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Evaluation of advanced soy products in diets fed to Florida pompano Trachinotus carolinus
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It has been suggested that soybean meal could be utilized to substitute the use of animal meal in the development of practical diets for majority of aquaculture species. However, the presence of anti-nutritional factors may limit the wider use of conventional soybean meal (SBM) and play a role in decreasing the growth performance of fish, alter the serum and enzyme activities, and induce the inflammation in the distal intestine and the liver of the fish. Currently, different advanced processing technique, such as fermentation, combination of non-alcohol and enzymatic treatment, and alcohol extraction technique, have been reported to be an effective method to denature and lowering the level of anti-nutritional factors, improve the nutritional value, and reduce the molecular weight of soy-protein. Therefore, this study was conducted to explore the potential use of this advanced soy products, especially fermented soybean meal (FSBM) and enzyme-treated soy (ESBM), as the protein sources in formulating the practical diets for Florida pompano Trachinotus carolinus. In this study, the potential use of squid products as an attractant as well as the protein source for pompano also becomes the main parameter of interest to be included in pompano diet.
The first study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of commercially produced FSBM known as PepSoyGenTM to replace conventional SBM in the development of plant-based diet for Florida pompano. In this study, the utilization of FSBM as much as 0, 206, 309 and 410 g kg-1 to approximately replace 0, 50, 75 and 100% of SBM had no effects in growth parameters of pompano. The gradual replacement also did not have significant differences in total protein, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, bile acids, plasma alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase activities in all treatments of pompano. However, glycogen granulation, inflammation and nuclear change condition in the liver of pompano were better as the inclusion of fermented product increased. Based on the results, further research regarding the optimum inclusion level of FSBM to satisfy the nutrient requirement of pompano might be needed to improve the efficacy of fermented soy products.
The second study investigated the potential use of commercial ESBM (NutriVanceTM) to reduce the inclusion level of fish meal (FM) in the development of practical diet for Florida pompano. There are two series of trials conducted in this study and the decreasing growth of pompano as the inclusion level of FM was further replaced by soy-protein were confirmed. The results also indicate that the gradual replacement of dietary FM with ESBM had no effect to the majority of serum and enzyme activities of pompano across all trials. The histomorphological structure of liver and distal intestine were slightly affected by lower inclusion level of FM. Overall, the results showed that ESBM could be used as a potential dietary protein sources to replace FM in the development of practical diet for pompano.
The third study was designed to investigate and compare the effects of diets containing high inclusion level of advanced soy products (ESBM and FSBM) in combination with porcine meal (PM) to completely replace poultry by-product meal (PBM) on growth performance, body composition and distal intestine histology of Florida pompano Trachinotus carolinus. Under the experimental conditions, fish fed ESBM performed equally well in terms of growth parameters in comparison to fish fed PBM. Meanwhile, fish fed FSBM had significantly lower feed intake, indicating a palatability issue with the high use of FSBM. Interestingly, the results indicate that the dietary treatments had no effect in whole-body proximate and mineral composition. Moreover, the high inclusion of advanced soy products had no significant effect to the histomorphological conditions of distal intestine of the fish. Based on these results, 451 g kg-1 ESBM supplemented with 38 g kg-1 PM can be utilized to develop a practical diet for juvenile Florida pompano without impacting growth, nutritive parameters and several distal intestine health parameters.
The fourth study investigated the inclusion effects of squid products, namely squid hydrolysates (SH) and squid meal (SM) to improve the palatability and nutritional value of soy-based diet. The squid products were added to the basal diets, to produce diets containing 1, 2 and 4% of SH and SM. Under the experimental conditions, the addition of 4% SH improved the response of basal diet and did not show any significant difference in terms of growth performance as compared to the reference diet (15% PBM). Meanwhile, the inclusion of SM into the basal diet were not able to induce better growth of pompano. At the end of growth trial, there were no significant effect to the whole body proximate, amino acids composition, enzyme and serum biochemistry activities of the fish. Regarding to the histology analysis, fish fed with basal diet showed disordered vacuolization in the liver and decreased the lamina propria thickness in the intestine. The inclusion of 4% SH partly prevented the alteration of liver and distal intestine of Florida pompano and findings were similar to fish fed with PBM. Based on these results, combination of ESBM and 4% SH has the potential to serve as an alternative protein source and attractant to improve the efficacy of plant-based diet for pompano.
