster
design, the initial development of the poster usually included
typography and the use of some type of illustration and the
purpose of the poster has always been to deliver a message.
A simple, practical medium requiring paper, ink and an idea
the poster has remained essentially unchanged from the in-
dustrial revolution until today.
Since the breakthrough in the 1830s the poster has proved to be
useful also in other contexts than advertising and propaganda.
The line between advertising and propaganda can be diffuse and
difficult to determine. Furthermore, the two concepts “advertis-
ing” and “propaganda” have different meanings and are seen in
different ways within many cultures.
The main objective of a poster was, and still is, to deliver a
specific message regarding something (such as a cause, an event,
an idea, a political way, or a specific product) to a group of in-
tended receivers. A successful poster should instantly grasp the
attention of the intended audience, and then maintain the atten-
tion until the message has been properly conveyed (Purvis, 2010,
p. 11). Repetition is a common way to solve these problems. Ad-
vertisers simply set up a number of similar posters next to each
other. Another way is to paint posters in a giant format on a
whole gable of a house.
Many researchers present their research findings at confer-
ences and meetings in the form of home-made posters. Contrary
to the classical advertising poster, these research posters have a
completely different purpose. Researchers mainly use research
posters to explain their concepts, ideas, thoughts, and work as
comprehensible as possible, for other researchers, and for their
students. Normally, researchers have to produce educational
posters when they will communicate with the general audience.
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Contrary to the situation with advertising posters those who
read educational posters and research posters are close to the
poster, and if they are interested, they are able to spend much
more time. Often it is also possible to grab a handout in the
standard paper sizes A4 (210 x 297 millimetres), or US-letter
(215.9 x 279.4 millimetres).
Wærn and Pettersson (2006) studied an “Educational poster
presentation” of the 2004 Nobel Prize winners in physics. The
reception analysis showed that the graphic designer had suc-
ceeded very well in explaining the general idea. Many of the high
school students in this study understood the general idea, alt-
hough they had not studied physics enough to understand the
basic concepts behind the prize. On the other hand, the high
school students proposed that a simpler and more focused
presentation would serve their comprehension even better.
Providing poster clarity
The contemporary view of perception maintains that perceptual
theory requires an understanding of our environment as well as
of the perceiver (Kubovy, Epstein and Gepshtein, 2013). Accord-
ing to Barry (2020, p. 4) perception is an elaborate symphony
played first and foremost through the unconscious emotional
system with neural equipment that has evolved over many mil-
lions of years.
From the “beginning of posters” we have seen and read ad-
vertising posters at a long distance when we quickly have passed
them. Since so much information compete for our attention, it
must not take too much time to understand these messages. Our
limited time, as well as varying distances, and varying lighting
conditions will influence our possibilities to read and understand
any messages in traditional advertising posters. These messages
must be presented in a clear and distinct way.
Presentations on educational posters, and on research post-
ers, follow other rules. Educational posters, as well as research
posters may have quite long verbal descriptions. However, in all
262
situations typography and layout must provide good legibility in
both texts and pictures. This main section includes the following
sections: Text on a poster, Pictures on a poster, Layout of a
poster, and The poster of today.
Text on a poster
It must be possible to read traditional advertising posters and
wall charts from some distance when we pass it. Since so much
different information competes for our attention, it must not take
too much time to understand a simple message. Therefore, ad-
vertising posters contain short and focused messages that are
presented in a clear and distinct way. A text on a poster, and on
a screen, must be bold enough (Mayer, 1993a; Ormrod, 1989;
Pettersson, 1993; Wileman, 1993), and large enough (Ormrod,
1989; Pettersson, 1993; Wileman, 1993). Too small or too large
lettering will impair legibility and reading. In addition, the mes-
sage must be interesting and attract attention, in order to make
people willing to consider the message. These factors applied to-
wards the end of the 19th century, and they still do.
The text on an advertising poster may often have to be ten
times larger in size than a text in a book, or on a computer print-
out. Text should be set in lover-case letters because all-capital
printing has been shown to markedly reduce our speed of reading
(Henney, 1981; Poulton and Brown, 1968). Since the texts on
posters should be short it may be a good idea to use a sans serif
typeface like Arial or Helvetica. If so the running text will need
some extra space between the lines (Collier and Cotton, 1989).
Good design is bold, direct, and simple. This ensures that
significant design elements will be noticed by removing insignif-
icant elements wherever possible. Most people read instructional
materials selectively. Readers rarely, if ever, begin at the begin-
ning and read straight through to the end. Usually we use a com-
bination of browsing, reading headings, looking at illustrations
and captions, reading certain parts of the text carefully, skim-
ming others, and avoiding some parts completely.
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The text on a poster shall also have good readability (Kirk-
man, 2003, 2005; Klare, 1985; Lipton, 2007; Mackiewicz, 2004;
Pettersson, 1989; Young, 2002). In addition, the message must
be interesting and attract attention, in order to make people will-
ing to consider the message. These factors applied towards the
end of the 19th century and they still do. Since posters and wall
charts must have good legibility we can:
• Adjust all text to reading lighting conditions.
• Adjust all text to reading distance.
• Avoid all-capital printing for running texts.
• Restrict the number of typefaces.
• Set text bold and large enough.
Pictures on a poster
At the beginning Jules Chéret probably found inspiration from
various “circus posters” and their tradition. However, in Chéret’s
posters texts and illustrations have equal roles, complementing
each other in a completely new way. Here the words announce
the contents and the picture–often dominating the poster–de-
scribes the contents in the least little detail. Chéret developed a
unique, playful and pleasurable style. He concentrated the mes-
sage in a big, central comprehensive picture, in order to accom-
plish maximal effect and visual impact (Hardy, 1986).
From the very start graphic artists favoured flat, line-drawn
images printed in two, three or four distinct colours to highlight
modernity (Ormiston and Robinson, 2013, p. 17). New printing
techniques developed during the 20th century.
Layout of a poster
Jules Chéret made posters characterized by a colourful and light-
hearted design with inspiration by the Rococo style (Hedström,
2008, p. 18). As time went on, Chéret formed the actual words as
illustrations. Due to communication and psychological reasons
and a trademark legislation (in 1884), the shape and colour of
264
posters were simplified in a well-balanced aesthetic cooperation
between picture and text.
The poster of today
Nowadays we remember especially the artistic and very spectac-
ular posters from the late 1800s, with advertisements for caba-
rets, restaurants and theatrical performances created by Jules
Chéret and Henri Toulouse-Lautrec. We have forgotten all the
posters that advertised everyday articles. These posters were
printed in large editions, and the message reached many people.
The average cost for contact was negligible. No article or product
was too simple or too cheap not to be advertised on a poster. The
artists that created all these posters with everyday messages for
everyday products are all more or less forgotten. Many of them
were anonymous and they worked quietly, without any attention.
During World War II, the poster became an essential me-
dium for propaganda. In all countries involved in this conflict
posters played a major role in the struggle for public support of
the war effort. Seidman (2008) made an extensive study of the
political poster as a medium of information and propaganda. He
traced the impact that banners, billboards, broadsides as well as
posters had around the world over the last two centuries. His ex-
amples range from American presidential campaigns of the early
nineteenth century to contemporary political campaigns in Asia,
Europe, and Latin America.
The poster of today is printed with silk-screen-printing, or
with offset techniques, which makes it possible to also use pho-
tographs. The constant influence by different mass media today
heightens the demands on us to perceive the messages in posters
as quickly as possible. Therefore, today's posters have to be even
clearer, simpler, more distinct and more effective than the earlier
posters.
265
Infographics
Modern information graphics, or infographics, have their early
origin in the old traditions of making advertisements, emblems,
and posters. Infographics really are a special kind of visualiza-
tions. Skilled graphic designers, instruction designers and infor-
mation designers may combine drawings, graphs, headings, im-
ages, photos, tables, and text segments in an often very restricted
area. Sometimes it is also possible to include sources for sound
and video.
An infographic tells a special story for an intended audience.
Infographics used to be printed on pages in books, magazines,
and newspapers. Since some years many infographics are dis-
played on computer screens, mobile phones, and tablets. The
content in an infographic may be a visualization of some complex
data. Infographics do not only present data, but have “storytell-
ing visuals,” which focus on explaining a concept, a narrative, or
a sometimes a complex process.
Based on a feature article in National Geographic (July,
2015) Pflaeging and Stöckl (2021) demonstrated methods for
measuring colour, layout, and typography in an article. In a vis-
ual essay they draw attention to essential elements in graphic de-
sign, such as colour coding, composition and positioning of
graphic shapes, contents, headlines, layout, page/image-flow, sa-
lience, structuring devices, and the use of white spaces. This ar-
ticle sets out to ponder ways in which elements of graphic form
and structure can be captured in analysis, and ways in which they
can be visualized in an infographic format. Pflaeging and Stöckl
(2021) showed the results in infographic visualizations.
In an era in which more and more data are produced and
circulated through online networks, and digital tools make visu-
alization production increasingly accessible, it is important to
study the conditions under which such visual texts are generated,
disseminated and thought to benefit processes of sense-making,
learning, and engaging (Kennedy and Engebretsen, 2020, p. 22).
266
There are many digital tools and web-based platforms that
are suitable for the construction of infographics. Some of these
tools are suitable for groups of students who are working to-
gether on the same project at the same time.
Infographics should never be confused with Infomercials.
An infomercial is an advertising film which promotes a product
in an informative and supposedly objective style. It may be a tel-
evision commercial, typically about five minutes, or even longer.
The word infomercial is a portmanteau, a word blending the
sounds and combining the meanings of two other words, in this
case the words information and commercial.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Many ob-
jectives, Infographics in education, Graphics with a cause,
News graphics, Everyday graphics, and Text, pictures, and
background.
Many objectives
Even though informative graphics can be both decorative and
aesthetically attractive, the informative function always predom-
inates. So purely decorative and artistic graphics are not infor-
mation graphics. Information graphics are informative and may
be entertaining. They aid communication, enabling better under-
standing and comprehension. Information graphics are atten-
tion-getters when they appear on a page in a newspaper. They
may improve readability and increase retention.
Infographics contain digital images and text that communi-
cate information in a way that is easy to disseminate (Joosten,
2012). Infographics do not only present data, but have “storytell-
ing visuals,” which focus on explaining a concept, a narrative, or
a process. Digital infographics can be easily shared through so-
cial media platforms, and reach large audiences for transfer of
information. According to Toth (2013) infographics fulfil the
function of stand-alone tools of communication, which allow
comprehending all necessary information without additional
search of sources.
267
This main section includes the following sections: USA TO-
DAY, Different kinds of information graphics, and Many defini-
tions.
USA TODAY
On the 15 September 1982, a new type of daily paper was pub-
lished in the USA. The new paper was a paradigm shift. From a
central editorial office in Arlington, Virginia, the produced pages
were sent via a satellite to printing houses in eleven cities, where
USA TODAY was printed. As early as after one year, the daily edi-
tion was more than one million copies. Today, the paper is widely
spread in the USA and in several other countries. The paper is as
fragmented as the news on television and is often being criticized
for being too superficial.
USA TODAY is the paper of the television generation. It is
divided into four separate sections: news, money, sports, and life.
Each section has its own cover story and a large number of easily
read mini-notices. The headings are effective, and the text is of-
ten heavily edited. The notice has replaced the article. There are
many photographs, drawings, diagrams, and tables in the paper.
USA TODAY introduced modern information graphics and has
been imitated all over the world. It is the most copied paper in
modern times.
Different kinds of information graphics
We can see examples of confusing, ineffective, and misleading
graphics everywhere, in many media. According to Wong (2010,
p. 14) the three essential elements of good information graphics
are: 1) Rich content, 2) Inviting visualizations, and 3) Sophisti-
cated execution. Rich content brings meaning to the graphic. In-
viting visualizations interprets the content and highlights the es-
sence of the information for the reader. Sophisticated execution
brings the content and the graphics to life.
So far, researchers recognize the lack of empirical research
on infographics (Barnes, 2016; Smiciklas, 2012). According to
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Lankow (2012) a test of the efficacy of an infographic is based on
the first-century architect, author, and engineer Marcus Vitru-
vius Pollios three principles of good architecture in his book De
architectura. A structure must exhibit the three qualities of fir-
mitas, utilitas, venustas, it must be solid, useful, and beautiful.
These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or the Vitru-
vian Triad. Lankow (2012) transformed these principles of good
architecture to modern information graphics. The first principle
is soundness. It refers to whether the information presented is
complete, correct, and valuable to the viewer. The second princi-
ple is utility. It refers to whether the design meets the designer’s
objectives or not. The third principle is beauty. It refers to
whether the design is appealing and appropriate or not
According to Lazard and Atkinson (2015) the design of in-
fographics can range from a very simple layout of illustrations to
complex sets of interactive animations.
We encounter information graphics in many different me-
dia. There are a number of different types of information
graphics, and we will probably see more types in the future (Lan-
kow et al., 2012; Marcel, 2014). There are many different kinds
of information graphics, such as:
Business graphics is a general designation for information
graphics that present economic and statistical data, for example:
“the production of crude oil over the past five years.” See Presen-
tation graphics.
Content graphics for everyday graphics are used for infor-
mation about the content in packages, e.g., with food.
Daily graphics are generally produced against tight deadlines.
News must be published in the next edition of a newspaper, or in
the next TV news slot.
Dictionary graphics are information graphics used in diction-
aries and encyclopedias.
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Digital infographics are complex intersections between data
interfaces, and people.
Digital political infographics are cultural artifacts used in
networked communities.
Educational infographics are infographics used in education
at different levels.
Everyday graphics have short and concentrated messages re-
lated to the content in (small) packages, such as tea bags.
