Servant leadership: Antecedents, processes, and outcomes

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PrintPublicationDate: May2014 Subject: Psychology,OrganizationalPsycholo gy
OnlinePublication Date: Jun
2014
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199755615.013.018
ServantLeadership:Antecedents,Processes,andOutcomes
RobertC.Liden,AlexandraPanaccio,JeremyD.Meuser,JiaHu,andSandyJ.Wayne
TheOxfordHandbookofLeadershipandOrganizations
EditedbyDavidV.Day
OxfordHandbooksOnline
AbstractandKeywords
Servantleadershipwasfirstintroducedin1970,butwasslowtoattracttheattentionofacademicresearchersuntil
recently.Todayresearchonservantleadershipisbeingconductedatanacc eleratedpace.Psychometrically
soundmeasuresareavailable,andservantleadershiphaspassedthetestofshowingincrementalvalidityafter
controllingforthetwomostwidelystudiedapproachestoleadership,leader-memberexchange,and
transformationalleadership.Nowthatservantleadershiphasestablishedlegitimacyintheacademicfield,theory
developmentisneededtoguideitsfurtheradvancement.Thepurposeofthecurrentchapteristooffera
comprehensivetheoreticalmodelthatcapturesthedevelopment(antecedents)ofservantleadership,its
consequences(outcomes),andthemediatingandmoderatingprocessesthroughwhichservantleadership
behaviorsresultinkeyoutcomes.
Keywords:Serv antleadershi p,leaderawareness,coreself-evalu ation,empowermen t,tru st,organizational citizenshi pbehavi or s,emotional
in telligence,leaderpr ototypes,communi tycitizensh ip,i dentity
Ourgoalinthischapteristoprovideanoverviewofservantleadershipandrecommendfuturedirections.Indoing
so,wehopetostimulateinterestinservantleadershipsoastoenticeresearcherstodevoteinc reasedattentionto
thisintriguingformofleadership.Weattempttoacc omplishthisbydevelopingtheoryontheantecedentsand
outcomesofservantleadership,aswellasarticulatingtheunderlyingprocessesthroughwhichthisformof
leadershipoperates.WeillustrateourtheorywithamodeldepictedinFigure17.1.Inourtheory,weidentify
individualcharacteristicsofleadersandfollowersthatareconducivetoservantleadership,aswellasthe
mediatingmec hanismsthroughwhic hservantleaderbehaviorsleadtoattitudinalandbehavioraloutc omes.Finally,
wesuggestseveralelementsinthecontextthoughttomoderateproposedrelationshipsbetweenservant
leadershipandoutc omes.Priortotheintroductionofourtheoretic almodel,wepresentabriefoverviewofservant
leadershipresearch.
Clicktoviewlarger
Figure17.1 .ModelofServantLeadership:Ancedents,Processes,andOutc omes.Note:SL=Servant
leadership;Orgcommitment=Organizationalcommitment;OCB=Organizationalcitizenshipbehavior;
CCB=Communityc itizens hipbeha vior.
AlthoughaspectsofservantleadershipappearedinwritingsofConfucianismandintheBible,modernservant
leadershipwasintroducedinanow-classicarticlebyRobertK.Greenleaf(1970).GreenleafworkedforAmerican
Telephone&Telegraph(AT&T)from1926to1964,risingfromajobasalaboreronalineconstructioncrewto

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headofmanagementresearch.Greenleafalsointroducedmanycreativetrainingprogramsduringhistenureat
AT&T.Followingretirement,Greenleaftaughtuniversityc lasses,servedasaconsultant,andinspiredtheformation
oftheCenterforCreativeLeadershipinNorthCarolina.ButheisbestknownforformingtheCenterforApplied
Ethics,whichafterseveralnamec hangescontinuestoexistastheGreenleafCenterforServantLeadership(Frick,
2004).Greenleafassertedthatbeingatrulyeffec tiveleaderrequiresafocusonservingothers,particularlyone’s
followers.DueinparttothepositiveresponsetoGreenleaf’s(1970)essay,Greenleafformedacenterdevotedto
thepromotionofservantleadership,whichlaterborehisname.Overtheyears,theGreenleafCenterhas
succ essfullyintroducedservantleadershiptomanypractitioners.However,withtheexceptionofanarticlebyJill
GrahamintheinauguralissueofLeadershipQuarterlybac kin1991,servantleadershipattractedlittleinterestin
theacademiccommunityuntilthe2000s.Inthelastfewyears,therehasbeenanotedincreaseinscientific
researchonservantleadershipthathasbeenpublishedintopac ademicjournals(Ehrhart,2004;Hu&Liden,
2011;Hunteretal.,2013;Liden,Wayne,Liao,&Meuser,inpress;Liden,Wayne,Zhao,&Henderson,2008;
Neubert,Kacmar,Carlson,Chonko,&Roberts,2008;Peterson,Galvin,&Lange,2012;Schaubroeck,Lam,&Peng,
2011;vanDierendonck,2011;Walumbwa,Hartnell,&Oke,2010).
Inorderforrigorousempiricalresearchonservantleadershiptoproceed,itwasrecognizedthataservant
leadershipmeasuredevelopedusingsoundpsychometric practiceswasessential.VanDierendonck(2011)
arguedthatoftheattemptstomeasureservantleadership,onlyscalesbyLidenandcolleagues(2008)andbyvan
DierendonckandNuijten(2011)meetadequatepsychometricstandards.TheLidenetal.scale(2008),usedin
researchbyHuandLiden(2011),Schaubroeckandcolleagues(2011),andbyPetersonandcolleagues(2012),
capturessevendimensionsofservantleadership:puttingsubordinatesfirst,helpingsubordinatesgrowand
succ eed,empowering,emotionalhealing,creatingvalueforthecommunity,behavingethically,andconceptual
skills.ConsistentwiththeworkofGreenleaf,aservantleaderservesothersbyprioritizingtheneedsoffollowers
abovetheleader’sneeds.Thisincludesassistingsubordinatesinrecognizingtheirfullpotential,whichisdone
partiallythroughempowerment.ParallelingGreenleaf’semphasisonservantleadersbeinggenuineonlyifthey
behaveasaservantleaderinallrealmsoflife,anotherdimensionofservantleadershipidentifiedbyLidenand
colleagues(2008)ishelpingtocreatevalueforthecommunityinwhichtheorganizationisembedded,bothby
directlycontributingservicetothecommunityaswellasencouragingfollowerstodothesame.Finally,Lidenand
colleaguesfoundsupportforthedimensionofpromotingethicalbehaviorbyactingwithhonestyandintegrity.
Althoughsupportwasfoundformultipledimensionsofservantleadershipthroughfactoranalysesanddifferential
relationsbetweendimensionsandoutc omes(Lidenetal.,2008),thesevendimensionshavebeenshowntomap
ontoahigherorderorglobal“servantleadership”factor(seeHu&Liden,2011,foranalyses).Indeed,aswith
manymultidimensionalconstructsinorganizationalbehavior,mostresearchers(Ehrhart,2004;Hu&Liden,2011;
Neubertetal.,2008;Schaubroecketal.,2011;Walumbwaetal.,2010)haveemployedglobalservantleadership,
ratherthaninvestigatingthedimensionsseparately.Butevenwhenaglobalfactorisusedexclusivelyinresearch,
multidimensionalscalesmoreclearlyrevealthefulldomainoftheconstructunderstudy,aseachdimension
representsadifferentcomponentofthecontentcontainedintherealmoftheconstruct.Duetospaceconstraints
andforgreaterclarity,therelationshipsproposedinthischapterreferonlytoglobalservantleadershipandnotthe
separatedimensions.Wedo,however,encourageresearcherstofurtherexplorethedimensionsofservant
leadershippresentedbyLidenandhiscolleagues(2008).
Whilethereisadedicatedethicalleadershipmodel(forareview,seeBrownandTreviño,2006)definedas“the
demonstrationofnormativelyappropriatec onductthroughpersonalactionsandinterpersonalrelationships,and
thepromotionofsuchconducttofollowersthroughtwo-waycommunication,reinforcement,anddecision-making”
(Brown,Treviño,&Harrison,2005,p.120),servantleadershipisadifferent,moreholisticleadershipapproach.
Essentially,ethicalleadersmakeethicsasalientfeatureoftheworkplacebymodelingandcommunicatingfair
ethicalvalues,andprovidingforarewardandpunishmentschemainlinewiththosevalues.Incontrasttothe
ethicalleadershipmodel,whichisasingledimensionalconstructwiththreemainfoci(ethicalroleclarification,
whichincludestransparency;concernformoralityandfairness;andpowersharing,orvoice;DeHoogh&Den
Hartog,2008),servantleadershipincludesethicalbehaviorasacomponentthatrepresentsonlyoneofseven
servantleadershipdimensions.So,fortheservantleader,ethicalbehaviorisonlyonemodeofservice.[Seevan
Dierendonck,2011,forareviewofthedifferencesbetweenservantleadershipandotherleadershipmodels.]
Todate,manyscholarshavecontributedtoourunderstandingoftheimpactoftheservantleaderinthe
workplace,butresearchonservantleadershipisstillinitsinfancy,asevidencedbyaservantleadershipliterature