The fifth study aimed to conduct a quantitative review on the effect of various inclusion size of FSBM as a potential ingredient to replace dietary FM on the growth and food conversion ratio (FCR) of several aquaculture species. The effect size of 53 comparisons data between FSBM inclusion level in diet formulation and a control condition was -3.75 [95 % CI -4.49 to -3.01] for final weight and 1.26 [95 % CI 0.58 to 1.94] for FCR. According to meta-regression analysis, FSBM inclusion level of 8–40 % improves the final weight of fish. Meanwhile, inclusion level of FSBM higher than 40 % will likely decrease the final weight of fish compared to fish that received high percentage of FM. On the other hand, the inclusion of FSBM is more effective at the level of 15–44 % to improve the FCR of the diet and inclusion levels out of this range would produce various effects to the FCR. This study provides a useful information on the optimum inclusion level of FSBM to replace dietary FM in formulating practical diets based on the selected study.
We showed that for future aquaculture, the development of sustainable and economically sound practical diet will depend on the reduction of animal meal and the increased inclusion of sustainable protein sources. Further treatment of SBM could produce better nutrition profile in the resulted meal and growth performance of the fish. Therefore, it is important for researcher and stake holders to properly evaluate the utilization of advanced soy products and determine the optimum inclusion level of these advanced soy products to replace the use of conventional SBM and animal meal that still support the optimum growth and health status of fish.
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This study evaluated the suitability of commercially produced fermented soybean meal (FSBM) known as PepSoyGen™, in a plant-based diet for Florida pompano, Trachinotus carolinus fingerlings. An 8-week growth trial was conducted to evaluate the effect of four isonitrogenous and isolipidic diets containing 0, 206, 309 and 410 g/kg FSBM, replacing approximately 0%, 50%, 75% and 100% SBM (designated as Basal, FSBM 50, FSBM 75 and FSBM 100, respectively) on growth performance, body composition, serum biochemistry and morphological condition of liver and distal intestine of Florida pompano. There were no significant differences in final mean weight, percentage weight gain, thermal unit growth coefficient and feed conversion ratio in all treatments. For serum biochemistry analysis, there were no significant differences in total protein, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, bile acids, plasma alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activities in all treatments. Cellular infiltration, presence of goblet cells and the width of lamina propria in the distal intestine were partly improved in fish fed FSBM 75 and 100 compared to the fish fed FSBM 50 and basal diet. Glycogen granulation, inflammation and nuclear change condition in the liver of pompano were better as the inclusion of fermented product increased. Results of this study indicate that FSBM can be utilized as an alternative protein source and microbial fermentation process could improve the functional properties of SBM.
Recent years have witnessed growing interest in the role of peptides in animal nutrition. Chemical, enzymatic, or microbial hydrolysis of proteins in animal by-products or plant-source feedstuffs before feeding is an attractive means of generating high-quality small or large peptides that have both nutritional and physiological or regulatory functions in livestock, poultry and fish. These peptides may also be formed from ingested proteins in the gastrointestinal tract, but the types of resultant peptides can vary greatly with the physiological conditions of the animals and the composition of the diets. In the small intestine, large peptides are hydrolyzed to small peptides, which are absorbed into enterocytes faster than free amino acids (AAs) to provide a more balanced pattern of AAs in the blood circulation. Some peptides of plant or animal sources also have antimicrobial, antioxidant, antihypertensive, and immunomodulatory activities. Those peptides which confer biological functions beyond their nutritional value are called bioactive peptides. They are usually 2–20 AA residues in length but may consist of >20 AA residues. Inclusion of some (e.g. 2–8%) animal-protein hydrolysates (e.g., porcine intestine, porcine mucosa, salmon viscera, or poultry tissue hydrolysates) or soybean protein hydrolysates in practical corn- and soybean meal-based diets can ensure desirable rates of growth performance and feed efficiency in weanling pigs, young calves, post-hatching poultry, and fish. Thus, protein hydrolysates hold promise in optimizing the nutrition of domestic and companion animals, as well as their health (particularly gut health) and well-being.