Explanatory graphics range from simple drawings to complex
combinations of drawings, maps, photographs, and video. These
graphics depict for example the weather.
Expo graphics are used at exhibitions and trade fairs. A subject
matter is presented using verbal and visual techniques and often
also the real objects. The graphical information may aid under-
standing of how the real objects can be used.
Feature graphics is a general designation for information
graphics that describe more timeless subjects, such as popular
science. Here, the producer may have several weeks or even
months to create the copy and acquire the photographs.
Instruction graphics are used for instructions, e.g., in instruc-
tional manuals. Instruction graphics may deal with how to use,
e.g., a machine, or how to prepare, e.g., a meal step by step.
Interactive infographics contain animated elements.
Locating graphics are used to give the physical location of an
event or of an object. Based on one or more maps, movements of
an object can be explained. Maps are often also included in other
kinds of graphics.
News graphics is a summarizing designation for several some-
what differing forms of information graphics. They are used to
convey all kinds of news that are fit to see, rather than to read as
a printed story. News graphics are found in, e.g., newspapers and
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some magazines, and also on television. Due to available time for
production, news graphics can be divided into several groups.
Planned graphics is the designation for information graphics
which the editors of news graphics may have a few days to pro-
duce. This time provides more opportunities for checking facts
and more carefully thought-out execution.
Presentation graphics depict facts. A graph or a chart can be
integrated into a symbolic image to heighten impact, and identify
the subject. They are often used for different types of statistical
tabulations in “business presentations.” They are often called
business graphics.
Reference book graphics is a term for information graphics
in reference books.
Signal graphics are small-scale graphics used to add impact
and visual relief to a text.
Static infographics is a term used for the most common type
of infographics, without any moving elements.
Video infographics contain short videos combined with illus-
trations, images and text.
Weather graphics are information graphics describing what
the weather has been like and how it is likely to be according to
available forecasts. The colour-full weather graphics in the news-
paper USA TODAY have inspired a large number of dailies to in-
troduce information graphics.
Many definitions
The term infographics is a contraction of information graphics.
Infographics are widely used in newspapers and newscasts
(Lamb et al., 2014; Smiciklas, 2012). Infographics are considered
to be effective tools for communication of abstract and complex
information materials, and instructions clearly and quickly
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(Ferreira et al., 2013; Lamb et al., 2014; Lazard and Atkinson,
2015; Smiciklas, 2012).
Active components
Golombisky and Hagen (2013) divided infographics into five
parts: headline, chatter, callouts, source line, and by-line. These
were composed of a heading, explanation of the entire info-
graphic, labels providing details about included elements, and
information on the origin of the data and of the infographic de-
signer, respectively.
Krum (2014) defined infographics as graphic design that
combines data visualizations, illustrations, images, and text.
Lamb and Johnson (2014) described infographics as a visual
presentation of information that is normally difficult to under-
stand. A popular visual approach is to deliver abstract, complex,
and dense messages in small areas (Lamb et al., 2014).
According to Smiciklas (2012) using information diagrams
will increase conceptual understanding, engagement, group col-
laboration, as well as retention of transmitted information of the
learners. According to Arcia, Velez, and Bakken (2015) explora-
tory information diagrams have a minimal use of iconographic
elements, while at the same time narrative information dia-
grams have more illustrations.
Siricharoen and Siricharoen (2015) cited Thatcher, B.
(2012), who argued that infographics include three main compo-
nents: 1) Visual elements (colour, graphics, icons, maps, signs,
etc.), 2) Content elements (facts, references, statistics, texts,
etc.), and 3) Knowledge elements (conclusions, messages, etc.).
Here it is not easy to see the difference between content elements
and knowledge elements. Somehow, through a combination of
content, design, and technology, infographics recreate content to
convey the knowledge they carry.
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Data visualization
Baer and Vaccara (2010) provided a range of interesting case
studies, from print projects to interactive and environmental in-
formation systems.
Data visualizations, also called dataviz and DV, are graphical
representations of data which are primarily, but not solely, nu-
meric (Kennedy and Engebretsen, 2020, p. 22). Data visualiza-
tions are abstractions and reductions of the world. As such, they
are the result of human choices, social conventions, and techno-
logical processes and affordances, relating to generating, filter-
ing, analysing, selecting, visualizing, and presenting data. Data
visualizations are created to facilitate understanding.
Hiippala (2020) discusses the multimodality of data visuali-
zations, and how designers combine multiple modes of expres-
sion, such as diagrammatic elements, illustrations, photographs,
and written language in digital and printed media. The author
shows how different media can be pulled apart for multimodal
analysis, and highlights how much state-of-the-art theories of
multimodality can reveal about data visualizations. Hiippala
(2020, p. 290) concluded that multimodally-informed insights
could provide a basis for critical insights into the use of data vis-
ualizations in society, allowing them to be strongly rooted in
well-informed analyses of multimodal discourse.
Interaction
According to Wibke (2017, p. 251): “an interactive information
graphic is a visual representation that integrates different
modes, e.g. image (which is the constitutive mode), written text,
speech, sound, and layout into a coherent whole and offers at
least one navigation option to control the graphic. Its communi-
cative function is to inform, e.g. by describing or explaining
something or narrating a factual story.”
Re-presenting data
The goal with information graphics is to re-present data in such
a way that the intended audience is able to quickly grasp the
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content primarily by sight (Malamed, 2011). An information
graphic explains phenomena graphically but may contain no nu-
meric data, or it presents data in charts alongside other illustra-
tions, like photographs or drawings (Kennedy and Engebretsen,
2020).
According to Dunlap and Lowenthal (2016, p. 42) the attrac-
tiveness of informatics lies in the fact that they deliver “the max-
imum amount of content in the least amount of space while still
being precise and clear”.
The audience will understand
In order to facilitate an audience’s engagement any infographic
must exhibit appearance and explanation (Stone and Hall, 1997).
Visual appeal attracts viewers’ attention. The explanatory power
of the infographic makes complex subject matter apprehensible
and intelligible.
The purpose of infographics is to illustrate and clarify issues
so that learners can more easily conceptualise and understand
complex structural aspects, stages of a process, or effects and
causes of an action (Holsanova et al., 2008). Learners can be stu-
dents but also the general public.
Toth (2013) defined infographics as materials created as a
combination of texts and visuals that their audience can under-
stand easily.
According to Davis and Quinn (2014), the most powerful in-
fographic has a clear purpose and a clear style. The reader should
always be able to clearly understand the purpose of any info-
graphic.
Effective infographics capture complex behaviours, ideas,
and information in easily digestible visual formats (Niebaum et
al., 2015).
Infographics combine visuals and words to increase con-
sumer comprehension and retention and will deliver maximum
information in a minimum amount of time and space. Further-
more, an effective infographic is a self-contained and stand-alone
274
document that does not require users to resort to external
sources (Zhang, 2017).
Scientific visualization
Scientific visualization is a concept mostly used in highly special-
ized, expert-to-expert contexts, for example within biology and
medicine (Kennedy and Engebretsen, 2020, p. 22).
Visual representations
Due to convergence of linguistic and non-linguistic systems
Krauss (2012) argued that infographics could be seen as a
method of visualisation. According to Smiciklas (2012, p. 3) an
“infographic” is the “visualization of data or ideas that tries to
convey complex information to an audience in a manner that can
be quickly consumed and easily understood.”
Damyanov and Tsankov (2018, p. 83) defined infographics
in the following way: “Information + Graphic = Infographic.” In
their view (p. 84): “An information image (infographic) is a vis-
ual representation of information, data or knowledge. It differs
from ordinary images and photos, as it provides information in a
specific and practical way. It can be used for signs, maps, and
technical documents that require a quick and clear explanation
of complex information. Infographics include elements such as
charts, maps, logos, calendars, illustrations, and graphics. “
There is an ever increasing, flow of data and information.
Uyan Dur (2018) noted that recent developments in communi-
cation technology and the digital evolution have not only affected
the visible side of our lives but also influenced our ways of per-
ception, interpretation and thinking. Processing and transfor-
ming complex, intense, and unorganized data into meaningful
and useful information has become an area gaining more im-
portance. Making information more understandable for wider
audiences requires the presentation of data through systematic
visualization, such as infographics. In understanding the mes-
sages in an infographic, the visual literacy competence of the user
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has the same level of importance as the quality of the design of
the infographic (Uyan Dur, 2018).
Infographics are visual representations of data, information,
and knowledge, and are designed with the goal of communicating
intense and complex information in a clearer and more accessi-
ble manner than text, as well as creating attention and interest
(Lonsdale and Lonsdale, 2019). In short, the designer of in-
fographics should:
• Work according to information design principles.
• Have a clear focus and purpose for each infographic.
• Communicate accurate, complete, and relevant content.
• Make the infographic clear, concise, efficient and simple.
• Limit the number of legible typefaces to two.
• Use both lowercase and uppercase letters.
• Use colours to provide structure.
• Use clear icons to emphasise content.
• Use visual elements that communicate the message.
• Use arrows and lines to guide users in the infographic.
• Use the layout to show a clear hierarchical structure.
• Provide an introduction, the key message and a conclusion.
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Infographics in education
Many researchers have studied how infographics may be used in
education, such as condense and translate difficult concepts or
synthesize large amounts of information for students.
Ahmad et al. (2022) reviewed and studied 17 selected articles
on infographics. Based on a thematic analysis, 4 themes were de-
veloped: 1) Presentable and efficient, 2) Understandable, 3) Vis-
ual literacy, and 4) Facilitating teaching and learning. Out of the
17 selected articles, 2 studies had been conducted in Canada, 2 in
the United States of America, 2 in Malaysia, and 2 articles had
been conducted in the Lithuania, and one study was conducted
in each of these countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Egypt,
Finland, India, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and UK. Out of 17 selected
articles, two were published in 2014, one in 2016, two in 2017,
one in 2018, six in 2019, one in the years 2020 and 2021, and
three articles published in 2022.
Infographics are becoming more popular and are being used
by a wide range of industries and organizations. According to Ah-
mad et al. (2022) infographics are a form of the most powerful
stimulator of visual communication in the digital era, and it is
gaining popularity among educators in Malaysia. Infographics
incorporate data visualization, which enhances learning. Educa-
tors and students are often required to produce visual communi-
cation products such as infographics, but they often lack the con-
fidence and proficiency in visual design skills to create higher-
quality infographics (Kuba and Jeong, 2022).
This main section includes the following sections: In-
fographics in schools, Infographics in higher education, Vislets,
Infographics for the general public, Infographic acceptance,
and User-friendly infographics.
Infographics in schools
In science classes animations help to explain real-world situa-
tions, and also contribute to producing more autonomous learn-
ers (2003). Assignments should challenge students “to condense
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data, to present as much data as possible, and yet to find ways to
most efficiently display that data” (Chong, 2012, p. 2). Davidson
(2014) studied the use of infographics in the science classroom.
Matrix and Hodson (2014) examined the use of infographics as a
teaching assignment in the online college classroom.
Compared with static pictures animations have a “compen-
satory effect” (Münzer, 2015). Current geography textbooks con-
tain a high ratio of graphic visualizations, including diagrams, in-
fographics, maps and satellite images (Behnke, 2017).
Creating infographics requires students first to engage in re-
search on a selected topic, and then encourage their knowledge
and skills to generate meaning from complex information (Abi-
lock and Williams, 2014). Creating narratives for infographics
encourages concise writing (Gallicano, Ekachai, and Freberg,
2014).
To create infographics triggers critical thinking on how to
convey information in charts, descriptions, graphs, icons, images
and narratives (Dyjur and Li, 2015). In one study pre-service sci-
ence teachers were required to individually create an infographic
related to the upper secondary school science curriculum (Fadzil,
2018).
Lazard and Atkinson (2015) found that viewers studying an
infographic used a greater amount of effortful processing of a
combined verbal and visual presentation, compared with a text-
only presentation.
Infographics in higher education
Infographics have increased in popularity due mostly to their ca-
pacity to effectively present information with a visual appeal (Is-
lamoglu et al., 2015). In 2015 their applications in educational
practice were limited. However, infographics are promising
learning tools that can be adapted to any learning setting to en-
hance students’ learning experience in the digital age.
According to Siricharoen and Siricharoen (2015) educators
agree that students are highly satisfied with the tasks of analyzing
278
and creating infographics. Researchers and practitioners agree
that there is too little research on the use of infographics as a
learning tool (Lee and Cavanuagh, 2016). In scholarly commu-
nication, the capability to create infographics has become a
“must-have skill” for researchers (Saunders et al., 2017).
Yuruk, Yilmaz and Bilici (2018) concluded that students be-
came actively involved when facing the tasks of visualization of
knowledge. In one study Naparin and Saad (2018) investigated
elements of infographics in the field of education. Their focus was
on Programming. Naparin and Saad read literature reviews,
they interviewed experts on content, on design, and on program-
ming. Based on the literature reviews they found that a good in-
fographic should include: 1) a good title, 2) suitable charts/
graphs/images and pictures, 3) readable fonts for all text ele-
ments, 4) a clear story, 5) reliable data, 6) excellent use of colour,
and 7) an appropriate design format. Six design experts stated
that the identification of each element, its location and position
in an infographic made the content clear to the audience. All
these seven elements are important to enhance the reader’s un-
derstanding of the content. Any infographic must present infor-
mation in a clear, concise, and effective manner.
Deslauriers et al. (2019) observed that in the cases when
more active methods were used, students learned more but felt
like they learned less. According to (Jones, Sage, and Hitchcock,
2019) professors in higher education are beginning to adopt the
creation of infographics as assignment in disciplines such as
chemistry, communication studies, and nursing as a way to help
students synthesize learning and enhance digital skill building.
While content of the infographic assignments varies across the
disciplines, educators report some surprising positive outcomes
related to student learning.