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reviewbyvanDierendonck(2011)thatuncoveredamodest14refereedjournalarticles.Toavoidredundancy,for
ourreviewwehaveselectedthekeyartic lesamongthose14,aswellasselectartic lespublishedsubsequentto
vanDierendonck’s(2011)review.
Ehrhart(2004)isoneofthefirstpublishedauthorsofanempiricalarticleonservantleadership.Ehrhartdeveloped
hisownscalefromsevendimensionsofservantleadershipbaseduponhisreviewoftheliteratureandusedthis
scaleinacross-sectionalstudyinvolvingagrocerystorechain.Whilescaledevelopmentwasnotthefocusofthis
paper,itisimportanttonotethatathree-factorconfirmatoryfactoranalysis(CFA)withservantleadership,leader-
memberexchange(LMX;Dansereau,Graen,&Haga,1975; Liden&Maslyn,1998),andtransformational
leadership(Bass,1985)showedadequatefit,whichprovidesevidencethatservantleadershipisempirically
distinctfromtheseothertwoleadershipstyles.Supportwasfoundforarelationshipbetweenservantleadership
andorganizationalcitiz enshipbehavior(OCB).Therelationshipwaspartiallymediatedbyproceduraljustice
climate.Thissuggeststhatservantleadershippromotesafairworkplaceenvironment,andthisfairenvironment
alongwithservantleadership,promotesdiscretionaryhelpingbehaviorsthatbenefittheorganization.
Lidenandcolleagues(2008),intheprocessofdevelopingtheirservantleadershipscale,showedapositive
relationshipbetweenservantleadershipandtheoutcomevariablesofin-roleperformance,organizational
commitment,andcommunityc itizenshipbehaviorsevenaftercontrollingforbothLMXandtransformational
leadershipinanorganizationalfieldsample.LikeEhrhart(2004),thesesc holarscontributedevidencethatservant
leadershipisdistinctfromLMXandtransformationalleadership(Bass,1985).
Neubertandcolleagues(2008)investigatedtheimpactofinitiatingstructureandservantleadershipinthesame
model.Theseauthorsusedthe14-itemEhrhart(2004)servantleadershipmeasureandcollectedsamesource
data,withthreeweeksseparatingcollectionofIV/mediatorandDVs.NeubertandcolleaguesconductedaCFAthat
revealedseparatefactorsforservantleadershipandinitiatingstructure.Theirresultssuggestthatpromotion(vs.
prevention)focusmediatestherelationshipbetweenservantleadershipandhelpingandcreativebehaviors,
suggestingthatservantleadershipcanshiftfollowers’focusfrompreventiontopromotion.Essentially,followersof
servantleaders,relativetofollowersofsupervisorshighininitiatingstructure,aremorelikelytofocuson
nurturanceratherthandwellingonsecurityneeds.Theiranalysesforservantleadershipalsocontrolledfor
initiatingstructure,addingtoagrowingbodyofevidencethatservantleadershipisnotredundantwithpreviously
researchedleadershipmodels.
Walumbwaandcolleagues(2010)extendedEhrhart’s(2004)findings.Thefocusoftheirstudywastoshowgroup
andindividual-levelintermediaryprocessesthatexplainhowservantleadershipincreasesOCB.Theseauthors
usedEhrhart’s(2004)14-itemscaleinalongitudinalstudyinvolvingmultisourcedatafromsevenmultinational
corporationsoperatinginKenya,Africa.FindingssupportedpartialmediationbetweenservantleadershipandOCB
forproceduraljusticec limateandserviceclimateatthegrouplevel,andself-efficacyandcommitmentto
supervisorattheindividuallevel.Proceduraljusticeandserviceclimatewereproposedtomoderatetheimpactof
theindividual-levelvariablesonOCB,butsupportwasonlyfoundfortheimpactofproceduraljustic eclimateand
serviceclimateontherelationshipbetweencommitmenttothesupervisorandOCB.LMXandtransformational
leadershipwerenotcontrolledforinthisstudy.Nevertheless,thisstudyprovidesimportantsupportforthe
theoretic alexpectationsofservantleadership.Specifically,servantleadersareexpectedto“grow”theirfollowers
intomorecapablemembersoftheorganizationwhoeventuallybecomeservantleadersthemselves.Finding
servantleadershiptobeassoc iatedwithinc reasedself-efficacy,OCB,andclimatesofjusticeandserviceprovide
empiricalsupportforthistheoreticalexpectation.
HuandLiden(2011),usingLidenandcolleagues’(2008)28-itemscale,investigatedtheimpac tofservant
leadershipontheteam-levelvariablesofteampotencyandteamOCBinasampleoffivebanksinChina.Inthis
study,supportwasfoundforamoderated-mediationmodel,showingthatservantleadershiphasdirec tpositive
effectsonteameffectivenessaswellaseffectsthatarepartiallymediatedbyteampotency.Teampotencyalso
mediatedtheimpac tofgoalclarityandprocessc larityonteameffectiveness.Interestingly,bothmediated
relationshipswerestronglyimpactedbyservantleadership,suc hthatservantleadershipincreasedtheimportance
ofgoalandprocessc larityforteampotency.Infac t,intheabsenc eofaservantleader,resultsshowedthat
potencywashigherinteamswithlowergoalclarity.Evidently,iftheleaderdidnotprovidethesupportassociated
withservantleadership,itwasbetternottohaveaclearideaofthegoal.Havingaclearpictureofthegoal,butnot
gettingtheleadersupportneededtoaccomplishthegoal,wasevidentlyfrustratingforteammembers.However,

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withaservantleader,therelationshipbetweengoalclarityandteampotencywasstrongandpositive.Therefore,
thisstudyprovidesevidencethatservantleadershipprovidesimportantbenefitstoteams,includingenhanced
teampotencyandteameffectiveness.
Schaubroeckandcolleagues(2011)conductedacross-sectionalstudysamplingUnitedStatesandHongKong
branchesofthesamebankusingtheLidenetal.(2008)28-itemscale.ThisstudyissimilartoNeubertand
colleagues(2008)inthattheimpactoftwodifferentleadershipmodelswasinvestigatedinthesamestudy.Here,
servantleadershipandtransformationalleadershipwereshowntorelatetoincreasedteamperformance,but
throughdifferingmechanisms.Servantleadershipappearstooperatethroughaffect-basedtrustandinc reased
teampsychologicalsafety,whereastransformationalleadershipseemstomanifestitselfviacognitive-basedtrust
andincreasedteampotency.Butclearlythekeyfindingofthestudywasthatservantleadershipexplainedan
additional10percentofthevarianceinteamperformancewhencontrollingforvarianceexplainedby
transformationalleadership.
Petersonandcolleagues(2012)examinedantecedentsandoutcomesofCEOservantleadershipinasampleof
126tec hnologyorganizationsintheUnitedStates,usingashortened16-itemversionoftheLidenetal.(2008)
scale.Datawerecollectedoverfourtimeperiods.Thisstudy’sresultsshowedanegativerelationshipbetween
CEOnarcissismandservantleadership,andapositiverelationshipbetweenCEOfounderstatus(vs.non-founder)
andservantleadership.Further,CEOorganiz ationalidentificationpartiallymediatedthesetworelationships.More
interesting,apositiverelationshipwasfoundbetweenCEOservantleadershipandfirmperformancemeasuredas
returnonassets,evenaftercontrollingfortransformationalleadership.Thisstudyprovidesevidencethattop
managementservantleadershipenhancesorganiz ational-levelperformance.Thisstudyalsoc ontributedtothe
growingbodyofevidencethatsupportsthedifferentiationbetweenservantleadershipandtransformational
leadership.
VanDierendonck(2011)providedasix-pointc omprehensivereviewofservantleadershipresearch.First,he
providedabriefoverviewandbackgroundofthec onstruct.Second,heassessedthekeycomponentsofservant
leadership.Third,headdressedtheempiricalandtheoreticaldifferencesbetweenservantleadershipandother
leadershipmodels,specificallytransformationalleadership,authenticleadership,ethicalleadership,empowering
leadership,spiritualleadership,self-sacrificingleadership,andLevel5leadership.Level5leadership,identifiedby
Collins(2001)asthebestformofleadershipintermsoforganizationaleffectiveness,stressestheimportanceof
leaderstobeguidedbyhumility.Fourth,vanDierendonckreviewedcurrentmethodsformeasuringservant
leadership.Fifth,hereviewedantec edentsandconsequencesofservantleadershipbasedupontheextant
empiricalevidence.Sixth,andfinally,heofferedsuggestionsforfutureresearch.Inordertoavoidredundancy,we
referthereadertovanDierendoncks’reviewofthepastliterature,extantservantleadermeasures,and
differencesbetweenservantleadershipandotherleadershipmodels.Ourgoalthen,istoaddressnewissuesand
toprovideatheoreticalmodelacc ompaniedbypropositionsthataredesignedtoguidefutureresearch.
ChallengesofServantLeadership
Beforeproceedingwiththepresentationofourmodel,wemustacknowledgethatsomescholarshaveidentified
potentialchallengestotheservantleadershipapproach.First,itislikelythatnotallfollowersororganizationswill
openlyreceiveservantleadershipasanappropriateorvalidleadershipstyle.Further,servantleadersmust
balancetheconcernsandpreferencesofmultiplestakeholders(organization,supervisor,followers,community,
andpersonallifeandfamily),whic hcanbebothlogisticallyandemotionallytaxing.Theseissueselucidate
potentialchallengesforimplementingservantleadership.
Followerleadershippreferencesmaybeanimportantissuethatimpactsthewayinwhichservantleaders’actions
areperceived(Meuser,Liden,Wayne,&Henderson,2011).Quitesimply,notallpeoplemaydesirethebenevolent
behaviorsofaservantleader.Amismatchbetweenfollowercomfortwithordesireforservantleadershipand
actualleadershipstylemaycausedeleteriouseffectsintheworkplace(e.g.,reducedfollowerperformanceor
OCB)whenservantleadershipisapplied,andinextremecasesmayevenresultinfollowersnotperceivingtheir
immediatesuperiorstobeleaders.
Researchintothescarcityparadigm(e.g.,Greenhaus&Beutell,1985)providesabasisforunderstandingthe
complexitiesandchallengesoftheroleandresourceconflictsaservantleadermayexperience.Allstakeholders