A growth trial and a digestibility trial were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of carbohydrase supplemented to practical shrimp feeds. The 5-wk growth trial investigated the effects of carbohydrase supplementation at 0, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05% in soybean-based diets on the performance of juvenile Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. No significant differences were observed in final biomass, final mean weight, weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and survival across all treatments. The digestibility trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of carbohydrase supplementation at 0.02%, which is the recommended dose by the company that developed the carbohydrase on apparent digestibility coefficients of dry matter, protein, and energy of Pacific white shrimp. Protein digestibility was significantly improved when fed diets contained 0.02% carbohydrase in contrast with the basal diet. No significant differences were found in apparent digestibility coefficients of dry matter and energy. Based on the positive results on protein digestibility, further research regarding the efficacy of exogenous enzymes and their application is warranted.
Four isocaloric-isonitrogenous diets containing 0, 50, 100 and 190 g/kg corn protein concentrate (CPC) as replacement for dietary fish meal were fed to Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings for 8 weeks. Tilapia growth parameters were not significantly (p > .05) different in fish fed diets with 0, 50 and 100 g/kg CPC and found to be superior compared to those fed on 190 g/kg CPC. Fish dressing ratios and body composition were similar among all treatments. The electron microscope indicated that the stomach size of control fish was slightly smaller and the wall was thinner while the stomach of the fish fed all other levels of CPC undergone a remarkable size increase and their walls were thicker after feeding diets with CPC. Total aerobic bacterial and coliform counts were significantly decreased in fish intestine when fed diets with 100 and 190 g/kg CPC compared with fish fed diets with 0 g/kg or 50 g/kg CPC. This study indicates that it is possible to replace up to 534 g/kg of dietary fish meal in tilapia fingerlings using 100 g/kg of CPC without any negative effect on fish growth and proximate body composition.
Sustainable and profitable commercial aquaculture production of marine fish species is dependent on the development of sustainable protein sources as substitutes for expensive animal meals such as fishmeal (FM). Previous Florida pompano Trachinotus carolinus studies have indicated that poultry by-product meal (PBM) and meat and bone meal can be used to produce a FM-free diet if suitable levels of nutrients (such as taurine) are included in the diets. In this study, we attempted to develop an all-plant protein diet by removing the animal proteins in practical diets for pompano by substituting back select ingredients. A series of eight FM-free diets were formulated, four systematically replaced soybean meal (SBM) with soy protein concentrate (SPC) and four replaced PBM with SPC. Based on the results, there is no clear disadvantage to the use of SPC as a replacement for SBM. However, the complete removal of PBM resulted in reduced performance. Two additional growth trials were conducted to supplement additional amino acids including glycine, valine and histidine, a proprietary chemical attractant mix, fish protein concentrate and squid hydrolysate to improve the growth of pompano when fed all-plant protein diets. The only improvement in performance occurred with the squid hydrolysate. These results demonstrate that using soybean meal, soy protein concentrate and corn gluten meal as the primary protein sources, a plant-based feed formulation can be developed, but the removal of all animal proteins is not yet feasible.
This study investigated sunflower seed meal (SSM) as dietary protein replacement of fish meal (FM) for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) juveniles (initial mean weight of 19.8 ± 6.3 g) reared in earthen ponds for 210 days. SSM replaced 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% (i.e., D25, D50, D75, and D100, respectively) of FM in an isonitrogenous and isocaloric diet. The optimum FM replacement level of D25 as predicted by the equation y = 177.5 + 26.5x – 7.9x² yielded an optimum weight of about 184 g within 100 days. Thus D25 was the most effective SSM level for Nile tilapia growth in earthen ponds. Fish growth declined as SSM exceeded D25. The length-weight relationship (r ≥ 90%) depicted an isometric fish growth. Nutrient utilization parameters were similar in all the diets except for D100. The protein content of fish carcass was highest in the control and D25, while fiber level was highest in D100. Amino acids imbalance and high fiber content could have reduced the fish growth at D50, D75, and D100.