In higher education both academics and students are ex-
pected to produce high-quality visuals for their papers and their
own presentations. However, several studies have shown that ac-
ademics and students are weak in visual design skills. When
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O’Mahony et al. (2019) analysed individual sessions between a
graphic designer and scientists they found that many visuals de-
signed by scientists for publications were unsatisfactory. These
visuals required substantial improvements, such as altering of
the colours, and creating proper alignments and layouts.
In education, infographics may be used to promote active
learning and engage learners in the creation of more diverse
learning artefacts. Jaleniauskiene and Kasperiunien (2022)
studied the application of infographics in higher education. They
made “a scoping review” of scientific articles in order to analyse
the use of infographics across a variety of university disciplines.
They found that the most frequent educational practices merged
both ready-made infographics and students’ hands-on experi-
ence in creating their own infographics. These learning activities
facilitated the learning of the subject-related material. These stu-
dents developed career readiness skills, such as collaboration
skills, communication skills, creativity, critical thinking, digital
skills, information literacy skills, and visual literacy skills.
Infographics in writing assignments
Mendenhall and Summers (2015) incorporated creation of in-
fographics into some writing assignments for their English
courses. They noted that the assignment appeared to increase
students’ attention to the quality of their work. By their nature
infographics are designed for sharing with the public.
Visual digital literacies
Thompson (2015) required students to use at least three research
articles and prepare four block-structured infographics. These
infographics should have attractive titles, different types of lay-
outs, and cite the articles. They demonstrated how incorporating
a research-based graphic design assignment into coursework
challenges and encourages students' visual digital literacies.
280
Situational qualities
Designers and educators can make design decisions for an info-
graphic based on situational qualities such as coherence, “com-
pellingness,” immediacy, malleability, and resonance (Dunlap
and Lowenthal, 2016). Coherence quality corresponds to clarity
and consistency. “Compellingness quality” includes narration or
novelties. Immediacy quality involves learners with the content
through the use of emotional and sensual items.
Malleability quality allows learners to construct their own
meanings. Resonance quality provides sensory items. The power
of infographics is that they are a way of delivering “the maximum
amount of content in the least amount of space while still being
precise and clear”. They can quickly tell a story, show relation-
ships, and reveal structure (Dunlap and Lowenthal, 2016).
Education of nurses
According to Bradshaw and Porter (2017) nurse educators need
to understand the fundamentals of infographics in order to de-
velop them for their teaching. Infographics provides synthesized
visual data sets that are compatible with mobile devices and con-
sistent with the learning preferences of current nursing students.
Effective infographics create interest in a subject. They are en-
gaging, and they lead the audience to more information. In the
future, nurse educators may find applications for infographics
beyond the classroom as a final product of learning or for use in
patient education.
Infographic design rubric
Nuhoğlu-Kibar and Akkoyunlu (2017) encouraged students to
actively create visualizations expressing their new knowledge
contents during their individual learning processes. Results
showed that this active work with the design of real infographics
was an effective method for visualization of new knowledge. The
infographic design rubric includes five design cycles, starting
with determination of criteria and continuing with detailed reli-
ability and validity studies. Nuhoğlu-Kibar and Akkoyunlu
281
(2017) found that their students became active creators of
knowledge, instead of passive consumers of knowledge.
Engagement with technology
In one study 40 students independently produced an informa-
tive, well-structured and visually appealing infographic related
to the upper secondary school science curriculum (Fadzil, 2018).
These students had a sense of agency and responsibility for their
own learning. The study encouraged student engagement with
technology. Fadzil (2018) concluded that developing in-
fographics promotes innovations in teaching and learning.
The design of infographics can range from a simple layout of
illustrations to complex sets of interactive animations. In one
study Jaleniauskiene and Kasperiuniene (2022a) explored avail-
able technological tools for the creation of infographics, as well
as educational practices of using infographics in university stud-
ies in Lithuania. There was a great diversity of web-based tools.
One group of tools is primarily designed for the creation of
infographics. A second group of tools offers a wider range of vis-
ualization forms. The use of these tools does not require any prior
training for the visual appeal of infographics. The work process
is semi-automated. A third group of tools includes universal
graphic editing tools. These tools require prior knowledge and
understanding for the creation of various visual materials.
Jaleniauskiene and Kasperiuniene (2022a) found that the
most common educational practices engaged students in the
analysis of ready-made infographics. Then these students contin-
ued with their own hands-on experiences of creating their own
infographics. These tasks facilitated learning, and also helped
students to develop their “career readiness” and visual literacy
skills. Learning from both ready-made infographics and the pro-
cesses of making them may enhance visual thinking and the abil-
ity to learn by using visuals; it can also teach how to search for
and select proper visuals, as well as to adapt them to specific pur-
poses, and thus, to become more influential in communication.
282
Higher-order learning assignments
Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1964) suggests that higher-order
thinking skills include creating, designing, and producing infor-
mation, whereas, classroom assignments often reinforce lower-
level thinking such as comparing, explaining, and interpreting.
In one study Jones, Sage, and Hitchcock (2019) found that edu-
cators can create “higher-order learning assignments.” They as-
signed 117 social work students an infographics project that of-
fered opportunities for creativity and decision making.
Qualitative as well as quantitative outcomes indicated that
students, with a variety of technology experiences, found benefit
from the infographic assignment. Learning outcomes were the
same as for traditional assignments, including the use of statis-
tics, improving advocacy, and communication skills. Addition-
ally, these social work students enjoyed the assignment, and they
learned new technology skills.
Graphic design is predominantly a discipline concerned with
the clear communication of a message. However, according to
Gale (2015) the possibilities of some intended ambiguity remain
under-explored in graphic design. In disciplines such as fine art
and literature, ambiguity is perceived as not only desirable, but
inherent to the value of the work of art or idea, and its interpre-
tation in the mind of the viewer (Gale, 2015). Here, intentional
ambiguity enables multiple interpretations of a message, in-
creasing richness of meaning, while adding pleasure through sur-
prise and uncertainty.
Jones, Sage, and Hitchcock (2019) suggests that the assign-
ment is appropriate even for students without a strong back-
ground in technology, and that students can simultaneously de-
velop digital literacy and social work skills. Further research
could seek to understand student management of ambiguity and
uncertainty in learning and how it impacts social work education
and training. Digital literacy is the knowledge and ability to uti-
lize and create digital media in an ethical and responsible man-
ner (Ahmad et al., 2022).
283
A collaborative process
Nuhoğlu-Kibar, Sullivan, and Akkoyunlu (2019) developed a col-
laborative process for visualization of complex information in in-
fographics. The main aim of this study was modelling a collabo-
rative process for knowledge visualization. Creating infographics
requires learners to generate and cultivate a deep knowledge of
content and enables them to concisely visualize and share this
knowledge.
This effective method for collaborative learning enables
learners to concisely visualize and share their new knowledge
with others. Students integrated the infographic design model
into the team-based and technology-mediated Bridge21 learning
model. (Also see my book 9. Learning: chapter “Learning from
representations”, main section “Media influences on learning”,
section “A new teaching-learning process”.)
The design process model of creating infographics used by
the students included the following four design phases: 1) A
“Warm-up phase”, including evaluating of infographic examples.
2) An “Investigating phase”, including brainstorming of the
topic, preparing a survey, and analysing all data. This leads to
generation of content. 3) A “Planning phase”, including deter-
mining the fields and deciding visualizations. This phase leads to
generation of a draft. 4) A “Creating phase”, including designing
the final layout, placing all elements, and visualization of infor-
mation. This phase leads to a generation of final a design. Re-
spectively, twenty-three, twenty-four, and twenty-four second-
ary school students participated in the infographic creation pro-
cess cycles.
284
This illustration shows two of many examples of “draft in-
fographics” as results of the work in the third phase, in the de-
sign process. These drafts were created by students in a course
(Nuhoğlu-Kibar, Sullivan, and Akkoyunlu 2019, p. 103, Fig. 7.)
In this example seven texts present the results to the question:
“What do you do to unwind after school? As we can see here,
font case, font size, and line spacing are still not finished in these
two drafts. (In the left screen dump these texts read: “Going out
with friends 24%, Watching TV 17%, Getting Mad Stocky 17%,
Read a book 3%, Social Media 15%, Listening to music 19%, and
Other activities 2%.”)
According to Nuhoğlu-Kibar, Sullivan, and Akkoyunlu
(2019) creating infographics can be an effective method for col-
laborative learning situations by enabling knowledge construc-
tion, visualization and sharing.
A five-stage Infographic Visual Design Model
There are many visual design models. However, according to
Kuba and Jeong (2022) many previous visual design models that
are used by many graphic and instructional designers lack guid-
ance and specific strategies on how to effectively apply and inte-
grate multiple visual design principles in order to create higher
quality visuals.
Kuba and Jeong (2022) rated 18 design criteria. High-rated
infographics were developed using a systematic approach, start-
ing by creating a well-planned structure (e.g., setting margins
and columns), followed by setting spatial zones to map out a
285
visual hierarchy prior to working on colours, fonts, and graphic
elements, and using a consistent application of visual rules.
These target processes were encapsulated into a five-stage Info-
graphic Visual Design Model.
The participants in this case study consisted of 5 graphic de-
signers, and 5 instructional designers. All participants reported
having taken classes related to visual design, learned about visual
design principles, and created visual communication products.
The participants in this study were asked to create an appealing
and readable infographic and think aloud as they performed the
task. Participants were instructed to compose an infographic that
presents the four visual design principles of contrast, repetition,
proximity, and alignment – an infographic that consists of a total
of four informational units.
Among the ten designers participating in this study, four
were classified as high performers with weighted scores close to
one SD above the mean scores. Three designers were identified
as average performers with scores near the mean. Three design-
ers were identified as low performers with scores one SD or more
below the mean.
Results from the think-aloud, video content analysis, and
short interviews revealed eight design actions observed in the
production of the high-, average-, and low-rated infographics: set
a structure, create visual hierarchy, select fonts, change colours,
add graphic elements, adjust, replicate design decisions, and val-
idate the overall design.
The Kuba and Jeong Infographic Visual Design Model con-
sists of five stages: 1) Structure and grid, 2) Visual hierarchy, 3)
Colours, fonts, and graphic elements, 4) Replication of visual
rules, and 5) Validation and adjustments. These findings help ad-
vance our understanding of applying visual design principles
more effectively by using higher-level strategies and macro pro-
cesses.
The structure and grid stage is performed first in the visual
design process to encourage a breadth-first process. The results
286
from the comparative analysis suggest that designers can create
higher quality infographics by using the breadth-first and top-
down approaches, consistent with findings that the breadth-first
process is associated with better concept maps (Jeong, 2020).
Vislets
When a visual story is published on a blog or on a web page, it
becomes a Vislet, a short, visualized story (Stenliden, 2014). It
may be used as educational material on any computer. A vislet
may also be an interactive data visualization (Stenliden, 2015).
Because of the interactivity and the movements reading in-
teractive graphs is different from reading printed graphs. Exam-
ination of interactive graphs requires a consideration of how
readers design their reading of these graphs. When pedagogy and
technology are integrated visual analytics may improve the way
students analyze visualized data (Stenliden, 2018).
In one study Bodén and Stenliden (2019) used the visual an-
alytics application Statistics eXplorer (Lundblad, 2013), and
produced three vislets. The vislets demonstrate official statistics
of the world in an interactive and visual analytic manner. This
makes it possible for students to interact with the visual infor-
mation, analyze it and draw conclusions.
Infographics for the general public
In one empirical study Lonsdale et al. (2019) explored how to
communicate security information related to terrorism to the
UK-public. They compared 1) A webpage with traditional text
dense information with visualised information, and 2) a static in-
fographic with motion graphics. A motion graphic is a combina-
tion of static images that changes its structure or properties over
time and which triggers the perception of a continuous change by
viewers (Hegarty, 2014).
First, they conducted a usability test in order to identify any
existing needs and any problems. They developed the different
287
information materials, and made several iterations and usability
tests before the development of the final sets.
In the project they then collected qualitative as well as quan-
titative data. Very few participants said that the existing webpage
made the information easier to find (3%), easier to understand
(0%), more engaging (0%), more memorable (0%), and more
professional (19%) than the new design. Visualised information
was clearly better than traditional text dense information. Text
heavy information is problematic for both user engagement and
understanding. The majority of participants agreed that the new
design made the information easier to find (94%), easier to un-
derstand (97%), more engaging (97%), more memorable (97%),
and more professional (78%) than the existing design.
Furthermore, Lonsdale et al. (2019) found that in situations
where information needs to be assimilated in levels of severity,
or as actions in an emergency there was no significant difference
between communicating information via an infographic or via
motion graphics.
Infographic acceptance
According to Ahmad et al. (2022) the creation of teaching and
learning materials has become critical for students at all levels of
education. However, there are still insufficient studies that have
systematically reviewed the existing literature on infographic ac-
ceptance in higher education. A positive acceptance among
learners of the features available in infographics can also help to
resolve some of the problems faced by learners in the learning
session.
Ahmad et al. (2022) made a systematic literature review on
infographic acceptance in facilitating teaching and learning
among students in higher education. They combined multiple re-
search designs, and based their review on the ROSES publication
standard (RepOrting standards for Systematic Evidence Synthe-
ses). In this study Ahmad et al. (2022) selected papers using two
of the most prominent databases: 1) Scopus and Science Direct,
288
and 2) Google Scholar. They implemented a thematic analysis
produced four main themes: 1) Presentable and efficient, 2) Un-
derstandable, 3) Visual literacy, and 4) Facilitating teaching and
learning.