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placeaclaimontheservantleader’sfinitetime,energy,andfinancialresources,andtheremaysimplynotbe
enoughtogoaround.Emotionallaborcosts(seeAshforth&Humphrey,1993;Beal,Trougakos,Weiss,&Green,
2006;Morris&Feldman,1996)arelikelytobehighforservantleaders.Themoretraditionalwaytoleadvia
directingandcontrollingismuchlessdemandingthanengaginginservantleadership,whichrequireslistening,
empathy,mentoring,guidance,andemotionalsupport.Thisapproachtoleadershipmaybeemotionallytaxingdue
totheemotionalregulationthatisrequiredwhenattemptingtoserveothers.Inadditiontothecostofemotional
regulation,makingoneselfsoreadilyavailabletofollowersasasourceofhelpandsupport,alsoraisesthe
possibilityofrolec onflictsinattemptingtoserveallrelevant“others”first.Theproblembecomesexacerbatedby
demandsplacedontheservantleaderbyotherrolesetmembers,suchastheimmediatesuperior.Servant
leadershipisdefinedasputtingothers’needsfirst.Doingsoisessentialforbecomingagenuineservantleader.
However,ifservantleadersputtheneedsofallmembersfirst,theythemselvesmayriskstressandeventual
burnout.Further,theservantleadermaybesusceptibletomanipulationbymoresavvyfollowers,whomightexploit
theservantleaderforpersonalgain,thusplacinganinordinateemotionalandlogisticalburdenontheleader
(Whetstone,2002).
Indeed,duetoroleandresourceconflic t,servantleadersmaystruggletodefendtheirleadershipstyleinsome
organizations.Anderson(2009),forexample,criticizedtheservantleadermodelasdetrimentaltoorganizational
goals.Tohim,servantleadershiprepresentsanagencyproblem,whereconcernwithfollowersreducesthe
conc ernandenergyappliedtoorganizationalgoals.Whentheimmediatesuperiorofaservantleaderholdsaview
similartoAndersonortheorganizationalc ultureisunsupportive,theservantleaderencountersadditional
obstaclesthatcanincreasetheemotionallaborassociatedwithbeingaservantleader.
Roleconflictmaynotonlyoccurwithrespecttoattemptingtosatisfythecompetingdemandsoffollowersand
othersatwork.Indeed,servantleaders,whobydefinitionshouldbeservantsinallrealmsoflife,mayalso
experienceconflictbetweendemandsoffollowers,familymembers,andmembersofthecommunity.Conflictsmay
notonlyocc urwithintheworkcontext,suchasbetweensatisfyingtheneedsofmultiplefollowersand/orthe
immediatesuperior,butalsoacrossc ontexts,suchaswantingtoserveafolloweratthesametimethatafamily
memberneedshelp.Inattemptingtosatisfyallrelevantothers,theservantleaderlikelyengagesinhighlevelsof
emotionallabor.Tremendousstresscanresultfromsituationsinwhichtheservantleaderisfacedwithmultiple
simultaneousdemandstoputothersfirst.Sometimestheroleconflictissuchthattheservantleadermustdecide
whotohelp,andwhocannotbehelpedatthemoment.Forexample,aleader’sdaughterneedshelponaschool
project,butfollowersneedtheleadertostayatworklatetoprovideguidanceonanimportantreport.Usingarole
conflictframework,researchintegratingwork,family,andcommunityisneededtofullyunderstandthepotential
competingdemandsofservantleadership.
AntecedentsofServantLeadership
Whiletheservantleadershipliteraturehasdevotedconsiderableattentiontothestudyofwhatconstitutesa
servantleaderandtheoutcomesofservantleadership,scarceattentionhasbeenpaidtothedevelopmentof
servantleadership,ortheantecedentsofservantleadershipbehaviors.Drawingfromservantleadership’s
theoretic alunderpinnings,weidentifiedsixleadercharacteristicsthatarmleaderswiththepotentialtoengagein
servantleadershipbehaviors.However,becauseservantleadershipdoesnotoc curinavacuum,contextlikely
influencesthedegreetowhichtheseleadercharacteristicsresultinmanifestationsofservantleadership.Inline
withrecentcallstoaccountforindividualdifferencesinthestudyofservantleadership(e.g.,Walumbwaetal.,
2010),weproposethatfollowercharac teristicsalertleaderstothereceptivenessofeachfollowertoservant
leadership,andtheleader’sawarenessoffollowerdesireforservantleadershipmoderatestherelationships
betweenleadercharacteristicsandservantleaderbehaviors.
LeaderCharacteristics
Sixleadercharacteristicsareproposedasantecedentsofservantleadershippotential:thedesiretoserveothers,
emotionalintelligence,moralmaturityandconation,prosocialidentity,coreself-evaluation,and(low)narcissism.
Desiretoserveothers.Readinessandmotivationtoleadhavebeenportrayedaskeyprerequisitesfor
effectiveleadership(Hannah&Avolio,2010).Servantleaders,however,arethoughttobedrivenbyanadditional

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force,whichisthedesiretoserve(Ng,Koh,&Goh,2008).Thisdesireisviewedastheprimemotivationfor
engaginginservantleadershipbehaviors.Inessence,servantleadersmakeaconsc iouschoicetoleadasa
meansofservingothers(Greenleaf,1977).Greenleaf’sdescriptionoftheservantleaderasonewho“wantsto
serve,toservefirst”(1977,p.13)andonewhoisgenuinelyconcernedwithservingfollowers,clearlyplacesthe
notionofserviceatthecoreofservantleadership.Thisemphasisonservingothersepitomizestheselflessor
altruisticmotivesofservantleaders,andcontributestosettingservantleadershipapartfromotherleadership
theories,whic hmakeservingtheorganizationthemainfocus.
InlinewithGreenleaf’sseminalwork,thedesiretoservehasbeenembeddedinoneformoranotherinseveral
conc eptualizationsofservantleadership(e.g.,Barbuto&Wheeler,2006;Graham,1991;Russell&Stone,2002;
Sendjaya,Sarros,&Santora,2008;vanDierendonck,2011).Followingourviewofservantleadershipasasetof
behaviors,ratherthanacombinationofpersonalcharacteristics,wearguethatdesiretoserveothersisbestseen
asanantecedentofthesebehaviors,becausedesiresandneedsfostermotivation,whichinturndrivesbehavior
(Kanfer,1990).Specifically,weproposethatservantleaders’desiretoservefostersamotivationtoserve,which
predisposesonetowardservantleadershipbehaviors.Inourview,thedesiretoserveothersincludes,butgoes
beyond,thepropensitytobeconcernedforothers,orotherorientation(Meglino&Korsgaard,2004),becauseit
correspondstoanintrinsicmotivationtoengageinservingbehaviorsratherthanamerepredispositiontobe
conc ernedforthewell-beingofothers.Further,adesiretoservealsomotivatesleaderstoknowtheirfollowersin
ordertobetterserveeachindividual’sneeds.
Emotionalintelligence.Emotionalintelligence,“theabilitytounderstandandmanagemoodsandemotionsin
theselfandothers”(George,2000,p.1027),representsanintegrationofemotionwithcognition(Wolff,
Pescosolido,&Druskat,2002).Recenttheoreticalworkproposesacascadingmodelofemotionalintelligence,
whichviewsemotionperception(theabilitytoidentifyemotionsinoneselfandinothers),emotionunderstanding
(knowledgeoftheoriginsandconsequencesofemotions),andemotionregulation(influencinghowone
experiencesandexpressesemotions)aselementsofasequentialprocess(Joseph&Newman,2010).Thismodel
furtherproposesthatconscientiousness,cognitiveability,andemotionalstability,respectively,contributetothese
dimensionsofemotionalintelligence,andthatthelatterpartiallymediatetheirimpactonjobperformance.These
antecedentsofemotionalintelligencealsopresentlinkswithservantleadership.Forinstance,aleaderwithahigh
levelofcognitiveabilityismorelikelytopossessahighlevelofconceptualskills.Similarly,becauseconscientious
individualsaremethodical,dependable,organizedandtendtoperformathighlevels(Dudley,Orvis,Lebiec ki,&
Cortina,2006),consc ientiousleadersarelikelytodemonstrateahighlevelofconc eptualskillsandthepropensity
toprovidevaluableassistanceinhelpingfollowersgrowandsucceed.Lastly,becauseemotionallystableleaders
tendtoexperienc elessnegativeaffectandaregenerallyhappier,moresatisfiedpeople(Steel,Schmidt,&Shultz,
2008),theymaybeinabetterpositiontoprovideemotionalhealing.Empathy,“theabilitytoc omprehend
another’sfeelingsandtore-experiencethemoneself,”isalsoseenasac entralcharacteristicofemotional
intelligence(Salovey&Mayer,1990,p.194)andhighlyrelevanttoservantleadership.
Wecontendthatindividualswhopossessahighdegreeofemotionalintelligencearemorelikelytomanifest
servantleaderbehaviors.Indeed,servingothersrequiresknowledgeandawarenessofhowfollowersneedtobe
helped.Specifically,mostservantleaderbehaviorsrequireempathy,anawarenessandunderstandingofothers’
emotions,and/ortheabilitytomanageemotions(emotionregulation).Forexample,inordertoeffectivelyprovide
emotionalhealing,theleadermustcorrectlyidentifyaneedforsuchhealing.Becauseoftheirawareness
(perceptionandunderstanding)andempathy,individualshighonemotionalintelligencemaypossessthe
sensitivitytorecognizeeachindividual’suniqueneedsandconsequentlybemoreapttosootheothersthanwould
alessemotionallyintelligentleader(Goleman,1995; Humphrey,2002).
Wealsocontendthatinordertoengageinservantleadershipbehaviors,leadersneedanawarenessandabilityto
managetheirownemotions(i.e.,perceptionandunderstandingofone’sownemotions).Forexample,intimesof
crisis,puttingfollowers’needsfirstandprovidingemotionalhealingmayrequiretheleadertoacknowledgeand
overcomehisorherownnegativeemotions.Thismaybeeasierforemotionallyintelligentindividuals,because
theyunderstandtheiremotionsbetter,andaremorelikelytoregulatethemappropriately(Antonakis,Ashkanasy,&
Dashborough,2009).Theservantleaderbehavior,“empoweringfollowers”(Lidenetal.,2008),includes
acc eptanceoftheriskassoc iatedwithfollowermistakesthatmayresultfromtheinc reasedinfluenceandcontrol
grantedtothembytheservantleader.Whereasnon-servantleadersmaybereluc tanttoassumesuc hrisks,
servantleadersacc epttherisksasanecessarypartoftheprocessthroughwhichfollowersreachtheirfull