Fish meal sparing or replacement is limited by reduced diet acceptability and feed intake, particularly among carnivorous finfish. Two 8-week feeding trials were conducted to assess whether the inclusion of sea clam (ocean quahog Arctica islandica) processing by-products could improve the intake of reduced fish meal feeds in sunshine bass (female White Bass Morone chrysops × male Striped Bass M. saxatilis). In trial 1, juvenile fish (31.9 ± 0.2 g, average initial weight) were cultured at 18.5 ± 2.4°C and fed diets containing 30% fish meal (hereafter, “FISH”), 6.7% fish meal (remainder of dietary protein primarily provided by soybean meal; hereafter, “SOY”), or the reduced fish meal formulation amended with 1% dried clam juice (hereafter, “SOY + clam juice”), dried clam fines (hereafter, “SOY + clam fines”), or betaine as feeding stimulants. In trial 2, fish were slightly smaller at the outset (18.4 ± 0.3 g) and cultured at 27.3 ± 0.2°C. Growth performance was generally superior among fish reared in trial 2, but both trials yielded similar results in terms of dietary treatments. Feed intake and growth were reduced among fish fed the SOY feed compared with those fed the FISH feed. The addition of betaine to the reduced fish meal formulation did not improve diet acceptance or intake. However, the inclusion of clam by-products improved feed intake and growth, with both the SOY + clam juice and SOY + clam fines feeds yielding growth equivalent to the FISH feed. Semiquantitative evaluations of feeding behavior suggest that dietary treatment effects were rooted in differences in feed acceptability and that the inclusion of clam by-products had a corrective effect on the comparatively indifferent feeding observed among fish fed the SOY diet. The inclusion of sea clam by-products, particularly dried clam fines, improved the intake of the reduced fish meal formulation, and these by-products appear to be effective feeding stimulants in soy-based feeds for juvenile sunshine bass grown in tanks.
Received June 2, 2016; accepted September 26, 2016
In the present study, _Lactobacillus plantarum_ P8 was used to ferment soybean meal (SBM), resulting in a significant reduction in the indigestible oligosaccharides (sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose) and anti-nutritional factors (tannin, trypsin inhibitors, glycinin, and β-conglycinin) in SBM. Nine isonitrogenic and isoenergetic experimental diets were formulated in which SBM or _L. plantarum_ P8 fermented SBM (LPFSBM) replaced fish meal (FM) protein with 0 (control); 15% by SBM (Diet 1), 30% by SBM (Diet 2), 45% by SBM (Diet 3), 60% by SBM (Diet 4), 15% by LPFSBM (Diet 5), 30% by LPFSBM (Diet 6), 45% by LPFSBM (Diet 7), and 60% by LPFSBM (Diet 8). Triplicate groups of 30 fish were fed to apparent satiation twice daily for 66 d in an indoor recycling seawater system. No significant differences were found in survival rate among the different groups. However, 45% SBM, 60% SBM, and 60% LPFSBM (Diets 3, 4, and 8) diets significantly reduced growth performance and feed utilization. The LPFSBM diets did not affect moisture, crude protein, crude lipid, or crude ash contents of whole-body measurements. However, 60% SBM (Diet 4) significantly decreased crude protein and lipid content while increasing moisture and crude ash contents of the whole-body. The activity of serum lysozyme was significantly decreased in the group fed with 60% SBM (Diet 4). Total antioxidant capacity was significantly increased in the group fed the 45% LPFSBM (Diet 7). Apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of protein was significantly lower in fish fed diets with 45% and 60% of protein from SBM and 60% of protein from LPFSBM than in the control group. When the substitution level of SBM was equal to or above 45%, the activities of protein metabolism enzymes (alanine aminotransferase, ALT and aspartate aminotransferase, AST) were significantly lower than those in the control group. The level of LPFSBM did not affect the activities of ALT and AST. SBM-induced pathological changes seen in the distal intestine of fish fed 45% and 60% SBM (Diets 3 and 4) were not pronounced in groups fed LPFSBM. The results of the present study suggest that protein from SBM could substitute up to 30% of FM protein, with protein from LPFSBM being able to replace up to 45% of FM protein.
The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of _Lactobacillus plantarum_ P8 fermentation on soybean meal and evaluate LPFSBM as a partial replacement for fish meal in diets of turbot by examining growth, activities of protein metabolism enzymes, intestinal morphology, and immune responses. Our results would be helpful to develop cost effective and sustainable dietary formulations for turbot.
The results of this study indicate that LPFSBM could replace up to 45% of fish meal protein in juvenile turbot diet. The ANFs are important factors that affect the growth performance of turbot, damaging the normal structure of intestine and a depression of digestion and absorption function. LPFSBM reduced SBM-induced pathomorphological changes in the distal intestine which partly accounted for the _L. plantarum_ P8 fermentation reduces indigestible oligosaccharides and anti-nutritional factors in soybean meal and enhanced the apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) of dry matter and crude protein of soybean meal. The results are reliable and of both theoretical and practical importance.
The work described has not been submitted elsewhere for publication, in whole or in part, and all the authors listed have approved the manuscript that is enclosed. I have read and have abided by the statement of ethical standards for manuscript submitted to Aquaculture.