Ahmad et al. (2022) made several significant contributions
to: 1) the body of knowledge, and 2) for practical purposes. Their
findings have explained the importance of visual communica-
tion, specifically infographics, as a tool for facilitating teaching
and learning process and for providing information on specific
research areas and content that should be the focus of future
studies.
User-friendly infographics
Today, some information materials are not only boring and un-
attractive. Sometimes it is more or less impossible to read and
understand the verbal and the visual messages, and to be able to
understand the “intended contents”. In the worst case it may lead
to serious misunderstandings, for example in matters relating to
danger, to health and wellbeing.
If you want to create effective and “user-friendly in-
fographics” you need to read the interesting and valuable book:
“Information visualisation– from theory, to research, to prac-
tice... and back”. This book is written by Maria dos Santos Lons-
dale (Lonsdale, 2023), Professor of Information & Communica-
tion Design at the University of Leeds in the UK. In this book the
author demonstrates how, why, and what we need to do, and
what to avoid. If you follow these practical advises you will cer-
tainly avoid common mistakes, and your intended readers will be
able to understand your “intended contents”.
Information visualisation has the power to take large chunks
of information and present these in a visual, accessible and con-
cise way, consequently reducing information load. Information
visualisation is an important part of information design. Infor-
mation visualisation includes analysis, planning, presentation
and understanding of a message, its content, language and form.
289
The main objective is to provide information needed by the in-
tended receivers/users in order to perform specific tasks. Infor-
mation visualisation is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun)
of that process.
When words and pictures are produced for informative pur-
poses, it is always a good idea to start by trying to “visualise” the
information to be conveyed to the intended readers/users. Visu-
alising a message means that we attempt to materialize it in an
effective synthesis. Visualisation is usually a complex task, never
a single act on its own, and it requires the close collaboration of
several different experts.
Professor Lonsdale notes that many visualisations of infor-
mation are poorly designed. They are cluttered and disorganised.
They randomly use visual elements for decoration instead of
function. They disregard legibility principles (especially in terms
of text and colour). They are difficult to interpret and understand
and end up putting the user off from wanting to engage with the
information. This has become a major problem in our modern
societies.
In information design the main goal is clarity of communi-
cation. Here the noun clarity refers to “the quality of being clear
and easy to understand,” and also to “the ability to think clearly
and not be confused.” A third meaning of the noun clarity is “the
quality of being easy to see or hear”. The expression clarity of
communication refers to the two concepts legibility and reada-
bility.
Professor Lonsdale provides eleven Top general guidelines
for the design and visualisation of good and “user friendly in-
fographics”. These are the titles:
1. Clear focus and purpose.
2. Key message in a blink of an eye.
3. Visuals for attention and comprehension.
4. Comprehensible text in an appropriate typeface.
5. Deliberate colour selection.
290
6. Effective visual elements.
7. Appropriate data visualisation.
8. User-friendly structured charts.
9. Accurate data presentation.
10. Uncluttered and well balanced.
11. Targeted at the needs of the user.
Each of these eleven general guidelines contain an explanatory
text, and a good and a bad visual example.
Graphics with a cause
Engelhardt (2016) discussed “graphics with a cause,” such as in-
creasing awareness and understanding of social and environ-
mental issues. For Engelhardt the term “graphics” includes
charts, diagrams, graphs, maps, tables, and other visualisations
of information. Engelhardt proposed six “universal principles for
visualizing information.” In summary these principles are:
• Any visual representation of information consists of visual
objects, positioned in a meaningful space.
• Meaningful spaces can be identified, and combined
• Visual objects can be identified.
• Visual properties can be identified and used as visual coding.
• The type of information to be represented determines the se-
lection and use of visual objects, visual properties, and mean-
ingful spaces.
• Testing different combinations yields a diversity of design
possibilities.
Some examples of visual objects are map space, picture space,
and text space. Some examples of meaningful spaces are bar,
character, and label. Some examples of visual properties are col-
our, shape, and size. Engelhardt concluded that it can be very
useful for designers of graphics to be aware of the diversity of
possible visual representation in each assignment.
291
In the past decade, the use of digital infographics has in-
creased in major news outlets and in social media (Krum, 2013).
Digital infographics are complex intersections between data in-
terfaces, and people.
Digital political infographics are cultural artifacts which are
used as currencies in social exchanges, objects of “sharing”
(John, 2016) in networked communities. Amit-Danhi and
Shifman (2018) studied 200 politically oriented digital in-
fographics and found a variety of actors, such as activists, cam-
paigners, engaged citizens and organizations. They concluded
that digital political infographics are hybrid communicative
forms, characterized by three influence trajectories between po-
litical persuasion, infographic conventions, and digital environ-
ments.
News graphics
News graphics are used to convey all kinds of news that are fit to
see rather than to read as a printed story. News graphics are
found in newspapers and some magazines, on the Internet, and
also on television. In the past all graphics were produced by
hand, a tedious work process. Today most graphics are produced
with computers. Ideas can be tested in less time and good solu-
tions may be found. In the case of newspapers, information
graphics can be the key to attract new readers and to hold on to
old readers.
News graphics provide the reader with a rapid and easily
grasped overall view of a message and are therefore highly suita-
ble as an introduction to and summary of a subject. However,
conventionally illustrated text is better for analysis, discussion,
and study of details. So, information in graphical media can uti-
lize text, pictures, information graphics, and graphical design in
conveying its message. We should note that the word “graphics”
might be used for different concepts:
292
1. One or more art forms in which copies can be made on pa-
per or the same original.
2. Activity involving the printing of the written word.
3. Integrated presentation of text, pictures, and graphical de-
sign, in, e.g., the daily press, information graphics.
4. The technique of presenting data in the form of figures on a
video display screen.
Wainer (2009, p. 31) observed: “graphical representation has
been shown repeatedly over the past two hundred years to be
perhaps the best way to communicate complex technical infor-
mation to an intelligent, lay audience.”
The American national daily newspaper USA TODAY was a
pioneer in the field of news graphics and has acquired imitators
in many different countries. “News graphics” is a summarizing
designation for several somewhat differing forms of information
graphics. Due to available time for production, news graphics can
be divided into several groups such as: daily graphics, feature
graphics, planned graphics, and weather graphics.
George-Palilonis and Spillman (2013) asked 53 newspaper
editors about their attitudes and practices about the use of in-
fographics. Most of the editors supported production of in-
fographics. However, the availability of time and in-house exper-
tise, as well as cost effectiveness, influenced their decisions.
Barnes (2017) investigated and articulated the processes
used by ten American journalism students while they trained to
design journalistic information graphics. Results of a cognitive
task analysis indicated that the infographic design process is
“macrocognitive” (cognition performed in natural instead of la-
boratory environments). Conceptualization of the process is
more congruent to the application of the process when the indi-
vidual has a sufficient level of expertise. Barnes concluded that
the infographic design process deserves further attention from
researchers.
293
Everyday graphics
Today we can study some of the classical posters from last cen-
tury in art books and in museums, such as the Musée des Arts
Décoratifs in Paris. It is possible–and even plausible–that some
of the information graphics of today will find their way into art
and design museums at the turn of this century or at the begin-
ning of the 21st Century. This main section includes the following
sections: Limited space, Instructing, Informing, and Tempting
to buy.
Limited space
In several respects, everyday graphics differs from other types of
information graphics. Contrary to the producer of news graphics,
but in conformity with the producer of posters, the producer of
everyday graphics often has time enough to plan and design the
messages in an optimal way. However, the space is often very
limited for everyday graphics. The amount of the article and the
size of the product decide the space available for the design of the
verbal and visual message. In practice, however, there is the
same space for about the same amount of information on a small
label as on a normal-sized poster. When we read a label of 4x4
cm at normal reading distance (30–40 cm), it corresponds to a
poster of 100 x 100 cm when reading it at a distance of 7–10 me-
tres. When it comes to reading posters, the most common way of
reading is at a distance.
Just as posters, everyday graphics have short and concen-
trated messages, expressed in a clear and distinct way. We read
everyday graphics close at hand, but the retinal picture is about
the same as the retinal picture of a poster. Usually, we do not take
much interest in a label or a package. The same applies as for
posters: it must not take too much time to perceive the message
in everyday graphics. Just one glance should be enough to per-
ceive the contents of a package. Does the bag contain sugar, salt,
or pepper? Is there raspberry jam or strawberry jam in the jar?
Is the content poisonous, or harmful for us in any other way? In
294
several respects, almost the same conditions apply when taking
in information printed on a poster and on a label or a lid.
When it comes to small packages, the message still has to be
designed in order to include necessary information. Sometimes,
there is a national law on how to describe the contents in detail.
For some products, there may also exist different types of in-
struction, enclosed inside the package. As producers of posters,
the producers of everyday graphics are usually totally anony-
mous to the consumers. In other forms of information graphics,
however, the names of the originators are often mentioned, and
thus known. Everyday graphics may have different purposes. It
may be used to instruct, to inform, and to tempt a presumptive
customer to buy the product in question.
According to Biegańska (2018, p. 196) packaging design sells
the product. The clarity of information helps to identify the prod-
uct on a shelf and distinguish it from other products. Kovač et al.
(2019) studied consumers’ preferences for visual elements on
packaging for strawberry chocolate. They tested the importance
of the four elements colour, graphics, pattern, and typeface with
90 subjects, who had to choose between different package de-
signs. Results showed that the elements colour, graphics, and
pattern had a significant impact on the choices. However, differ-
ent typefaces did not affect participants’ preferences. The partic-
ipants preferred vivid colours over dull colours, concrete pat-
terns over abstract patterns, and photography over illustration.
Instructing
Sometimes, schematic pictures are used to show how something
is to be performed in one or more steps, in a practical, simple,
quick, and safe way. One example is how to open a vacuum pack-
age with cheese, and another example is how to put together sev-
eral separate parts in a box into a chair or a table. Symbols are
often used. An arrow, for example, may be used to show where to
open a package and to explain in which order and in which way
to join different parts.
295
This tea bag has the dimensions 67x56 mm. The instructions on
the back clearly show how we can prepare a cup of tea for one
person with a cup, a tea bag, and some hot water.
Informing
Everyday graphics informs on the contents of the package, and
the characteristics of the article or product. When it comes to
provisions, for example, there is a legislation in some countries
that sanctions that some types of data must be on the package.
This may be information on the contents of the product, day of
manufacture, keeping qualities, producer, and place of manufac-
ture. Also trade agreements and practice within different trades
may demand that a certain kind of information–for example, the
price of a certain package and the price per kilogram–is pre-
sented to the customer/user.
Often, a large and lifelike colour picture–a photograph or a
realistic drawing–gives the reader direct information or an asso-
ciation on the type of contents in the package. The picture is often
reinforced with a heading in a large size of type and a clear type-
face, often in upper-case letters. There is often a short text with
detailed information describing the characteristics of the article
or product.
296
Two examples of everyday graphics printed directly on the lids
on individual portions of strawberry jam (life-size). The prod-
ucts are from Denmark (left) and Germany (right).
Two examples of everyday graphics printed directly on the lids
on individual portions from a company in the USA, with straw-
berry jam and orange marmalade (life-size).
The declaration of contents may be presented as a compact
table or a short text. These texts are often set in a small size of
type and printed in a colour with little contrast to the back-
ground. It always takes much more time to read the text than to
read the picture.
297
A graphic symbol, such as an arrow, will often show where
to get hold of the lid and the direction where to pull, in order to
open the package. Often a text and a logotype show the name of
the company that produced the jam. The address to the company
may be small. There may also be information about the weight of
the content as well as an identification code. Figures written with
an ink-jet printer show when the jam was packaged and/or a
“best-before date.”
Everyday graphics with clear pictures may also work inter-
nationally, with people that do not know the language in ques-
tion. Here, the context is very important. The pictures of oranges,
strawberries, raspberries, or peaches on individual portions of
jam serve as a good guidance of the people who queue at the ho-
tel's breakfast buffet. On several occasions, I have witnessed how
people after a quick glance on different packages make their
choices. Obviously, just a few eye fixations on a package are
enough to tell the contents.
Kovačević and Brozović (2018) reported that Piqueras-Fisz-
man et al. (2013) had found that graphics on jam jars attracted
more attention than the text on the package. Furthermore, they
reported that Unema et al. (2005) found that duration of fixa-
tions tends to be longer on informative visual elements than on
less informative elements.
Tempting to buy
Often, the purpose of everyday graphics is to tempt consumers to
buy a certain product in competition with other, more or less
similar and equally good, products. Regarding everyday
graphics, the “sender” often has the possibility to turn to experts
for help to design the message. Experienced marketing people
and publicity expert’s work closely together to produce verbal
and visual messages that function well. The text, pictures, and
graphical design of everyday graphics are, therefore, given the fi-
nal design with great care and consideration.
298
Everyday graphics may be both aesthetically attractive and
decorative. There are also examples of everyday graphics that are
not successful. A label or package are often a part of a series: a
part of a carefully prepared “whole.” Products from one company
may be kept together with the help of a common logotype or sym-
bol, and with similar graphical design for the choice of typeface
and size of type, the placing of texts, and the use of pictures, col-
ours, and decorative patterns. The intention is that a specific
graphical profile will make it easier for the receiver/cus-
tomer/reader to quickly and easily find articles and products
from the same supplier.
Tempting to buy? Here is an example of an elegant and free and
easy design from France (left), and an example of a less success-
ful design from Belgium (right).
The illustration above contains a life-size example of an ele-
gant and free and easy design of a lid on an individual portion of
strawberry jam from a French company (left). The semi-circular
text contains information in several languages on the contents.
The three strawberries are printed in colours that look “warmed
by the sun” and naturally yellow-orange-red. There is no doubt
about the contents or about the trademark. Compare with the
life-size example of a less successful design of a lid on an
299
individual portion of strawberry jam, from a Belgian company
(right). Here the message “strawberry jam” is clear, but the ber-
ries do not look appetizing enough. The colours are not success-
ful and the trademark is very dominating.