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potential.Dealingwiththedisappointmentthatisnaturalwhenfollowersmakemistakesmaybeeasierfor
emotionallyintelligentleaders,whobydefinitionaremoreadeptatmanagingfeelingsoffrustration(emotion
regulation).Finally,empathy,akeyelementofemotionalintelligence,isadriverforaltruistic behavior(Batson,
1990)thatshouldpredisposeindividualstoadoptbehaviorsthatare,bynature,selfless.
Wecontendthatemotionalintelligenceisanecessary—butnotsufficient—prerequisiteforservantleader
behaviors.Thisviewisconsistentwithpriortheoreticalworkonservantleadership,whichviewsempathyand
awarenessasimportantattributesofservantleaders(e.g.,Barbuto&Wheeler,2006;Spears,1998),andempirical
workonemotionalintelligence,whichsuggeststhatemotionallyintelligentleaderstendtoengageinaltruistic
behaviors(Carmeli,2003),includingbehaviorsassociatedwithservingfollowers.
Moralmaturityandm oralconation.Fromitsinception,servantleadershiphasexplicitlyincludedanethicalor
moraldimension(e.g.,Graham,1991;Greenleaf,1970;Lidenetal.,2008;Sendjayaetal.,2008;vanDierendonck
&Nuijten,2011),whichactstodistinguishservantleadershipfromotherleadershiptheories.Forexample,neither
LMX,transformational,transactional,c harismatic,behavioral,contingentnorsituationalleadershiptheoriesinclude
a“moralsafeguard”(Walumbwaetal.,2010).
Therelationshipbetweenmoralityandtheethicalbehaviorsofaservantleadercanbeunderstoodinlightofthe
theoretic alcontributionofHannah,Avolio,andMay(2011).Hannahandhiscolleagues(2011)offerataxonomyfor
moralprocesseswithtwocategoriesofindividualdifferencesthatarerelevantformoralthoughtandaction:moral
maturationandmoralconation.
Moralmaturityreflec tsahighcapacityformoraljudgmentresultingfromtheadoptionofpersonalmoralc odesand
theabilitytothinkinanindependentway(Kohlberg,1984;Restetal.,1999).Moralmaturationiscomprisedof
threecomponents:moralcomplexity(theabilitytorecognize,organize,andcategorizemoralphenomena),
metacognitiveability(theabilitytoconsiderandrefinethosementalcategorizations),andmoralidentity(the
centralityof“moral”tothefocalperson’sself-view).Weproposethatmoralcomplexityandmetacognitiveability
areantecedentstotheethicalbehaviorscontainedwithinservantleadership,asonecannotbehaveina
consistentlymoralfashionifonehasnotdevelopedtheabilitytorecognizeandcategorizemoralsituations.
Anidentityisaself-definitionthatguidesbehavior(Erikson,1964;Reynolds&Ceranic ,2007).Moralidentity,“a
specifickindofidentitythatrevolvesaroundthemoralaspectsofone’sself”(Reynolds&Ceranic,2007,p.1611)
isanimportantdeterminantofmoralbehavior.Moralidentitygoesbeyondmerethoughtsaboutmoralphenomena,
capturingtheextenttowhich“beingamoralperson”iscentraltoanindividual’sself-concept,thuscompellinghim
orhertothink,judge,andactinamoralmanner(Aquino&Reed,2002;Hannahetal.,2011).Recentempirical
workbyMayer,Aquino,Greenbaum,andKuenzi(2012)supportsaconnectionbetweenleadermoralidentityand
moralbehaviorsthatareconsistentwiththatself-definition.
Leaderswhopossessmoralmaturitylikelybehaveinawaythatisconsistentwiththeirpersonalmoralorethical
norms(i.e.,theirmoralidentity),asbehavingotherwisewouldcreatecognitivedissonance.Consistentwiththis
view,leaders’cognitivemoraldevelopmenthasbeenfoundtobesignificantlyandpositivelyrelatedtoethical
decisionmaking(Ashkanasy,Windsor,&Treviño,2006),perceivedleaderintegrity,andtoservantleader
behaviors(Washington,Sutton,&Feild,2006).Leadermoralmaturitymayalsofosterothertypesofservantleader
behaviors,asindividualswhohaveachievedhighcognitivemoraldevelopmentarelesslikelytobehaveinaself-
servingmanner(Schminke,Ambrose,&Neubaum,2005).Inlinewitharecentreviewoftheservantleadership
literature(VanDierendonck,2011),weviewleadermoralmaturityasanantec edenttoservantleadership
behaviors.
However,moralmaturity,theunderstandingofrightvs.wrong,aloneisnotsufficienttosecuremoralaction.Moral
conation(Hannahetal.,2011)isthecapac itytobelieveoneismorallyresponsibleandactinamoralway,evenin
thepresenceofobstaclestomoralaction.Moralconationiscomprisedofthreecomponents:moralownership
(extenttowhic honefeelsresponsibleformoralaction,eitheronbehalfofoneselforalargergroup),moral
effic acy(beliefthatonecanactinamoralwayinagivensituation),andmoralcourage(tenacitytoengagein
moralbehaviorsandovercomeobstaclestomoralaction).Weproposethattheattainmentofmoralconationis
alsoanantecedenttotheethicalbehaviorscontainedwithinservantleadership.Servantleaders,therefore,are
expectedtohaveahighdegreeofmoralownership,moralefficacy,andmoralcourage,andassuch,feel
responsibleformoralaction,believetheycanactmorally,anddosointhefaceofobstacles.

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Proso cialidentity.Identitytheoryandempiricalresearchsuggestthatindividualsholdmultipleidentities,which
influencebehaviorasafunctionoftheirsalience(Grant,Molinsky,Margolis,Kamin,&Schiano,2009;Stryker&
Burke,2000).Similartomoralidentity,astrongprosocialidentity,“thedimensionoftheself-conceptfocusedon
helpingandbenefitingothers”(Grantetal.,2009,p.321),maypredisposeindividualstoadoptservantleadership
behaviors.Thiscanbeexpected,becausehelpingandbeingofservicetoothers—followersandthebroader
community—areattheverycoreofservantleadershiptheory(Lidenetal.,2008;VanDierendonck,2011).As
servantleaderbehaviorsarebynatureprosocial,astrongprosocialidentityshouldpredisposeindividualsto
manifestthem.
Co reself-evaluation.Coreself-evaluation(CSE;Erez&Judge,2001;Judge,Erez,&Bono,1998;Judge,Erez,
Bono,&Thoresen,2003)isacombinationoffourlower-levelpersonalitytraits.Specifically,CSEiscomprisedof
self-esteem,self-efficacy,locusofcontrol,andneuroticismandcanbesummarizedintermsofone’sfundamental
viewofone’sselfasacompetent,worthy,andeffectiveperson.WecontendthatindividualswithhigherCSEare
morelikelytomanifestservantleadershipbehaviors.Indeed,ithasbeensuggestedthatthosewithpositiveself-
conc eptswouldbemorelikelytoadoptaltruisticbehaviors,astheyarelesspreoccupiedwiththemselves
(Rushton,1980).Morespecifically,leaderswithhighself-esteemarelesslikelytoseekapprovalandself-
gratificationthroughleadershiproles,andtheirbeliefintheirself-worthmayshieldthemagainsttherisksoffailure
assoc iatedwithservantleadershipbehaviors,suchasempoweringanddevelopingfollowers.Individualswithhigh
self-efficacy,becausetheybelieveintheirownabilities,aremorelikelytogobeyondtraditionalleadershipand
engageinthemorechallengingservantleadershipbehaviorsofempoweringfollowersandhelpingthemgrow,or
creatingvalueforthecommunity.Havinganinternallocusofcontrolshouldalsopredisposeleaderstoengagingin
servantleadershipbehaviorsasthesebehaviorsrequireabeliefinone’sabilitytoactivelyinfluenceone’s
environment,inc ludingfollowersandthebroadercommunity.Lastly,aslowneuroticismleadsonetofocusonthe
positivesideofthings,leaderslowonneuroticismaremorelikelytosee,andthuswanttodevelop,followers’
strengths.Conversely,leadershighonneuroticismarelesslikelyto“involvethemselvesintheirsubordinates’
efforts”(Bass,1985,p.173).
Narcissism.Narcissismc anbebroadlydefinedasa“grandiosesenseofself-importance”(Judge,LePine,&Rich,
2006,p.762).Narcissistsrequireexcessiveadmiration,haveasenseofentitlement,areinterpersonallyexploitive
andlackempathy.Insensitivetoothers’needs,narcissiststendtofocusontheirgoalsattheexpenseofothers’
goals(Judgeetal.,2006;Morf&Rhodewalt,2001).Clearly,thisself-servingtendencyc ontrastswithservant
leadership’sprioritiz ationofothers’needsandgoals.Specific ally,anindividualwithsuchapervasiveself-focusis
unlikelytoputsubordinatesfirst,helpthemgrowandsucceed,andempowerthem,asthesebehaviorsarebased
onaprioritizationofsubordinates’(ratherthanone’sown)needs.Wethusc ontendthatindividualswithhigher
narcissismarelesslikelytoengageinservantleadershipbehaviors.Inlinewithourview,Petersonandcolleagues
(2012)recentlyfoundanegativerelationshipbetweennarcissismandservantleadershipbehaviorsamongCEOs.
Proposition1:Leaderdesiretoserveothers,emotionalintelligence,moralmaturityandmoralconation,
prosocialidentity,andcoreself-evaluationarepositively,andnarcissismnegatively,relatedtoservant
leadershippotential.
FollowerCharacteristics
Althoughleadershipdoesnotexistwithoutfollowers,mostattentioninleadershiptheoryandresearchison
leaders.Perhapsthisisduetothefac tthatthetraittheoriesdominatedthinkingonleadershipsinceearlyGreek
philosophers.Indeed,leadersaltertheirbehaviorsbasedonthecharacteristicsandbehaviorsoffollowers(Herold,
1977;Lowin&Craig,1968).Servantleadersactontheirknowledgeoftheirfollowers’needs,desires,and
potential,byadjustingtheirleaderbehaviorsacc ordingly.Forexample,onefollowermayrequiremoreindividual
guidanceandmentoringthanaproactivefollowerwhomainlyseeksempowerment.
Althoughrelationshipsareimportanttomanyleadershipapproaches(Ferrisetal.,2009),theyarecentralto
servantleadership.Theservantleaderformsuniquerelationshipswitheachfollower,andtheserelationships
enabletheservantleadertofocusfollowers’motivationandbehavior,modifyingtheapplic ationoftheservant
leaderdimensionstoeachparticularcase.Theservantleadercantherebydrawoutthebestfromeac hfollowerby
providingtailoredattentiontoeachfollower’sneeds.Weconsiderthreefollowercharac teristicsthatmayinfluence
leaderengagementinservantleadership:proactivepersonality,CSE,andservantleaderprototype.Wec ontend