There is an abundance of studies on logo design characteris-
tics (e.g., Fang and Mowen, 2005; Henderson and Cote, 1998).
Designing an appropriate logo is a daunting task. Colman et al.
(1995) noted: “logotypes generate unique impressions, but the
quality and type of these impressions are not always those in-
tended by the designers” (p. 405). Many logos fail to convey
meaning. Many elements are irrelevant and do not connect to the
market (Byrom and Lehman, 2007).
Text, pictures, and background
Within a given area–such as a page in a book, a poster, or a label–
the designer may distribute text, picture, and background (mar-
gins, space, and patterns and designs without any significant pic-
ture elements). A typical page in a telephone directory is almost
filled with text. There are no pictures, and the margins are nar-
row. Here, the text may cover 90 percent of the page. In diction-
aries the text covers 75-80 percent, and in specialist books and
factual study books the text often covers 50-60 percent of the
page. In pure literature and children’s books, the text-face is of-
ten even smaller than that. When a picture covers the entire page,
there is no space for text or margins. The third extreme is an
empty page.
In order to easily compare the relationship between text
area, picture area, and background area in different graphical
verbal and visual messages, I have developed a “verbal and visual
area diagram.” This diagram has three axes: text area, picture
area, and background area. The three axes are graded from zero
to 100 percent. The text and picture axis have a common start-
ing-point, and there is a right angle (90 degrees) between them.
The background axis is situated at a 45-degree angle to both the
other axis, and it is graded from the outside towards the starting
300
point of the other axis. Consequently, where the text and picture
areas are zero, 100 percent is background/emptiness.
This is the structure for the
verbal and visual area diagram.
The three axes are graded
from zero to 100 percent.
Visual area diagrams for a fiction book without illustrations
(green), and an illustrated book for children (red) may look like
these two diagrams.
301
Here are the verbal and visual area diagrams on the mean val-
ues of four posters to the left (picture area 68%, text area 15%,
background area 17%), and on the mean values of fourteen lids
on jam packages to the right (picture area 30%, text area 33%,
background area 37%).
The areas for text, picture, and background have been calcu-
lated by putting a transparency with a grid over enlarged copies
(300 percent) of the everyday graphics, and over reduced copies
of some posters. By counting the number of squares for each cat-
egory, the percentage distribution of text area, picture area, and
background area is easily calculated. When text is printed on a
picture, the area is equally divided between the two categories.
Text logotypes are regarded as text. Symbols are regarded as pic-
tures. Depending on the shape and size of the lids, the number of
squares varied between 180 and 270. For the posters, the number
of squares varied between 345 and 450. Consequently, a single
square always represents less than a percent of the area–often
less than half a percent.
302
Dubonnet Aperitif is a typical poster (116 x 83 cm) designed by
Jules Chéret, 1895. To the right is the verbal and visual area di-
agram for this poster, (text area 25%, picture area 47%, back-
ground area 28%).
In the artful posters exemplifying this chapter, the picture
area strongly dominates the areas for both text and background.
This is shown in a very clear way in a verbal and visual area dia-
gram. On the lids of the jam packages there is much more balance
between the text area, picture area, and background area. Area
diagrams on the mean values of the fourteen information
graphics products in this analysis show great correspondence
with a page in a book containing the same amount of text, pic-
tures, and background.
However, among the information graphics products that
have been studied, there are some examples with a similar distri-
bution of the area as on the posters. We may consider today’s
everyday graphics as a development of the posters from the turn
of the last century. In several respects, the two groups have sim-
ilar functions, and there are similarities in their designs. A reason
for differences in the designs between the two groups may be the
great difference between the products to be “sold.”
303
Here is an everyday graphic printed directly on the lid on an
individual portion of jam from France. The verbal and visual
area diagram is shown to the right (text area 33%, picture area
47%, background area 20%).
Jules Chéret’s advertising for aperitif, books, and foodstuff
looks more like today’s everyday graphics than the posters in this
study. Here, the division of the area is very similar to the French
package, “Confiture de fraises.” Everyday graphics usually have
a very good balance between text, picture, and background. It is
probably a good idea to employ this balance also in the produc-
tion of other kinds of information graphics, as well as in the pro-
duction of learning materials.
304
ID Library
At the beginning of this millennium there was a huge lack of text-
books for the new academic discipline Information Design. At
that time, I wrote some research papers, and also some basic
texts about communication, design, and information. Already in
2002 John Benjamins Publishing Company published my book
Information Design, An introduction in Amsterdam and Phila-
delphia. This was useful, but it was not enough. Of course, also,
other people contributed with research papers, and after some
time also with textbooks.
Since I retired, 1 January 2009, I have continued working
with research at the Institute for Infology. I have developed an
Information Design Library with 12 e-books. These e-books in-
clude almost 4 000 pages, and together they constitute my digital
Information Design Library, something I really wanted to have
for my own teaching many years ago.
• Message Design.
• ID Theories.
• Text Design.
• Image Design.
• Using Images.
• Reuse in Art and Design.
• Graphic Design.
• Cognition.
• Learning.
• Predecessors and Pioneers.
• It Depends.
• ID Concepts.
All these books are available at ResearchGate at:
< https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rune_Pettersson >
305
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Appendix: Main concepts
Many concepts may have diffused and sometimes even multiple
meanings. For the purpose of this book I have used the following
brief descriptions of main concepts related to languages and text
design. Here these concepts are sorted in alphabetical order:
Absolute measurements have well defined and fixed values,
such as six millimetres.
Abstract, a short summary of a paper put at the beginning, be-
low the author lines and above the body text.
Achromatic colours are black and white.
Active space, or positive space, in a visual is the part represent-
ing different objects. Negative space or passive space is the part
that is not filled with picture elements. The negative space is usu-
ally the background. Space has no meaning in itself, but it may
be used to separate or bring together different picture elements.
Additive colour. In a picture tube the additive combinations
of the primary colours red, green, and blue (RGB) can produce a
many colours. The additive colour combination starts in dark
adding light to produce different colours. The end result is white.
Aesthetic proportion is related to appropriate and pleasing
relations between elements in information and learning materi-
als. This is one of two aesthetic principles in information design.
Aesthetic value of a message is how the intended receivers per-
ceive it with respect to its beauty.
Agate lines are vertical measurements of space. There are four-
teen agate lines to an inch.
Alignment is the placement and positioning of graphics, head-
ings, tables, and texts in relation to axes, lines or margins.
Analogy is a comparison between two things, used for a clarifi-
cation or an explanation.
347
Analysis is the first sub-process in the actual writing of a text. It
is important to define the problem during an introductory anal-
ysis and planning phase. The different steps include defining the
purpose and receivers of the intended message.
Animation include different methods to make still pictures ap-
pear as moving images. Today, most animations are made with
computer-generated imagery.
Antique describes: (1) typefaces with bracketed slab-serifs, and
little variation of stroke weight, (2) Some sans-serif typefaces.
Apex is the point that is formed at the very top of a character.
Approaches. An artistic approach tends to judge success by
whether the product feels right and whether the critics like it or
not. A design approach minimizes the need for rewriting and ed-
iting. The design approach judges its success by whether the
product achieves the objectives specified by measurable perfor-
mance objectives, within the specified resources and situational
constraints. The focus is on workability.
Appropriation is the process of copying the style of one thing,
and then applying it to another thing.
Artistic layout may please the individual artistic graphic de-
signer but may have no relation to the content of the message.
Arts & Crafts Movement was a movement from the late nine-
teenth century in architecture, decorative arts, design, furniture
and typography.
Ascender is the part of a lower-case letter that ascend above its
x-height (b, d, f, h, k, l). Letters may be taller than the cap height.
A series paper sizes are defined by halving the preceding paper
size along the larger dimension. The most frequently used paper
size is A4, 210 by 297 millimetres (8.3 in × 11.7 in). A standard
A4 sheet made from standard 80 grams per m2 paper weighs 5
grams. Size A0 is 841 × 1189 mm, A1 594 x 841, A2 420 × 594,
A3 97 × 420, A4 210 × 297, A5 148 × 210, A6 105 × 148, A7 74 ×
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105, A8 52 × 74, A9 37 × 52 and A10 26 × 37 mm. The number
after A accounts for the number of folds
Asymmetric grids have a bias towards one side of a page. The
left hand margin may be wider than the right hand margin.
Author lines are the lines at the beginning of a paper with the
name of the author or the authors. It is often centred and set in
smaller type than the heading.
Avant Garde is a typeface created by Herb Lubalin and Tom
Carnase in 1967.
Average picture size is the average part of a page covered by
pictures, mentally measured by dividing pages in a document
into four or six equal parts.
Axes. X-axis is the horizontal, and Y-axis is the vertical line to
frame a chart or a graph.
Balance is the sum of all elements, the darks and lights, the hor-
izontals and verticals. A composition is balanced when the visual
weight of graphical elements on either side of the centre of bal-
ance are approximately equal. Balance can be formal or informal.
Formal balance has total symmetry and it is felt to be static and
harmonious. It may, however, also be boring.
Bar chart. I) A bar chart is a schematic picture. II) A bar chart
is a diagram. This group includes: 1) Vertical bar chart, or column
chart. 2) Horizontal bar chart. 3) Segmented bars. 4) Stacked
bars. 5) Clustered bars, or multiple bars. 6) Overlapping bars. 7)
High-low bars. 8) High-low close bars. 9) Enhanced high low
bars.
Baseline is a horizontal imaginary line upon which all upper
and most lower case letters are positioned. It is the main point of
reference in typography. See x-height.
Basic elements, or graphic elements, are dots, lines, areas,
and volumes. These elements can be varied and put together in
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many ways. Basic elements are sometimes meaningful, some-
times not.
Beauty. In the 18th century philosophers agreed that beauty
could not be defined in terms of the qualities shared by all beau-
tiful objects.
Bible paper, India paper, is a lightweight, opaque, strong, and
thin paper that helps reduce the weight of a publication.
Black letter is a version of the roman font developed through
the period 1150–1500. Black letter is based on the ornate writing
style prevalent during the Middle Ages.
Bleed is text and/or pictures that extend beyond the trim edge
of the printed page.
Blow-up is an enlarged picture.
Body language may account for up to half, or even more, of all
our communications with others. Many gestures and movements
can be interpreted without ambiguity in a given cultural commu-
nity, but not outside that community. Body language is partly in-
stinctive, partly imitative and learned.
Bold type, or boldface, is a member of a family of type in which
letters are heavy, bold. Bold type has been seen as aggressive,
assertive, daring, difficult to read, domineering, masculine, over-
bearing, solid, stable, strong, substantial and unprofessional.
Borders are ornamental rules around the edge of a page or a
page component.
Bouncer, shiner, is a method of printing colour, where black is
seen as darker.
Box. A text may be included in a box like this:
Important messages can be boxed-in to gain special attention.
A box may be filled with a background colour.
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Bracketed serifs have small and thin supporting brackets.
Bracketed slab serifs are supported by subtle curved brackets.
Brand is a mark, phrase, symbol or word that differentiates and
identifies a product, an organisation, or a service or from its com-
petitors. Often brands represent different values.
Brightness of value refers to how dark a colour is. Changes of
brightness can be achieved by mixing a colour with different
amounts of black or white.
Broadside refers to images and texts that have been rotated 90
degrees in a publication.
Bullets (•) are commonly used in lists of items in “point form”.
Bullets are more powerful than hyphens (-) or asterisks (*).
Business graphics is a general designation for information
graphics that present economic and statistical data.
By-line is a printed line giving the name of the author and the
date for an article in a magazine or newspaper. It can also include
a brief summary of the article. See Credits.
Calligraphy is the art of writing by hand using a chiselled nib
or a paintbrush. The flowing lines have varying thicknesses.
Camera-ready is a term for a final printout of a page with text
and pictures, or artwork, that is ready for reproduction.
Canadian binding is a method for book binding. Here, the
pages are bound with a metal or a plastic spiral. There may be a
“wraparound” cover.
Cap height, height, or H-height, is the size of capital letters in a
typeface, expressed as a percentage of the point size.
Cap-line, a horizontal imaginary line, at the top of capital letters
in a typeface. See x-height.
Capital letters, caps, are upper-case letters. They are harder to
read than a combination of upper and lower-case letters.
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Caps is a short form for Capital letters.
Caption heading. A caption can have a short and distinct head-
ing. This is an additional link between the picture, the caption,
and the main text. Quite often one word is enough.
Caption placement. Readers expect to find captions beneath
pictures. Captions can also be placed above, to the left, or to the
right, of the picture, but should never be inside the picture frame.
Caption typography. Captions need a different size, style, or
typeface to be easily distinguished from the main text. Never
make the caption type larger than the main text!
Centre justified texts are centred in the column. They may be
used for menus, poetry, short captions, and tables of contents.
Centred type is lines of type that are centred over one another.
Character count is the number of characters in a text.
Chart junk is various distracting and unnecessary decorative
elements that interfere with the content in graphs.
Check boxes (£) can be used in materials, where learners can
make check marks when they have finished their assignments.
Choke means altering the thickness of a letter or a solid shape.
Chop-mark is the symbol of a printer specializing in printing
fine arts, such as etchings, etc.
Chroma, saturation, is the colour variation of the same tonal
brightness ranging from none to pure colour. In relation to hue
it is a measure of the amount of grey, purity, or strength. At max-
imum chroma a colour contains no grey. Such colours are de-
scribed as bright, or vivid.
Chromatic colours are yellow, red, blue, and green.
Clip art refers to pre-made images to be used in any medium.
Today clip art is often available in computer software, often with
copyright-free pictures. It does not include stock photography.
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CMYK is short for cyan (C), magenta (M), yellow (Y) and black
(K). These are subtractive primary inks. In the four-colour print-
ing process these primary inks are combined to reproduce the
red, blue, and green additive primaries.
Colour is regularly used in printed materials, not only in illus-
trations, but also in the text itself. Colour can be used to clarify
the structure of the text, and to make learning easier. It must al-
ways be absolutely clear if a colour is used for decoration, or if it
has some cognitive importance.
Colour as language. Colour is regularly used in printed mate-
rials, not only in illustrations, but also in the text itself. Colour
can be used to clarify the structure of the text and to make learn-
ing easier. Certain parts of the text may be printed with colours
or printed on top of backgrounds in different colours. Here col-
our carry meaning.
Colour blindness is a condition in which certain colour dis-
tinctions cannot be made. This is more common among men
than women. See Anomalies of colour vision.
Colour constancy is our tendency to judge the colour of an ob-
ject as the same despite changes in distance, viewing angle and
illumination.
Colour description systems. Colour can be described in aes-
thetical, physical, physiological, psychological and technical
terms. Hue, value and saturation describe what we see. Intensity,
purity and wavelength are physical dimensions. The relationship
between brightness, hue, lightness and saturation is very compli-
cated. For practical use in art and in industry several different
systems providing numerical indexes for colour have been devel-
oped.
Colour wheels are circular representations of the colour spec-
trum. Colour wheels are intended to explain the relationships be-
tween different colours. A colour wheel illustrates classification
of colours. It provides a reference to primary, secondary and
353
tertiary hues, and may help designers to successfully select func-
tional colour combinations.
Colour-key is a process for obtaining process colours on film by
exposure to light.
Colour-spacing is positioning of letters so that balances of neg-
ative and positive spaces are pleasing.
Column. A column is a vertical segment of a printed page. It is
often intended for the text.
Column chart is a schematic picture.
Column graph is a vertical bar graph.
Column rules are vertical lines between columns on a page.
Combination mark is a combination of a logo and a symbol in
a trademark.
Composition of a page refers to a “visible area for display of
text and pictures.” This information can be printed on paper (or
any other material), or displayed on a screen as a “screen page.”
Comprehensive is a highly finished layout for a presentation.
Condensed are type designs that are horizontally narrow.
Continuous-tone is a range of grey, from black to white.
Copy is usually the text in a design, but it also includes all the
elements of a finished design.
Copyright. The rights of copyright holders are protected ac-
cording to international conventions, terms of delivery and
agreed ethical rules.
Copyright Act. All artistic works are protected for the origina-
tor’s entire life plus an additional 70 years. Thus, many works are
protected for more than 120-130 years. This protection is inter-
national.
354
Corporate identity includes elements of a consistent design in
printed materials and promotions.
Corporate photography is photography created for annual
reports, and other corporate publications.
Counter is an empty space inside a character. In the letter “e”
the empty space is called “eye”. The empty space in the descender
of a lower case “g” is called “loop”. A counter can also describe
the shape of the negative space within an open character, such as
an upper case “C”.
Counterfeit is a product that is said to be identical to an original
of some kind, usually for dishonest or illegal purposes. Counter-
feit and plagiarism occur in architecture, art, design, literature,
research, technology and more.
Credits. In books, it is common to give credits to artists and
photographers in a special “List of illustrations”. In magazines
and in newspapers credits are usually put next to the actual illus-
tration, often in a vertical position. Credits to the author are usu-
ally in the form of a by-line.
Cropmarks are fine, short lines drawn on an image to indicate
a cropped area. Drawn at the corners of a pasteup (trim marks)
they indicate where a printed sheet will be trimmed.
Cropping. An original picture can often be improved by removal
of irrelevant or distracting elements. Usually pictures can be
cropped a little bit from all sides. In practice, the photographer
always performs some “initial cropping” while taking the actual
photograph. When composing or taking a photograph, the pho-
tographer sets the boundaries or “frame” of the picture.
Cross alignment refers to the means by which text in different
columns align to a baseline grid in graphic design.
Cut-off rules are horizontal lines that separate unrelated items
above and below the line.
Cyan is the particular blue used in four colour process printing.
355
Daily graphics are generally produced against tight deadlines.
News must be seen in the next edition or in the next TV news slot.
Dark values of colour with black pigment added are called
“shades” of the given hue name.
Dash. With typewriters, we had to create a dash (—) with two
hyphens (--). This is not necessary in desktop publishing and ty-
pography. In 12 pt type the em dash is 12 pt wide. In desktop
publishing, we can create the em dash or em rule (—), the en dash
or en rule (–), as well as the hyphen (-). The em dash is used to
indicate a break in thought. There should be no space before or
after the em dash. The en dash is used between numerals (e.g.,
pp. 33–45, and as a minus sign (e.g., –12°C).
Data visualisation, or data visualization, dataviz, and DV, is
the creation of visual representations of data in a graphical or
pictorial format. Data are primarily, but not solely, numeric. The
main goal of data visualisation is its ability to communicate com-
plex data clearly and effectively. In many disciplines, it is viewed
as a modern equivalent of visual communication.
Data-ink-ratio is the proportion of ink for the data, compared
to the total amount of ink.
Deboss is a design that is stamped into a substrate. There is no
ink and no foil involved in the process.
Decoration. Colour and typographic elements can be used for
decoration. It must always be clear, and easy to understand for
the receiver when colour and typography is used for decoration
and when the use is meant to have cognitive importance.
Descender is the part of lower-case letters (g, j, p, q, y) that de-
scend below the baseline.
Design is: 1) The identification of a problem and the intellectual
process (verb) of an originator, manifesting itself in plans and
specifications to solve the problem. 2) The result (noun) and out-
come of a design process.
356
Dictionary graphics is a term for information graphics in dic-
tionaries and encyclopaedias.
Didot system is a system for measuring size in typography. It
is used in most parts of Europe (except Great Britain and
France). Here 1 Cicero = 12 points = 12 p. = .1780 inches = 4.511
mm. 1 p. = .3759 mm (67.6 pts/inches). See Size of type.
Digital immigrants. People born before 1980, and the age of
the technology revolution, have to acquire familiarity with digital
systems as an adult. For some it is very complicated to learn to
interact with technology
Digital natives. People born from 1980 onward grow up in the
digital age with easy and natural access to technology. They learn
to use digital systems in a natural and easy way.
Dingbats is a special PostScript font in desktop publishing sys-
tems. See Ornaments.
Diphthong is a special form of ligatures in which two vowels
are joined together in order to form a single character. Examples
are Æ (A+E) and Œ (O+E).
Disinformation is the opposite of information design.
Display type is any type that is larger than 14 pt.
Divine proportion. See Golden mean.
Dot gain is an aberration that may occur in printed images when
halftone dots grow in size, and cause bad results.
DPI, dots per inch, measure the number of ink dots a printer can
deposit on a paper within an inch. For offset lithographic print-
ing, 300 dpi is standard.
Drop capital, or drop cap, is an enlarged and lowered initial
letter which is cut into the text block.
Dropout is a halftone in which no dots fall on white areas.
357
Duotone is a two-colour halftone reproduction. It is made from
one-colour continuous tone artwork.
Dust cover, jacket, is the paper wrapper of a hardbound book.
Ear, in typography, is an oval or round ending at the end of a
serif stroke on lower cases “g” and “r” in many serif typefaces.
Ellipsis. An ellipsis (...) is normally used to indicate that a part
of a text is missing in a quotation.
Em is the square of the body of type. See Dash.
Em dash (—). See Dash.
Em rule (—). See Dash.
Emboss is a figure or a pattern that is stamped into a substrate,
e.g. paper, without any foil or ink. The design gives a raised im-
pression, and adds a tactile element.
Emphasis is used to attract or direct attention or dramatize cer-
tain points within a visual. A dark dot in a light field, and a jog in
a straight line are two good examples of emphasis. These con-
trasts attract attention. Emphasis may also be used to direct at-
tention, and to keep attention, or dramatize certain points within
information materials.
En dash. See Dash.
En rule. See Dash.
Endnotes are placed at the end of an article, or another docu-
ment. Usually a smaller, or a different typeface is used.
Everyday graphics have short and concentrated messages re-
lated to the content in packages.
Explanatory graphics depict the ways things were, are, or will
be, for example the weather. These graphics range from simple
drawings to complex sets of drawings, maps, and photographs.
Expo graphics are used at exhibitions and trade fairs. A subject
matter may be presented with text, pictures and the real objects.
358
Extended is a term for horizontally wide type designs.
Face is the printing surface of type.
Facilitating attention to layout. Layout and typography
should be transparent and not stick out and cause any specific
attention in information materials. However, sometimes, it may
be important to direct attention to specific parts within infor-
mation materials. We can put pictures as close to the relevant
text as possible, and use arrows, bullets, icons, margin notes, rep-
etition, underlining, and/or white space to highlight the relevant
information.
Feature graphics is a designation for information graphics
that describe more timeless subjects, such as popular science.
Here, the producer may have several weeks or even months to
create the copy and acquire the photographs.
Fibonacci numbers is a numerical series where each number
is the sum of the preceding two numbers in the sequence: 1, 1, 2,
3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89 and so forth. This is a close approxima-
tion of the golden quota (8/5 = 1.6).
File formats. Thera are many methods to store digital images.
Very common file formats include bitmap, EPS, JPEG, and TIFF.
Filigree is intricate ornamental work that is usually produced
using fine wires of gold and/or silver.
Fill-in blanks. Fill-in blanks (_) can be used in assignments,
and in lists of various kinds, for people to mark their choices.
Filter is a device that is used to filter light of a specific wave-
length in order to change the appearance of a photograph or a
digital file with an image.
Flaps are extensions e.g. dust jacket on a book. The flaps are
folded back into the publication to add additional support and
rigidity. Often flaps contain notes about the author and the book.
359
Flushed left text has exact spacing between letters and be-
tween the words. It keeps the visual rhythm constant. This aid
reading, especially for young, inexperienced and poor readers.
Flushed right texts can be used for captions to the left of the
pictures, and for tables of contents, when the line length is short.
Foil is a print-finishing material that is stamped onto a substrate
using a heated die.
Folder consists of a single sheet, usually printed on both sides,
and folded two or more times.
Folding is a print finishing process. The printed pages can be
folded in many different combinations.
Font, font of type, is one set of type of one specific size, and of
one specific variation of a typeface. The concept font is often
misunderstood. One font can’t include bold, italic, as well as reg-
ular characters. But any typeface can include a large number of
fonts. A regular typewriter can deliver one font, but a regular
desk top computer may be able to provide many hundreds of
fonts. However, in computer manuals, the word font is some-
times used to mean typeface, which is confusing.
Footer, bottom margin, is the space below the text-face. Like
headers, also footers may carry page numbers.
Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page. Usually a
smaller type size or a different typeface is used. A horizontal line
can be used to separate the footnotes from the running text.
When there are two or more columns on a page footnotes should
be placed at the end of the paper.
Formal balance has total symmetry and it is felt to be static
and harmonious. It may, however, also be boring. Composition
can be used to direct the viewers in a document.
Format index is used to compare formats of pages, pictures,
sheets of paper, and text-faces. A format index is calculated as
the height/width x 100. Regardless of the size of the individual
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artefacts all wide formats get indexes below 100. All square for-
mats get index 100. All vertical formats get indexes over 100.
Four-colour Black is a way to print black and white pictures
using all four of the CMYK process colours. This method results
in deeper and richer black and white images.
Four-colour process is a printing process that provides full-
colour images by using cyan, magenta, and yellow, and added
with black for better density.
French fold is a complicated and expensive way to produce a
four-page uncut section, e. g. in an art-book. Here, a vertical fold
is immediately followed by a horizontal fold.
Frequency index is the percentage of textbook pages with pic-
tures. In textbooks for the junior level this index may be 90–
100%. In textbooks for the intermediate level the index may be
50–70% and 30–60% in textbooks for the junior high level.
Fresco, meaning fresh in Italian, is a technique for mural paint-
ings in which water-borne colour pigments are applied to a damp
lime-plaster surface. Michelangelo used fresco painting when he
decorated many religious buildings in Renaissance Italy.
Frieze is a decorated, or even sculptured, horizontal element in
architecture, at the top of a building.
Frutiger’s grid is a font numbering system developed by
Adrian Frutiger. The system is used to identify the width and
weight of a typeface family.
Full paragraph indents are the distance between the para-
graph and the left margin. Long quotations should be distinctly
separated from the rest of the text. Quotations are often in-
dented, sometimes also on the right side. Full paragraph indents
may also be used for lists and tables.
Full-tone picture. Dots, lines and areas of solid paint build up
all line-art, or “full-tone pictures.” Business graphics, line draw-
ings, maps and schematic illustrations all belong to this category.
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Gamut is the spectrum of colours that monitors, printing pro-
cesses, scanners, and software applications can reproduce. A
gamut diagram defines the range of colours that are at the de-
signer’s disposal.
Glossy is a reproduction proof of type.
Golden mean, or golden section, is a mathematical method
from ancient Greece of dividing space. The proportions of the
golden mean are 1:1.618. The sides in the golden rectangle are
3:5, 5:8, 8:13, 13:21, 21:34, etc.
Golden ratio is an irrational number of a line divided into two
segments. The principle of the golden ratio is comparable to the
Fibonacci numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, and so forth.
Golden rectangle. The sides in the golden rectangle are 3:5,
5:8, 8:13, 13:21, 21:34, etc.
Golden section, or Golden mean, is a mathematical method
from ancient Greece of dividing space. The proportions of the
golden mean are 1:1.618.