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thatservantleaders’perceptionsoffollowercharac teristicsdrivethespecific wayinwhichservantleader
behaviorsareemployedforeachfollower.
Proactivepersonality.Proactivepeople“select,create,andinfluenceworksituationsthatincreasethe
likelihoodofcareersuccess”(Seibert,Kraimer,&Crant,2001,p.847),andtheseindividualsengageinproactive
behaviors,orpersonalinitiativedirectedtowardimprovingacurrentsituation.Ameta-analysisonproactive
personality(Fuller&Marler,2009)foundpositivepopulationcorrelationcoefficientsfortheproactivebehaviorsof
voice(ρ=.26),takingchange(ρ=.28),networking(ρ=.31),andcareerinitiative(ρ=.35).Servantleaders,
giventheirfocusonserviceversusauthorityandpower,areparticularlywellsituatedtoallowthosefollowerswith
proactivepersonalitiestoshine.ConsistentwithGreenleaf’sarguments(1970),ratherthanattemptingtostifle
alternativepointsofview,servantleaderswelcomefollowerstoexpressdifferentpointsofview.Inessence,the
servantleaderiscomfortablewiththosewhoshowinitiativeandenactvoice,andthisismanifestedbyempowering
andhelpingsubordinatesgrowandsucceed.Conversely,servantleadersrecognizethatfollowerslowon
proactivepersonalityneedamoreactive“handson”leader,andtheservantleader,givenhisorherrelational
orientationwithfollowers,discernswhentoapplyassistanceinordertomaximizefollowerpotential(Lidenetal.,
2008).
Co reself-evaluation.Soc ialcognitivetheory(SCT;Bandura,1991)suggeststhatpeoplehigheronCSEwillbe
morewillingandmotivatedtoengageinproductiveworkplacebehaviorstotheextentthattheyperceivetheir
actionswillresultinpositiveoutcomes(eithertangibleorintangible,e.g.,higherself-evaluationafteracc omplishing
adesiredgoal).Theself-regulationandmotivationthatresultsinperformancewilldependonthec ognitive
regulationthatoccurswithinaperson.Self-esteemandself-efficacyarefundamentalcomponentsinthesoc ial
cognitivetheoryofmotivation(SCT;Bandura,1991;Wood&Bandura,1989).SCTviewsapersonasaninfluencer
oftheenvironmentaswellasinfluencedbytheenvironment(Bandura,1999).Thosewithhigherself-esteemand
self-efficacyviewthemselvesasc apableofexercisinginfluenceandcontrolovertheirenvironment.Internallocus
ofcontrol,therefore,joinswithself-esteemandself-efficacyasimportantpredictorsofone’sbeliefthatheorshe
canaffecttheenvironment.UndertheSCTview,thepossessionofrelevantknowledge,skills,andabilitiesis
necessarybutnotsufficientforperformance.Individualsmustbelievethattheyc aneffectivelyinfluencetheir
environmentinordertobemotivatedtodoso.Assuch,thetypeofservantleadershipappliedtoafollower
dependsonthefollower’sCSE.WeproposethatfollowershighinCSEreactmorefavorablytoempowerment
opportunitiesandmorereadilybenefitfromtheservantleader’sattemptstohelpasubordinategrowandsucceed.
Conversely,followerslowinCSEbenefitfrommoreemotionalhealinginordertoaddressthenegative
psychologicalwell-beingthatcanaccompanylowself-esteemandself-efficacy.Thus,wearguethatfollowerCSE
positivelyinfluencestheleader’sengagementinservantleaderbehaviors.
Servantleaderprototype.Categorytheory(Rosc h,1978)describesaprocessbywhichpeopledevelopand
usementalshortcuts,groupingsimilarthingstogether,atleastforsomepurposes.Lordandcolleagueshave
leveragedRosch’swork,applyingittothedomainofleadership.Leadershipcategorytheory(Lord,Foti,&
Devader,1984)suggeststhatallfollowershavetheirownmentalrepresentationof“leader,”whichisbuiltand
refinedovertime(Lord,Brown,Harvey,&Hall,2001).Leadershipprototypesareanindividualdifference(Gerstner
&Day,1994),andassuch,aprioriagreementonleadershippreferencesshouldnotbeassumed,evenforservant
leadership.
Aservantleaderisabenevolent,supportive,andcaringleader.Onemayexpec tthatallfollowerswoulddesirea
servantleader,andthatmoreservantleadershipyieldsmorepositiveoutcomes.However,theoryandresearch
supportac ontraryperspective(Meuseretal.,2011).Thereisvariabilityintheextenttowhic hfollowersform
implicitperceptionsorprototypesofanidealleaderthatisconsistentwithservantleadershiptheory.Specifically,
thereisvarianceinthedegreetowhichfollowersdesirealeaderwhoengagesinservantleadershipbehaviors.
Becauseservantleadersareempathicandsensitivetotheneedsoffollowers,wecontendthatinforming
relationshipswithfollowers,servantleadersbecomeawareoffollowerleadershippreferences(Graham,1991).
Theliteratureissilentwithrespecttoleaderawarenessoffollowerpreferences.Servantleadershiptheory
emphasiz esthatinordertobeinapositiontohelpfollowers,leadersmustbeattentivetotheuniquequalitiesand
aspirationsofeachfollower.Infact,ahallmarkofservantleadershipisthatservantleaderstakethetimetolearn
aboutthebackgrounds,interests,andpreferencesofeachfollower,whic hiscrucialiftheleaderistoplacethe
needsoffollowersfirstinservingfollowers(Greenleaf,1970).Extendingbeyondtheindividualizedconsiderationof

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transformationalleadershiptheory,servantleadersempathizewithfollowersandnotonlyattempttoprovidetask
assignmentsandrewardsbasedonindividualneedsasdescribedbytransformationalleadershiptheory,butalso
providingemotionalsupportandguidance.Thus,wecontendthatrelativetonon-servantleaders,servantleaders
areespeciallyattunedtotheuniqueaspirationsandpreferencesofeachfollowerandindividuallycustomizethe
applicationofservantleaderbehaviorsbasedupontheseperceptions.Wefurtherarguethatthemoreaccurately
leadersperceivefollowers’servantleadershipprototypes,thestrongerthepositiverelationshipsbetweenservant
leaderpotentialandservantleaderbehaviors.
Proposition2:Servantleaderawarenessoffollowercharacteristics(proactivepersonality,coreself-
evaluation,andservantleaderprototype)moderatestherelationshipbetweenservantleaderpotential
andservantleaderbehaviors.
IntermediateProcessesandOutcomes
Weproposethatservantleaderbehaviorsinfluencefolloweroutcomesviathefollowingindividual-levelprocesses:
leader-followermutualtrust,followerprosocial/moralidentity,followerCSE(specific allyself-esteemandself-
effic acy),empowerment,autonomousmotivation,andcommitmenttothesupervisor.Wearguethatthese
processesinturnleadtofavorablefollower-leveloutcomes,suchascreativity/innovation,servantleadership
behaviors,organiz ationalcommitment,organizationalcitizenshipbehaviors(OCBs),communitycitiz enship
behaviors,in-roleperformanc e,andengagement.Theseprocessesandoutc omesarediscussedinthefollowing
subsections.
Leader-followerm utualtrust.AlthoughtrusthasbeendiscussedwithrespecttoLMXandtransformational
leadership,itiscritic alforservantleadership.Thenotionoftrusthasbeenpresentintheservantleadership
literaturesinceitsinceptionwithRobertGreenleaf’sseminalessay(1970),eitherasanattributeofservantleaders,
orasastateelicitedbythem(e.g.,Farling,Stone,&Winston,1999;Russell&Stone,2002).Servantleadership
andtrustarepositivelyrelated(Joseph&Winston,2005),whichissalientgiventhattrustintheleaderhasbeen
foundtoinfluencefolloweroutc omes,suchasjobperformance,jobsatisfaction,andorganiz ationalcommitment
(Dirks&Ferrin,2002).Theoryandempiricalevidencepointtotrustasakeymediatingmechanismthroughwhich
servantleaderbehaviorsinfluencefolloweroutcomes.
Trustis“apsychologicalstatecomprisingtheintentiontoacceptvulnerabilitybaseduponpositiveexpectationsof
theintentionsorbehaviorofanother”(Rousseau,Sitkin,Burt,&Camerer,1998,p.395).Conc eptualworksuggests
thatperceivedability,benevolence,andintegrityareimportantpredictorsoftrust(Hosmer,1995;Mayer,Davis,&
Schoorman,1995).Abilityreferstotheskillsthatenableanindividualtohaveinfluencewithinaspecificdomain
(Mayeretal.,1995).Thisoverlapswithservantleaders’conceptualskills,whichinvolvespossessingthe
knowledgeoftheorganizationandtaskstosupportandassistothers(Lidenetal.,2008).Thesecondantecedent
oftrust,benevolence,referstotheextentanindividualbelievestheotherpartyisconcernedforhisorherwelfare
(Mayeretal.,1995).Servantleaders’helpingsubordinatesgrowandsucceed,puttingsubordinatesfirst,and
emotionalhealingbehaviorsarelikelyseenasprovidingevidenceofbenevolence.Lastly,integrityistheextentto
whichindividualsbelievethattheotherpartyadherestoprinciplesthattheyfindacceptable(Mayeretal.,1995).
Asservantleadersbehaveethicallyandinteractopenly,fairly,andhonestlywithothers(Lidenetal.,2008),they
arelikelyperceivedtohaveintegrity.Theconceptualproximitybetweenpredictorsoftrustandservantleadership
behaviorssuggeststhatthelattercontributetothedevelopmentofleader-followertrust.
Moreover,empiric alevidencesuggeststhatconcernforemployees,adefiningcharacteristicofservant
leadership,andopencommunication,whichservantleadersarethoughttofavor(Humphreys,2005;Lidenetal.,
2008)arerelatedtotrustintheleader(Korsgaard,Brodt,&Whitener,2002).Inadditiontoinspiringtrust,servant
leaderslikelyconveytofollowersasenseoftheirowntrustworthinessbyshowingconc ern,empathy,
dependability,andfullac ceptanceofthem(Greenleaf,1977)andbysharinginformationfreely(Humphreys,2005).
Indeed,theoretic al(Brower,Schoorman,&Tan,2000;Sparrowe&Liden,1997)andempiricalresearchclearly
suggeststhatviasocialexchangemechanisms,whenonepartyofadyadtruststheotherindividual,thedyadic
partnertendstofeelthesamesenseoftrust(Sparrowe&Liden,2005).Giventhatservantleaderstendtoform
highLMXrelationshipswithfollowers(Lidenetal.,2008),itfollowsthatthetrustthatcharacterizesservantleader-
followerrelationshipsismutual.

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Wecontendthatmutualtrust,inturn,leadstofavorableoutcomes,suchasenhancedcreativity/innovation.
Innovation-relatedbehaviorsinvolveproactiveideaimplementationandproactiveproblemsolving(Parker,
Williams,&Turner,2006).Proactiveideaimplementationinvolvespromulgatingnewandcreativeideas,aswellas
self-implementationandthesupportofotherswhoalsomayimplementthenewandcreativeideaswithinthe
workplace(Axtelletal.,2000).Innovativebehaviorsencouragenewideasandprocesses,andinvolvestepping
“outsidethebox”inordertoimprovegroupororganiz ationalprocessesandprocedures.Becauseoftheinherent
riskassoc iatedwithinnovativebehaviorsduetothefactthatthesebehaviors,bydefinition,challengethestatus
quo(Neubertetal.,2008),employeesaremorelikelytomanifestsuchbehaviorsonlyiftheyfeelsafe(Hülsheger,
Anderson,&Salgado,2009).Researchsuggeststhatemployeesaremorelikelytoengageininnovativebehaviors
inaclimateofsupervisorybenevolence,sec urity,andtrust(Mumford&Gustafson,1988;Oldham&Cummings,
1996),suchasthatlikelycreatedbyservantleaders.Indeed,theleaderisthoughttobeparticularlyimpac tfulin
theemergenceofinnovativebehaviors(Amabile,Schatzel,Moneta,&Karmer,2004;Scott&Bruce,1994).
Becauseofthemutualtrustthatwearguecharacterizestheservantleader-followerrelationship,servant
leadershipshouldthuscontributetoenhancedemployeecreativityandinnovation.
Proposition3.Leader-followermutualtrustmediatesrelationshipsbetweenservantleaderbehaviors
andfolloweroutcomes.
Followerproso cial/mo ralidentity.Scholarshaveemphasizedtheimportanceofmodelingasanimportant
elementofservantleadership(Russell&Stone,2002).Forinstance,Graham(1991)viewedtheemulationof
leaders’serviceorientationasthedistinc tivefollowerresponsetothisleadership.Servantleadersmaythus
influencefolloweroutcomesthroughrolemodeling,aphenomenonthatc anbeunderstoodusingsociallearning
theory(Bandura,1986).Accordingtothistheory,individualslearnbyobservingthebehaviorofrolemodels
chosenbasedontheirattractivenessandcredibility.Whileleadersnaturallytendtobeseenasrolemodels
(Neubertetal.,2008),thosewhoenactservantleadershipbehaviorsareparticularlylikelytobecomerolemodels,
becausethesebehaviorsenhancetheirattractivenessandcredibilityintheeyesoffollowers.Specific ally,their
conc ernforothersandstrongethicsmayenhanceattractiveness,andthetrustthattheyinspireinothersaswell
astheirexpertise(conceptualskills)likelytranslateintogreatercredibility(Brown&Treviño,2006;Farlingetal.,
1999;Walumbwaetal.,2010).
Intermsofoutcomes,animportanttenetofservantleadershiptheoryisthatservant-ledfollowerswillthemselves
tendtobecomeservantleaders(Greenleaf,1970;Lidenetal.,2008),whic himpliesthattheyengageinprosocial
behaviors,asservantleaderbehaviorsare,bynature,prosocial.Wearguethatthismayoccurthroughthe
developmentoffollowers’prosocial/moralidentity.Theservicementalityandorientationoftheservantleaderimply
thattheservantleaderisinterestedintheholisticgrowthofhisorherfollowers.Asfollowersgrowandtheir
prosocial/moralidentitybecomesmoresalient,theybecomemorecapableofbehavingasservantleaders.Social
identitytheory(Tajfel,1972;Tajfel&Turner,1979)andsocialcategoriz ationtheory(Turner,1985;Turneretal.,
1987)explainwhyfollowersactonthiscapability.Theleaderleadsthein-grouptowhichthefollowerdesiresto
belong.Thisdesiremaybemotivatedbyapredilectiontoinc reaseself-esteem(Turner,1982;J.C.Turner,Brown,
&Tajfel,1979)ortodecreaseuncertainty(Hogg,2000;Hogg&Abrams,1993;Hogg&Mullin,1999).Througha
processofself-categorizationanddepersonaliz ation,followerscometoseethemselvesasprototypicalgroup
members,thatis,thosewhobehaveaccordingtothesoc ialnormsofthegroup:inourcase,normsestablishedby
theservantleader.Assuch,theprototypicalin-groupmembersbehaveastheservantleaderdoes.Thefollower
canbesurethatservantleaderbehaviorsarethe“right”behaviorstomodelwithinthegroup,whic hprovidesa
strongincentiveforadoptingsuchbehaviors.
Organizationalandcommunityc itizenshipbehaviorsarealsolikelyassociatedwithservantleadershipbehaviors
throughfollowerprosocial/moralidentity.Citizenshipbehaviorsareprosocialactivitiesthatmaybedirectedtoward
avarietyofrecipients.OCBsarebehaviorsthatcontributetoorganizationaleffectiveness,butarenotexplicitly
requiredofemployeesnorformallyrewarded(Organ,1997).Thesebehaviorscanbedirectedtowardthe
organization(OCB-O)oranindividualwithintheorganization(OCB-I;Williams&Anderson,1991).Thesame
prosocialconcernmaybeextendedoutsideoftheorganizationviacommunitycitiz enshipbehaviors,whic hare
prosocialactionsdirec tedatbenefitingrecipientsoutsideoftheorganization(Lidenetal.,2008).Auniquefeature
ofservantleadershipascomparedtootherleadershipapproachesisthatconcernisnotrestric tedtopurely
organizationalgoals,butfollowerandcommunitygoalsaswell(Graham,1991).Concernforstakeholdersbeyond
theorganizationmanifestsitselffortheservantleaderinthecreatingvalueforthecommunitydimension.Assuch,

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theservantleaderisconcernedwithprosocialactionstowardamultitudeofstakeholders.Previousresearchhas
supportedaconnectionbetweenservantleadershipandfollowerOCBs(e.g.,Ehrhart,2004;Hu&Liden,2011;
Walumbwaetal.,2010)aswellascommunityc itizenshipbehaviors(Lidenetal.,2008).Wecontendthatthis
relationshipoccursduetoservantleaders’activationofaprosocialidentitywithinfollowers.Insum,wepropose
thatservantleaderselicitfollowers’prosocial/moralidentitythroughrolemodelingandrepeatedexposureto
servantleaderbehaviors,andtheincreasedsalienceofthisidentityresultsinfollowersengaginginprosoc ial
behaviors,suchasservantleadershipbehaviors,andorganizationalandcommunitycitiz enshipbehaviorsinorder
tomaintainconsistencywiththeirownidentity.
Proposition4.Followerprosocial/moralidentitymediatesrelationshipsbetweenservantleader
behaviorsandfolloweroutcomes(inparticular,followerservantleaderbehaviors,organizational
citizenshipbehaviors,andcommunitycitizenshipbehaviors).
Co reself-evaluation.CSEispositionedinourmodelasaninitialfollowercharacteristic,butalsoasamediatorof
relationshipsbetweenservantleaderbehaviorsandindividualoutc omes.OfthefourcomponentsofCSE,we
contendthatservantleadershipbehaviorsaremostlikelytopositivelyinfluenceself-esteemandself-effic acy.The
remainingtwocomponentsofCSE,locusofcontrolandneuroticism,arerelativelymorestablepersonalitytraits
andthusnotlikelytobeinfluencedtothesamedegreeasself-esteemandself-efficacy.
Self-esteemisaself-evaluationreflectingone’sperceivedvalueasanindividual(Pierce&Gardner,2004).Ithas
beenshowntoexertapositiveinfluenceonemployeeoutc omes,suchasjobsatisfaction,performance,andwell-
being(e.g.,Judge&Bono,2001).Whiletheoretic alandempiric alworksuggeststhatleadershavetheabilityto
enhancetheirfollowers’self-esteem(e.g.,Kark,Shamir,&Chen,2003;Shamir,House,&Arthur,1993),we
proposethatservantleadersareparticularlylikelytodosofortworeasons.First,servantleaderbehaviors,such
asputtingsubordinatesfirst,providingemotionalhealing,andhelpingthemgrowandsucceedconveytofollowers
themessagethattheyareworthyandvaluableindividuals.Thislikelycontributestoself-esteem,asmessagessent
by“significantothersinone’ssocialenvironment,”suchasmentorsandrolemodels,areimportantdeterminants
ofself-esteem(Pierce&Gardner,2004,p.593).Leadersgenerallyrepresentahighlysalientsignific antotherin
followers’workenvironments,andservantleadersarelikelytobecomementors(asmentoringisonewaytohelp
subordinatessucceed)and,asarguedabove,rolemodels.Inadditiontomessagessentbysignificantothers,
anotherimportantdeterminantofself-esteemissuccessfulexperienc esforwhichindividualstakecredit(Pierce&
Gardner,2004).Asaresultofservantleaders’empoweringbehaviors,followersmayhavesuc hsuccessful
experienceswhentheirowndecisionsleadtopositiveoutc omes(Conger&Kanungo,1988).Servantleadersmay
thuscontributetoenhancingtheirfollowers’self-esteemviaempoweringbehaviors.
Withregardtooutcomes,followerself-esteemmaybeanothermechanism,inadditiontofollowerprosocial/moral
identity,throughwhic hservantleadersmotivatefollowerstoengageinservantleadershipbehaviorsthemselves.
Indeed,researchsuggeststhatthosewhoidentifywithagroupandadheretogroupnormsoftenoperatefroma
preventionfocus(Higgins,1997,1998),wheretheyarerestric tedbythenormsofthegroup.Thisisnotconducive
tothedevelopmentofservantleadercharacteristics,especiallywithinthosewhodonotyetexhibitthese
characteristics,becauseinsuchastate,oneismotivatedtoavoidlossandminimizec ostandthuslesslikelyto
manifestnewbehaviors.However,thecultivationofasupportiveenvironmentandthebolsteringoffollowerself-
esteemhelpsshiftemployeesfromapreventionfoc ustoapromotionfocus(Higgins,1997,1998),andemployees
withapromotionfocusareinclinedtotrynewbehaviorsinordertomaximizegainsandbenefitsoverthelongterm
(Wang&Lee,2006).Throughthedirectionofaservantleader,wecontendthatthemajorityofnewbehaviors
benefitothersandarenotfocusedonself-promotion.Asservantleaderscreatepositiveworkclimatesandengage
inbehaviorthatinc reasefollowerself-esteem(Lidenetal.,2008),weproposeservantleadershavetheabilityto
developfollowersintoservantleadersthemselvesthroughincreasingtheirself-esteem.
Althoughotherformsofleadership,suchastransformationalleadership,havebeenshowntobepositivelyrelated
tofollowerself-efficacy(DenHartog&Belschak,2012),wecontendthatservantleadersareespeciallywell-
positionedtoenhancefollowerself-efficacy(Walumbwaetal.,2010).Self-efficacyreflectsone’sbeliefinhis/her
capac itytoskillfullyperformanactivity(Bandura,1986).Servantleadersprovideopportunitiesforfollowersto
havesuccessfulexperiencesthroughincreasedresponsibilityassociatedwithempoweringbehaviors,and
feedbacktofurtherenhanceself-efficac y(Gist&Mitc hell,1992).Furthermore,inhelpingfollowersgrowand
succ eed,servantleadersmayassisttheminimprovinganddevelopingnewskills,andusingtheirknowledgeofthe