Good legibility. A message has good legibility if it is easy to
read and if the reader can easily see and distinguish all different
parts of the message. Good legibility is economically advanta-
geous. Poor legibility may be a costly business for all parts in-
volved.
Good readability. A message has good readability when it is
easy to understand. Good readability is probably always econom-
ically advantageous, whereas poor readability may be a costly
business for all parts involved.
Grain is a grittiness effect in photographs caused by the large
grain size of fast-speed films reacting to light.
Graphic design may be described as the art and craft of bring-
ing a functional, aesthetic, and organized structure to different
kinds of texts and illustrations. The main objective is to provide
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messages that are legible for the intended audience. Graphic de-
sign is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process.
Graphic design objectives are to provide functional, aes-
thetic, and organised structure to all kinds of information sets. In
the writing of graphic design objectives, it may be an advantage
to use verbs like find, identify, read, and recognise.
Graphical media include products such as almanacs, cata-
logues, children’s books, dictionaries, educational materials, en-
cyclopaedias, forms, graphic symbols, handbooks, indexes,
maintenance information, manuals, maps, non-fiction books,
plans, product descriptions, reference books, reports, textbooks,
and tickets.
Graphics standard manual is a corporate identity plan.
Graphs are numerical arrays in pictorial form. They consist of
curves, line graphs, polygons, scales and special-purpose graphs.
Greyscale is the shades of grey between black and white in an
image.
Grid is a geometric, graphic structure used in graphic design to
organize the placement of individual elements within a design.
Grid layout is an arrangement of horizontal and vertical lines
that produce a network of squares and/or rectangles providing
an underlying structure to all different elements in a page layout.
Gripper edge is the leading edge of paper as it is fed into a
printing press. The press usually needs an unprinted margin of
about 1 cm (3/8”).
Grouping. By grouping headings, paragraphs, illustrations, and
captions, the designer aids communication.
GSM is an abbreviation for grams per square metre.
Gutter is the margins at the binding edges of two facing pages.
Thick books need to have wide inner margins.
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Gutter inner is the section of a page that are caught in the cen-
tre-binding.
H-height, cap height, or height, is the size of capital letters in a
typeface, expressed as a percentage of the point size.
Hairline is the finest line in metal type. Hairlines are often used
to divide columns.
Hairline serifs are thin and tiny without brackets. See Serif.
Halftone picture. To be able to reproduce the fine nuances of
a photograph or fine art the original must be divided into small
picture elements. A picture needs a large number of pixels. In
fact, when the resolution is only 100 lines per inch one A4-page
has more than 5.8 million pixels.
Halftone screens make it possible to print photographs. Half-
tone screens can be simulated with computer programs that side-
step the entire photoengraving process.
Hanging indent, or outdentation, is the reverse of indentation.
Examples are lists with bullets.
Harmony in design is a pleasing arrangement and combina-
tion of elements to form a consistent and orderly whole. There is
harmony in information material when all design elements fit
well together. Harmony is one of the aesthetic principles in in-
formation design.
Harmony in typography will be achieved when there is good
relationship between the individual elements in the design and
the “wholeness.” A balanced typography gives an impression of
quality.
Header, running head, or top margin, is the space above the
text-face at the top of a page. Headers provide information that
will help the reader navigate in a document. Like footers, headers
may carry page numbers.
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Heading, or headline, presents the following contents. It attract
the attention of the readers, enhance and show the hierarchic
structure in the text, make the subject matter readily apparent,
and indicate the relative importance of different items.
Height, cap height, or H-height, is the size of capital letters in a
typeface, expressed as a percentage of the point size.
Hierarchy. Using graphic design is a logical way to show the
relative importance of verbal and visual elements in a document.
Horizontal balance is the “visual balancing” of the left and the
right sides of two pages in, for example, a book or a magazine.
Horizontal lines can separate sections or paragraphs or hold
them together. Horizontal black lines are usually one to four
points. When horizontal lines are printed in other colours they
may be wider.
Hot type, hot lead typesetting, hot metal type, hot metal type-
setting, mechanical typesetting, and metal type, refer to the 19th
century technologies for typesetting of text. Hot melted type
metal is injected into line moulds. The resulted characters are
used for printing ink onto paper. This process afforded fast crea-
tion of large quantities of type. It was especially used by the news-
paper industry.
Hue is the basic component of colour corresponding to different
wavelengths. Most people are familiar with hue through our la-
belling of colours such as yellow, orange, red, violet, blue, and
green. In colour description systems hues are usually placed in a
band around a centre, in a colour-circle. Hue is expressed as a
value between 0 and 360 on the colour wheel. All of the colours
in the rainbow are hues in the visible spectrum of light. Changing
the hue values will dramatically alter the colour of an image.
Humanist is a group of sans-serif typefaces. These typefaces
are inspired by hand lettering rather than geometric forms. They
are the most calligraphic of all sans-serif typefaces.
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Hyperreality is an artistic style that blends reality and repre-
sentation so well that it may be hard to distinguish between fan-
tasy and reality.
Icons are graphic devices displayed as parts of user interfaces
displayed on screens in order to help the user navigate computer-
based systems. These graphic devices are typically non-alpha-
betic and non-numerical.
Index of frequency is number of pages with any visuals in per-
cent of all pages in a document (except title pages and indexes).
India paper, Bible paper, is a lightweight, opaque, strong, and
thin paper that helps reduce the weight of a publication.
Infographics, or information graphics, are visualisations of
complex data. A skilled designer may combine drawings, graphs,
headings, images, photos, tables, and text segments on an often
very restricted area. Modern infographics contain digital images
and text that communicate information in a way that is easy to
disseminate. Digital infographics can be easily shared through
social media platforms, and reach large audiences for transfer of
information.
Informal balance contributes to a feeling of dynamism. It may
attract attention to a specific picture, to a part of a text or to the
entire information material.
Information design comprises analysis, planning, presenta-
tion and understanding of a message, its content, language and
form. The main objective is to provide information needed by the
receivers in order to perform specific tasks. Information design
is a process (verb) as well as a result (noun) of that process.
Information graphics, infographics, are visualisations of
complex data. See Infographics.
Infomercials should never be confused with infographics. An
infomercial is an advertising film which promotes a product in
an informative and supposedly objective style. It may be a
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television commercial, typically about five minutes, or even
longer. The main objective for infomercials are to create as many
“impulse purchases” as possible. When the intended target view-
ers happen to view this kind of presentation, they will immedi-
ately haste to use the advertised toll-free telephone number, or
website, and buy the presented product without any critical
thinking. Infomercials may describe, demonstrate, and display
various products and their “outstanding features”. There may be
very favourable testimonials from some (well payed?) happy cus-
tomers. Obviously, infomercials, should never be confused with
items produced according to information design standards.
Ink wells, ink traps, are small cuts/pockets in some letters.
These cuts are intended to be filled with ink during the printing
process, in order to maintain the definitions of some characters.
Instruction graphics are used for instructions, e.g., in instruc-
tional manuals. Instruction graphics may deal with how to use,
e.g., a machine or how to prepare, e.g., a meal step by step.
Interactive infographics contain animated elements.
Interline distance is the vertical distance from one baseline to
another baseline in a text. For maximum legibility of the running
text in a book a line with 12-point type needs an interline distance
of at least 2 points (Times) and 3–4 points (Georgia). Generally
speaking, one can use the type size plus 15–30 % to determine
this ratio.
Italic, italics, italic print, italic type, italic typefaces are mem-
bers of a family of type in which letters slant to the right with an
angle between 7 and 20 degrees. They complement the normal
vertical design. It is read more slowly than regular type. See Em-
phasis in text, Manutius, Oblique typefaces.
Jacket, or dust cover is the paper wrapper of a hardbound book.
Jim dashes are short cut-off rules that separate unrelated items
above and below a line.
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Justification is equal spacing of words and lines according to a
given measure.
Justify is to align lines of type, all equal in length, so both edges
of the column are straight.
Juxtaposition is the deliberate placements of images to create
some kind of relationship between them.
Kern (verb) manually adjusting the space between characters to
achieve better legibility; (noun) the amount of space added or
subtracted in the process. See Kerning.
Kerning is used to individually correct the distances between
characters. When a capital A and a capital T, V, or Y are set with-
out kerning, there is too much space between the letters. The A,
V and Y have slanted shapes and the T has empty space at the
bottom. Kerning can create a better optical spacing between the
letters. Kerning is important for headings in books, handouts,
pamphlets, reports and other printed documents and also for
projected texts. It isn’t worthwhile kerning any type under 18
points. See Letterspacing.
Keylining is drawing outlines on a finished pasteup to indicate
the exact positions for art that will be stripped in by the printer.
Layout is the arrangement and organisation of the verbal and
visual elements in a graphical design. A finished layout is the
practical result of the work in the graphic design process. The
purpose of this work is to find a suitable presentation for the con-
tent with respect to the receiver, the subject matter, the medium
and the overall financial situation. Layout provides a large num-
ber of possibilities to make the structure in a document clear. The
graphical form should help the reader to benefit from the con-
tents of a document.
Leading is a hot-metal printing term. It refers to the strips of
lead that people inserted between text measures in order to space
them accurately. Today leading is specified in points. Now,
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leading refers to the space between the lines of type in a text
block, which is possible to achieve in desktop publishing systems.
Legibility is how easy it is to read a message. It is determined
by the technical design of the text and the pictures, that is, their
clarity. A message has good legibility if it is easy to read, from
the viewpoint that the reader should easily be able to see and dis-
tinguish all different parts. Legibility can be measured rather ob-
jectively, and its quality is assessable whether we understand the
content of the message or not.
Lenticular is a printing technique that gives an image some
depth or some motion when the viewing angle of it changes.
Letter space (verb) to add extra space between letters; (noun)
the amount of extra space added.
Letterform is the design of individual characters of a typeface.
The term describes the formal structure of a typeface. It can be
used to distinguish between linguistic and non-linguistic com-
municative properties of type. There are many complicated and
structural differences between many typefaces. The fundamental
letterforms have not changed since the Renaissance.
Letterhead is the top of a designed writing paper.
Letterpress is a method of relief printing. It was the first com-
mercial printing method, allowed the production of high-volume
print runs.
Letterspacing is insertion of space between characters to pro-
duce balanced and harmonious typesetting, and to improve the
visual look of type.
Ligatures are typographic devices that join two or three charac-
ters in order to form single typographic units and prevent char-
acters from interfering with one another. Examples are Æ (A+E)
and Π(O+E).
Line. A line may vary with respect to its starting point, its bright-
ness, colour, context, curvature, direction, evenness, grain,
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length, orientation, positions of change, printing, shape, thick-
ness, value, and terminus. Lines can direct attention to specific
picture elements.
Line art images may restrict visual impressions to the essential
information.
Line length is the length of a typeset line, measured in picas
and points, but now often measured in centimetres or inches.
The length of a line will affect reading speed. The longer the lines
the wider the vertical space between them needs to be. Typefaces
with small x-heights manage well with less leading than typefaces
with large x-heights. The optimum line length seems to be about
1 1/2 alphabets–42 characters.
Line space, interline distance, is the vertical distance from one
baseline to the baseline above, and also to the baseline below.
Lines in graphic design. Various lines are often used for dec-
oration to make a more aesthetically pleasing or artistic product.
However, lines can also be used to aid communication.
Lino-cuts are relief prints made from pieces of linoleum with
designs cut into the material.
List contains related ideas presented in a vertical array.
Local colour retains the photo-realistic colour of objects.
Locating graphics are used to give the physical location of an
event or of an object. Movements of an object can be explained.
Logo is a general term referring to all marks that represent a
brand, character of a company, product, or service.
Logography has a set of characters that represent words, mor-
phemes, or semantic units. Logographies may have several hun-
dreds and even thousands of characters.
Logomark is a logo cantered around a symbolic image or icon.
Logomarks are also known as pictorial logos or logo symbols.
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Logotype is a logo cantered around a company name or initials.
Logotypes are often referred to as letter marks or wordmarks.
Lower-case is the un-capitalized “small” letters of the alphabet
(a, b, c etc.).
Macrocognition is the cognitive adaptation to complexity and
the way people actually think in complex and natural settings.
Macrocognitive, or MacroCognitive, is cognition performed in
natural instead of laboratory environments.
Magenta is the particular red-purple colour used in process
printing with four colours.
Margins. The text-face on a page is surrounded by margins: a
header (or top margin) and footer (or bottom margin), an inner
and an outer (or outside) margin. They provide space for com-
ments, headings, illustrations, page numbers and personal notes.
Margins also provide space to hold a printed document while
reading it.
Master page is a page with certain attributes, which may be ap-
plied to any other page in a document.
Mediaan system measure size in typography. It is used in
France. Here 12 points = .1649 inches = 4.205 mm. 1 pt = .3504
mm (72.5 pts/inch). See Size of type.
Metallic is a highly reflective ink, outside of the standard colour
spaces.
Moiré is an undesirable pattern in a picture which may occur by
re-screening any halftone copy of a picture. Thus, we should
avoid using a printed picture as an original for a new publication.
Monospaced type always allocates the same amount of space
for each character. The letter “i” takes the same space as the letter
“m.” In a text block each character aligns vertically. This is useful
with numerals in tables.
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Montage is a composition of a number of different parts, in or-
der to form an image.
Mosaic may be any decorative covering made of small coloured
pieces of ceramic, glass, or other materials, mounted on a surface
such as a ceiling, a floor, a plate, a wall, or something else.
Motion graphics involves the changes in a position in space of
an object, which create the illusion of motion. Any kind of ab-
stract animation can be called motion graphics.
Negative space, or passive space, in a visual is the part that is
not filled with picture elements. The negative space is usually the
background.
News graphics are used to convey all kinds of news that are fit
to see rather than to read as a printed story.