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workandtheorganization(conceptualskills).Thishelpsfollowerstosuccessfullysolveproblemsatwork,which
likelyresultsinmoresuc cessfulexperiences(Walumbwaetal.,2010).Servantleaders’emotionalhealing
behaviorsmayalsoc ontributetoincreasingself-efficacyviapositiveaffec tivestates,astheirfollowersmay
experiencelesspsychologicalstrainatwork.Finally,servantleadersmayenhancefollowerself-efficacybyputting
subordinatesfirstandempoweringfollowers,givingthemincreasedconfidenceintheirabilitytoperformwell.
Proposition5:Followercoreself-evaluation(specificallyself-esteemandself-efficacy)mediates
relationshipsbetweenservantleaderbehaviorsandfolloweroutcomes(inparticular,followerservant
leaderbehaviors).
Empowerment.Empowermenthaslongheldaprominentplaceintheservantleadershipliterature,withmany
conc eptualizationsincludingempowerment(orempowering)asadimensionofservantleadership(Russell&
Stone,2002).Empowermentisconceptualiz edasapsyc hologic alstateresultingfromanenablingprocessthat
comprisesfourdimensions:self-determination,impact,meaning,andcompetence(Conger&Kanungo,1988;
Spreitzer,1995;Thomas&Velthouse,1990).Wecontendthatempowermentisamediatingprocessthroughwhic h
servantleaderbehaviorsimpac tfolloweroutcomes.AscanbeseenfromourmodelinFigure17.1,weproposethat
empowermentimpactstheseoutcomesinpartviaautonomousmotivation.Inthefollowingparagraphs,wepresent
ourrationaleforexpectingfollowersofservantleaderstoexperienc eempowerment;relationshipsinvolving
autonomousmotivationarediscussedinthenextsubsection.
Self-determination,thefirstdimensionofempowerment,representstheperceptionofhavingchoiceininitiatingand
regulatingactions;itcorrespondstothenotionofautonomy(Spreitzer,1995).TheempoweringdimensioninLiden
andcolleagues’(2008)servantleadershipconceptualizationiscloselyrelatedtothisfacetofempowerment,asit
focusesongivingfollowerslatitudeindecisionmaking.Empoweringbehaviorsarealsolikelytogivefollowersa
senseofimpact,empowerment’sseconddimension,whichreflectsthedegreetowhichemployeesfeeltheycan
influenceoutcomesatwork(Spreitzer,1995).Indeed,givingfollowersdecision-makingpowerincreasestheir
perceptionofmakingadifferenceatwork.Meaning,thethirddimension,referstotheperceivedvalueofwork
goals,orthedegreetowhichemployeescareabouttheirtasks(Spreitz er,1995;Thomas&Velthouse,1990).
Becauseservantleadersarecommittedtocreatingvalueforthecommunityandsoc ietyasawhole,followerwork
goalsshouldbealignedwiththismission,makingitlikelythatfollowersperceiveworkgoalsasbeingmeaningful.
Competence,empowerment’sfourthdimension,issynonymouswiththeconceptofself-effic acy(Bandura,1986;
Thomas&Velthouse,1990),whichhasalsobeenidentifiedasakeydimensionofCSE(Judge&Bono,2001).
Followersofservantleadersmaydevelopaheightenedsenseofcompetenc eduetotheperceptionofhavingtheir
leader’strustandofbeingworthyofhisorherattentionandsupport,whichalsolikelyresultsinpositiveaffective
states(Chen&Bliese,2002;Conger&Kanungo,1988).Empowerment,ascomprisedofthefourdimensions
describedabove,isproposedtoleadtoautonomousmotivationascapturedinself-determinationtheory(Dec i&
Ryan,1985).
Autono mousmotivation.Self-determinationtheory(Dec i&Ryan,1985,2000)distinguishesautonomous
motivation,aninternalizedformofbehavioralregulationbasedonvolitionandchoice,fromcontrolledmotivation,
whichresultsfromexternalpressures.Weproposeautonomousmotivationasanothermechanismthroughwhich
servantleadershipleadstopositivefolloweroutc omes.Autonomousmotivationisthoughttostemfromthe
satisfactionofthreebasic,universalneeds:autonomy,competence,andrelatedness(Deci&Ryan,2000).
Empowerment,throughitsself-determination(autonomy)andcompetencedimensions,fulfillsneedsforautonomy
andcompetence.Asservantleadersareexpectedtoempowerfollowers,itfollowsthatservantleadersshould
fosterautonomousmotivationthroughfeelingsofempowerment.Inaddition,byprovidingemotionalhealingand
puttingsubordinatesfirst,servantleadersmaycontributetofulfillingfollowers’needforrelatedness,whichisa
needtofeelconnectedtoothers,lovedandcaredfor(Deci&Ryan,2000).Theideathatservantleaderscultivate
followers’autonomousmotivationbyfulfillingtheirbasicneedsisconsistentwithservantleadership’semphasison
servingothers.Indeed,acorecharacteristicofservantleadersisthattheyplacetheirfollowers’needsabovetheir
ownandstrivetofulfillthem(Graham,1991;Lidenetal.,2008),asevidencedbypositiverelationshipsfound
betweenservantleadershipandthethreebasicneeds(Mayer,Bardes,&Picc olo,2008).
Self-determinationtheorypurportsautonomousmotivationtobemostbeneficialintermsofemployeeoutcomes,
andempiricalevidencesupportsthiscontention,asautonomousmotivationhasbeenlinkedtoin-role

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performance,prosoc ialbehaviors,jobsatisfaction,organizationalc ommitment,andemployeewell-being,among
otheroutcomes(Gagné&Deci,2005).Weproposethatautonomousmotivationmediatesrelationshipsbetween
servantleaderbehaviorsandin-roleperformanceandengagement.Indeed,researchhasshownservant
leadershiptohaveapositiverelationshipwithindividualjobperformance(Lidenetal.,2008).Thisrelationship
likelyoccursinpartbecausetheservantleaderenhancesfollowers’senseofcompetenc e/self-efficacy.Inturn,
thisheightenedsenseofcompetenc elikelypromotesautonomousmotivation(Deci&Ryan,1985),whic hleadsto
increasedin-roleperformances(Gagné&Deci,2005).
Engagementisdefinedasthecompleteinvestmentofone’sentireselfinarole(Rich,LePine,&Crawford,2010).
Thisconcepthasc loseconceptualtieswithautonomousmotivation,asengagementisdefinedasamotivational
conc ept(Christian,Garza,&Slaughter,2011),andtheunderlyingmec hanismsleadingtothedevelopmentof
autonomousmotivationhavebeenproposedasdriversofengagement(Meyer&Gagné,2008).Furthermore,
empiricalevidencesuggeststhatautonomousmotivationleadstoemployeeengagement(e.g.,VanBeek,Hu,
Schaufeli,Taris,&Schreurs,2012).Wethusproposethatservantleadershipbehaviorscontributetoemployee
engagementviaempowermentandautonomousmotivation.
Proposition6:Viaautonomousmotivation,psychologicalempowermentmediatesrelationshipsbetween
servantleaderbehaviorsandfolloweroutcomes.
Co mmitmenttothesupervisor.Commitmenttothesupervisorisproposedasthelastmediatingvariable
betweenservantleaderbehaviorsandfolloweroutcomes.Theoryandempiric alevidencesuggestcommitmentto
thesupervisorcantakevariousforms(e.g.,Clugston,Howell,&Dorfman,2000;Meyer&Herscovitch,2001).
Affectivecommitmenttothesupervisor,anemployee’semotionalattachmenttohisorherleader(Meyer&
Herscovitch,2001),isthoughttodevelopfollowingsocialexchangeandreciprocitymechanisms(Blau,1964;
Gouldner,1960)asaresultofpositiveworkexperiencesperceivedtobeofferedbythesupervisor(Meyer,Irving,
&Allen,1998).Specifically,supportandfairtreatmentreceivedfromthesupervisorhavebeenshowntoinfluence
thiscommitmentmindset(Liao&Rupp,2005; Stinglhamber&Vandenberghe,2003).Similarprocessesarethought
toleadtothedevelopmentofnormativecommitmenttothesupervisor,whichisbasedonasenseofloyaltyand
dutytowardtheleader(Clugstonetal.,2000;Meyer&Hersc ovitch,2001).Asservantleadersarelikelytoprovide
support(viaemotionalhealingandhelpingsubordinatesgrowandsucceed),fairness(throughethicalbehaviors),
and,generally,toofferfollowersapositiveworkexperienceinthebroadsenseoftheword(byputting
subordinates’needsfirst,forexample),followersarelikelytobecomeaffectivelyandnormativelycommittedto
theminreturn.
Withregardtooutcomes,researc hsuggestscommitmenttothesupervisorenhancesorganizationalcommitment,
thepsychologicalforcethatbindsemployeestotheiremployingorganization(e.g.,Hunt&Morgan,1994;Panaccio
&Vandenberghe,2011).Thismaybeduetothefactthatthesupervisorisseenasakeyrepresentativeofthe
organization(Levinson,1965),andwhenoneexperiencesfavorabletreatmentfromthesupervisor,onedevelops
apositiveviewoftheorganizationandexperiencesaneedtoreciprocatethisfavorabletreatment.Oneformof
reciprocationistoincreaseone’sorganizationalcommitment(Tsui,Pearce,Porter,&Tripoli,1997).Commitmentto
thesupervisorhasalsobeenshowntocontributetoin-roleperformanceandOCBs(e.g.,Bec ker,Billings,Eveleth,
&Gilbert,1996;Becker&Kernan,2003).Thisislikelyduetothefactthatthesebehaviorsalsorepresentwaysto
reciprocateforthefavorabletreatmentreceivedfromtheorganiz ationviaitsrepresentative,thesupervisor.We
thusproposethatcommitmenttothesupervisormediatesrelationshipsbetweenservantleaderbehaviorsand
followeroutcomes,suchasorganizationalcommitment,in-roleperformance,andOCBs.Inlinewithourview,
commitmenttothesupervisorhasbeenshowntopartiallymediatetherelationshipbetweenservantleadershipand
OCBs(Walumbwaetal.,2010).
Proposition7:Commitmenttothesupervisormediatesrelationshipsbetweenservantleaderbehaviors
andfolloweroutcomes(inparticular,organizationalcommitment,in-roleperformance,andOCBs).
ImpactofServantLeadershipPrototype
Wecontendthatfollowerservantleadershipprototypes,previouslypresentedasamoderatorofassociations
betweenservantleadershippotentialandactualservantleaderbehaviors,alsomoderaterelationshipsbetween
servantleaderbehaviorsandtheintermediateprocesses.Ourpropositionisbasedonthelinkagebetween