Numerals are characters that represent numeric values. There
are two groups. In the group lining numerals all characters are
aligned to the baseline and all are of equal height. In the group
old style numerals characters are not aligned to the baseline, and
the characters 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 have descenders.
Oblique is an “artificial italic” formed by electronically slanting
a vertical typeface. Italics, however, are specially designed.
Offset lithography. In offset printing, text and images are cop-
ied to a photosensitive plate. The printing areas are covered with
ink that is grease-receptive. The non-printing areas are made wa-
ter-receptive. There are many kinds of offset printing machines,
from small office machines to very large industrial machines. In
large offset printing machines, it is possible to print four colours
directly in one combined process. Today offset printing is very
common for printing of newspapers, books and most kinds of
graphical products.
Open ended boxes are boxes with rules only at the top and
bottom. Compare with Horizontal lines.
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Optical Character Recognition is a system that allows com-
puter software to translate images of typewritten text into ma-
chine-editable text.
Ornaments. Various ornaments and patterns can be used to
separate different sections in a text. In instructional materials
they are often used to mark specific activities. Ornaments can
also be used for decoration, to make a more aesthetically pleasing
or artistic product. Dingbats is a special PostScript font in desk-
top publishing systems with ornaments.
Orphan is the last line of a paragraph when it is alone at the top
of the next column or page.
Outdentation, or hanging indent, is the reverse of indentation.
It is often used in lists with bullets, and in lists with numbers. It
may also be used in reference lists, for the lines following the in-
itial line in a reference.
Outline. In typography outline is a version of a font that only
presents the outlines of the characters.
Overprint is the effect where one ink is printed over by one or
more other inks. This may result in interesting type effects.
Page format index is a format index to compare pages in
books, magazines and other publications.
Paper format index is a format index that allows you to com-
pare different sizes of paper from different distributors and man-
ufacturers.
Paragraph is a unit of text dealing with an idea or a particular
point. A paragraph consists of one or more sentences. Readers
prefer small text paragraphs to big ones. Natural breaks empha-
sized by typography are helpful.
Perforation is a series of small holes punched into paper. In
printing perforation may be used to aid folding the paper, or to
make it easier for the user to remove a page.
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Pica system measure size in typography. It is used in Great Brit-
ain and USA. Here 1 pica = 12 points = 12 pt = .1660 inches =
4.22 mm. 1 pt = .3516 mm (72,27 pts/inch). See Size of type.
Pictogram is a graphic element that presents an action through
visual clues. Some Asiatic language systems use pictogrammatic
or ideogrammatic characters.
Picture area index is the average percentage of the text-face
utilized for all pictures in a document.
Picture format index is a format index to compare pictures.
Picture index is the average number of pictures for 100 pages
of a document.
Picture plane is a flat surface of a two dimensional design. It
has height and width, but no depth.
Picture size index is the percentage of an average page in a
document occupied by illustrations.
Planned graphics is the designation for information graphics
that the editors of news graphics may have a few days to produce.
Point. 1) A point is a location, defined by the crossing of two very
thin lines. 2) A point is the smallest unit of measure in typogra-
phy. It is used for measuring font size, leading, and other items
on a printed page. However, there are different systems in differ-
ent parts of the world. One Pica point is .035 cm. 3) The mathe-
matical point is often represented by a printed dot.
Portmanteau is a word blending the sounds and combining the
meanings of two other words, for example the words information
and commercial are used to form the word infomercial.
Postscript is a page-description language used to describe how
a page is built up of copy, images, lines, and so on, for output to
laser printers and high-resolution imagesetters.
Prepress production is the reproduction processes that occur
between design and printing.
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Presentation graphics depict facts and are often used for dif-
ferent types of statistical tabulations in “business presentations.”
They are often called business graphics.
Primary colours are red, yellow, and blue. All other colours
can be mixed from these.
Process colours are cyan, magenta, yellow and black. These
are the inks used in four-colour process printing. See CMYK.
Progressive rhythm is when a repeated element changes reg-
ularly in a design.
Proportion is relationship in size of one component to another.
Quadtone is a tonal image printed with four different tones.
Densities of black give a fuller depth than a traditional halftone.
Quality. A good information material is legible, readable, and
relevant for the intended audience. It has a distinct structure. In
information design the content of the message is more important
than its context, execution, and format.
Radial symmetry concern equal proportions around a central
point. The spokes in a wheel is a good example.
Rag is the ragged shape that is formed by the outer edge of an
unjustified text on a page.
Ragged left is an unjustified column of type where lines of var-
ying lengths are aligned on the left side.
Ragged right is an unjustified column of type where lines of
varying lengths are aligned on the right side.
Readability of a message involves the reader’s ability to under-
stand style of graphic form, pictures and text. What makes a mes-
sage difficult to read is not as often the subject matter as the style.
Recto is the right-hand page of any spread in a book.
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Resolution is the amount of data contained in a digital image.
The resolution can be measured in dots per inch (DPI), lines per
inch (LPI), and also pixels per inch (PPI).
Rivers of empty (white) space are formed over successive lines
on a page when text is printed in justified text blocks.
Roman is the standard characters of a font in which the charac-
ters are upright, and not boldface.
Rough is a layout plan, after preliminary thumbnails. A rough
may be half size, or full size.
Rule of thirds is an old system to create dynamic layouts and
photographic compositions. Superimposing a simple 3 x 3 grid
over a page, creates four “hotspots” where the grid lines intersect.
Visual elements placed around these hotspots all draw attention.
Rules are horizontal and vertical straight lines that are used in
layout and typography. Horizontal lines can be used to separate
sections in a text and rows in a table. Vertical lines can be used
to separate columns of text on a page or columns in a table. It is,
however, often better to use white space as a separating device.
Rules that are wider than 12 points are called bars and bands.
Run-arounds are words that are “wrapped around” irregularly
sized illustrations. We should usually avoid “run-arounds”.
Running head, header, or top margin, is the space above the
text-face at the top of a page. Headers provide information that
will help the reader navigate in a document. Like footers, headers
may carry page numbers.
Sans serif type style has no serifs on the characters. These
typefaces provide uniform weight when there are less-than-opti-
mal reading conditions. They are often used for headings, labels
in pictures, diagrams, captions and tables. Sans serif type is seen
as clean, modern and technical. Helvetica typefaces may be the
most widely used among these typefaces in the world today.
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Scale describes the relative size or magnitude of a given element
in relation to other elements and to the design as a whole.
Scotch rule is a double line in graphic design. It is often used in
newspapers to divide different sections.
Secondary colour is a colour created from a combination of
two primary colours.
Sentence-case. In sentence case the first letter of the first word
of a heading or a title, and of any subheading or subtitle is capi-
talized. Furthermore, the first letter of any proper nouns and cer-
tain other types of words are capitalized. Lowercase letters are
used for everything else.
Separation. Use of separation devices such as bullets, numbers
and letters facilitate recall of information in list form.
Sepia is a dark-brown pigment. A sepia tint can be digitally ap-
plied in a photography.
Serif is a small terminal stroke, normally at the top and bottom
of the main strokes of letters in the Roman type style. Serifs help
us distinguish between characters and make it easier to follow
the horizontal lines with text. Bracketed serifs have small and
thin supporting brackets. Bracketed slab serifs are supported by
subtle curved brackets. Hairline serifs are thin and tiny without
brackets. Slur serifs are rounded. Unbracketed serifs are serifs
without brackets. Unbracketed slab serifs are serifs without
brackets on heavy slabs. Wedge serifs are shaped like wedges.
Shaded letters, shadow letters, have strong three-dimensional
quality by use of heavy shadows on one side of main stroke.
Shiner, bouncer, is a method of printing colour, where black is
seen as darker.
Signal graphics are small-scale graphics used to add impact
and visual relief to a text.
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Size of type. There are different systems in Europe and USA for
measuring size in typography. In the Pica system 12 points =
4.2333 mm. In the Didot system 12 points = 4.511 mm. In the
Mediaan system 12 points = 4.205 mm. The most common pro-
grams for desktop publishing, use the Pica system, giving points
as “pts.” Running text in a book should be set between nine and
twelve Pica points.
Skeleton of a letter or a digit is the basic structure of a character.
Slur serifs are rounded. See Serif.
Small caps, small capitals, is an alternative set of capitals used
for text setting. These SMALL CAPITALS are smaller than STAND-
ARD CAPITALS. They are actually FAKE SMALL CAPITALS. Real small
capitals are drawn with proportionally correct line weights.
Special designs. Astronomical, chemical, mathematical, and
medical signs are important for use in these areas.
Split complementary is a colour scheme based on one hue and
the two hues on either side of its complement on a colour wheel.
Spreads are two facing pages in books, etc.
Static infographics is a term used for the most common type
of infographics.
Story board is a series of sketches showing each shot of a scene
or a film in a correct order.
Style is the way of expressing thoughts in speaking and writing
by arranging words for clarity, effectiveness and ease of listening
and reading. The choice of words, symbols, and picture elements
creates the style.
Style guides. Style of text is dependent on the specific choice of
consistency, expressions, and words. There are a vast number of
style guides and publication manuals available.
Subscript is a character set lower than the body of text, like the
figure 2 in x2. See Superscript.
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Subtractive colour. When printing on white paper, yellow and
magenta (a red-purple colour) produce red. Yellow and cyan (a
blue-green colour) create green. Magenta and cyan give blue. A
mix of all three primary colours will become black. The black ink
gives the picture a distinct sharpness and more solid dark ele-
ments. Using the primary colours painters can mix paints of
other hues.
Superscript is a character set higher than the body of text, like
the figure 2 in x2. See Subscript.
Symbols can be used to aid communication in a book or a mag-
azine. An example is a mark for continuation (>). Many orna-
ments may be used as symbols.
Symmetry is the formal placement of design elements in order
to create a mirror image on either side.
Tertiary colour is a combination of three colours (primary or
secondary).
Text face format index is format index to compare text-faces.
The hypho is a hyphenated widow, leaving half a word on a line.
Thermography is a print process that produces raised charac-
ters by depositing thermographic powder onto offset printed pa-
per while the ink is still wet.
Throw out is a sheet of folded paper that is bound into a publi-
cation so that it can be opened horizontally to the left or to the
right. A gatefold, is a four-panel folded sheet.
Thumbnail is a first-stage miniature plan for a later layout.
Tint is a light value of a hue, created by adding white.
Tint screen is a flat, unmodulated light value made of evenly
dispersed dots, usually achieved by stripping a piece of halftone
film into the area on the negative that the artist has masked out.
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Title Case, each word begins with a capital letter. This is some-
times used in titles, and also in captions.
Tone, value, is the apparent darkness or lightness of a colour in
anything that is visible. It ranges from black to white.
Top margin, header, or running head is the space above the
text-face at the top of a page. Headers provide information that
will help the reader navigate in a document. Like footers, headers
may carry page numbers.
Tracking is an adjustment of space between characters in a text.
Trademark is any unique name or symbol that are used by a
corporation or a manufacturer to identify their own products and
to distinguish them from any competitors.
Transitional, a type category that blends old and modern style.
Trapping is an overlap of two colours to eliminate any gaps.
Tritone is an image printed with three colours. It is typically a
black-and-white image, enhanced with two additional colours.
Type refers to all characters that are used in printing.
Type family is a number of sizes and variations of a typeface.
Typeface include variations of a style, like bold, italic, regular,
and different combinations.
Typesetting is a composition of type, by any method.
Typogram is the use of type to express an idea visually.
Unbracketed serifs are serifs without brackets. See Serif.
Unbracketed slab serifs are serifs without brackets on heavy
slabs. See Serif.
Unjustified type is lines of type set in a column, with equal
word spacing, but uneven length. See, Justified text, Ragged left,
Ragged right, and Justify.
Upper-case, capital letters of the alphabet (A, B, C etc.).
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URL, Uniform Resource Locator, is the address of a resource on
the Internet. World Wide Web URLs begin with “http://”.
Value, tone, is the apparent darkness or lightness of a colour in
anything that is visible. It ranges from black to white.
Varnish is a liquid shellac, or a plastic coating added to a
printed material.
Verso is the left-hand page of any spread in a book.
Vertical balance is the visual balancing of the upper and lower
portions of a composition.
Video infographics contain short videos combined with illus-
trations, images and text.
Visual alignment depends on careful optical adjustment to
compensate for differences in shape of the element being aligned.
Visual design theme is a visual content that unites the pages
of a layout.
Visual direction is when an eye is directed in a particular di-
rection across a composition.
Visual rhythm is the repetition of colour, shapes, textures and
values to set up an intellectual or a visual pattern.
Visual texture is the creation of a visual design including an
implied tactile texture.
Visual unity is the active placement of design elements in order
to achieve a harmonious whole.
Visual weight is the perceived heaviness or lightness of a visual
image.
Weather graphics are describing what the weather has been
like and how it is likely to be according to available forecasts.
Wedge serifs are shaped like wedges. See Serif.
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When two or more columns are used on a page, vertical lines can
be used to clearly separate the text blocks from one another. By
tradition vertical lines are thin, usually half a point or one point.
White space is the empty space around printed images and
texts on a page.
Widow is the first line of a new paragraph alone at the bottom
of a column or page. Sometimes a widow refers to the last line of
any paragraph with only a few words.
Word spacing is the varying space between words. These
spaces are often adjusted in order to create justified lines.
x-axis is the horizontal scale to frame a chart or a graph. The
vertical scale is the y-axis.
x-height, is a vertical distance equal to the height of lowercase
letters such as x (without ascenders and descenders). Higher x-
heights allow for smaller typeface sizes, which are just as legible
but still is saving space, and thus they are economical. This is very
important in the production of newspapers.
y-axis is the vertical scale to frame a chart or a graph. The hori-
zontal scale is the x-axis.