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followers’leadershipprototypesandtheirself-identities.Socialidentitytheory(Tajfel,1972)suggeststhatone’s
surroundingsimpactone’sself-imagethroughaprocessofself-identification.Socialidentityhasbeendefinedas
“theindividual’sknowledgethathebelongstoc ertainsocialgroupstogetherwithsomeemotionalandvalue
significancetohimofthisgroupmembership”(Tajfel,1972,p.292).Essentially,onedefinesin-andout-groups
baseduponsalientgroupcharacteristics,seesoneselfasamemberofthein-group,definesoneself(atleastin
part)bythatgroup’scharacteristics,andbecomesconcernedwithgroupgoals,makingthemhisorherown
(Hogg,2001;Sedikides&Brewer,2001;Turneretal.,1987).
Congruencewithfollowermentalrepresentationoftheidealleader(i.e.,thefollower’sleadershipprototype)yields
higherfollowerratingsofleadereffectiveness(e.g.,Hogg&Terry,2000;Nye&Forsyth,1991),andcharisma
(Platow,VanKnippenberg,Haslam,VanKnippenberg,&Spears,2006),andimpactsfollowerperceptionsofleader
legitimacy,power,anddiscretion(Maurer&Lord,1991).Suchaleaderisseenasonetofollow,aleaderofthe
social“in-group”towhichitisadvantageousandattractivetobelong.Belongingincreasesfollowerself-esteem
(Tajfel&Turner,1986;Turner,1982;Wagner,Lampen,&Syllwasschy,1986)andreducesuncertainty(Hogg,
2000).Thatis,congruencybetweenactualandexpectedleadershipbehaviorsactivates(makessalient)the
subordinate’sidentityasafolloweroftheleader.Wesubmitthatthesegeneraleffectsofleadershipprototypeson
followeridentityholdforservantleaderprototypes.Itfollowsthatfollowerswillseethemselvesaspartofthein-
grouptotheextentthattheirservantleadershipprototypeiscongruentwiththebehaviorsoftheservantleader.
Forehand,Deshpandé,andReed(2002)foundempiric alsupportfortheirhypothesisthatexposuretoidentity
primesispositivelyrelatedtoidentitysalience,andinthiscase,servantleaderprototypecongruencyisthat
identityprime.
Wecontendthataservantleaderprimesapartic ularidentitywithinfollowers.Thebehaviorsoftheservantleader
arefundamentallyprosocial,andserveasanenvironmentalfactorthatprimesaprosocialidentity(Aquino&Reed,
2002;Forehandetal.,2002;Grant,Dutton,&Rosso,2008).Activationofaprosocialidentitywithinafollowerin
turnmotivatesthefollowertoperformactionsconsistentwiththatidentity,thatis,prosocialactionsthatbenefitthe
collective“we”ofthegroup.Specific ally,thismotivatesotherorientationandfurthercementsc ommitmenttothe
supervisor,asamoralreferent(Aquino&Reed,2002)thatatleastinpartinformsthefoc alemployee’sprosocial
identity.
Empirically,Grantetal.(2008)demonstratedthatprovidingtangibleandemotionalsupporttoemployees
strengthenstheirprosocialidentityandorganizationalcommitment.Similarresultshavebeenfoundwith
charismatic leaders,whoareabletoconnectindividualcontributionstoalargergroupidentity(Conger,Kanungo,
&Menon,2000;Shamiretal.,1993).Eventhoughleadersmaybeabletoinfluencetheleadershipprototypesthat
followersdevelop,becauseleadersvaryintheextenttowhic htheyengageinservantleadership,theresimilarly
aredifferencesintheextenttowhic hfollowersformleadershipprototypesthatareconsistentwithservant
leadership.Asaresult,wecontendthatthecongruencebetweenfollowerservantleadershipprototypesand
servantleaderbehaviorsmoderatestherelationshipsbetweenservantleadershipbehaviorsandintermediate
processes,consistentwiththeinitialfindingsofMeuserandcolleagues(2011).Notethatthe“moderationarrow”in
Figure17.1fromfollowerservantleaderprototypetotherelationshipbetweenservantleaderbehaviorsand
intermediateprocessesdoesnotrefertotraditionalcross-productmoderationanalysis,butratherresponse
surfacemethodology(Edwards,2007),whichisbettersuitedtoanalyzinghypothesesdealingwithcongruenceor
fit(e.g.,person-environmentfit,follower-leaderfit,etc.)
Proposition8:Congruencebetweenfollowerservantleaderprototypeandthebehaviorsofhisorher
servantleadermoderatestherelationshipbetweenservantleaderbehaviorsandintermediate
processes.
Propositions3through8focusontheintermediateprocessesbetweenservantleadershipbehaviorsandoutcomes
thatinvolveasinglelevelofanalysis.Althoughbeyondthesc opeofourchapter,manyteamandcross-level
propositionscouldalsobedevelopedusingthemodelinFigure17.1asageneralframework.Forexample,thetrust
thatisengenderedthroughservantleadershipattheindividuallevelmayenhanceteamidentification,asithas
beenshownthatfollowerstendtotrustcoworkerswhoaretrustedbytheleader(Lau&Liden,2008).Whenteam
memberstrustoneanother,theyshouldidentifymorewiththeteam.

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FutureDirections
Althoughservantleadershippre-dateskeyleadershipapproachesstudiedtoday,suchasLMXand
transformationalleadership,farfewerempiricalstudieshavebeenconductedonthistheoryofleadership.Our
proposedmodelsuggestsmanyavenuesforenhancingknowledgeofservantleadershipand,inturn,providing
insightsonthepracticalvalueofthisapproachfororganizations.Whileeachpropositionmeritsattentionby
scholars,inthissectionweprioritizethenumerousopportunitiesforadvancingresearchonservantleadership.
Specifically,weofferfiverecommendationsforfutureresearchthatwebelievehavepotentialforestablishing
servantleadershipasadominanttheoryofleadershipamongresearchersandpractitioners.Whilewerecognize
thatinitialempiricalstudiesprovidesupportforthedistinctivenessofservantleadershipcomparedtoother
leadershipapproaches,ourfutureresearchrecommendationswouldprovideevenfurtherevidenceofthevalueof
servantleadershiptotheleadershipliterature.
DetermineKeyAntecedentsofServantLeadership.What’sMoreImportant:NatureorNurture?
Thereisadefiniteneedforresearchonantec edentsofservantleadership.Ourmodelidentifiesspecific
characteristicsoftheleadersuchasdesiretoserveothers,emotionalintelligence,moralmaturityandconation,
andprosocialidentity.Intermsofpriorities,futureresearchshouldexamineabroadsetofpredic torsincluding
thosethatmightbepersonalitybased(nature)aswellasthosethatmaybemoremalleable(nurture).Inorderfor
servantleadershiptogainprominence,itisimportanttounderstandhowtoincreasethesebehaviorsorcreate
servantleaders,especiallythroughmanagementdevelopmentprograms.Forexample,somestudiessuggestthat
emotionalintelligencec anbeenhancedthroughtraining.However,atthispointwedonotknowtherelative
importanceofvariouspredictorsofservantleadershipandtheextenttowhichtheyaremalleablethroughtraining.
Webelievethisshouldbeahighpriorityofscholarsinterestedinservantleadership.
ExploretheProcessbyWhichServantLeadershipProliferateswithinanOrganization
Researchisalsoneededonthecontentionthatservantleadersgroomsomeoftheirfollowerstobeservant
leaders.Nootherleadershipapproachstressesthenotionofpropagatingtheleader’sbehaviorsthroughfollowers
asdoesservantleadership.Thisdefiningfeatureofservantleadershipwhic hseparatesitfromotherleadership
approaches,isinneedofempiricalresearch.Atamicrolevel,whatistheprocessthroughwhichleadersidentify
followerswiththepotentialtobedevelopedintoservantleaders?Andonceidentified,howarefollowers
transformedintoservantleaders?Wehavesuggestedthatmodelingmaybecritical,butdirectformsofmentoring
followerstoadoptservantleaderbehaviorsmayalsobeinevidence.
Asmoreandmorefollowersaretransformedintoservantleaderswithinanorganization,aservingcultureemerges
intheorganization(Greenleaf,1977;Lidenetal.,inpress).Essentially,theprocessinvolvesmovingfromthe
presenceofisolatedservantleadersinanorganizationtoaculturethatpromotesservingothers.Exploringthe
processes,however,representsaformidablechallenge,asanadequatesampleofteamsororganizationsto
produceadequatevarianceincultureisnecessaryforexploringthisidea.Yet,thevalueofexploringservant
leadershipatthemacrolevelissignificant.
InvestigatetheProcessbyWhichServantLeadershipImpactsFollowerandTeamOutcomesand
HowThisProcessComparestoOtherApproachestoLeadership
Ourmodelidentifiesanumberofintermediateprocessesbywhichservantleaderbehaviorsmayimpactfollower
outcomes.Wearguethatonewaybywhichservantleadershipimpactsfolloweroutcomesisthroughfollower
moralidentity.Withtheexceptionoftheethicalleadershipmodel,behavingethicallyisnotemphasizedinother
leadershipframeworkstotheextentthatitisinservantleadershiptheory.Thus,inordertodemonstratethe
uniquenessofservantleadership,examiningwhetherservantleadersenhancefollowers’moralidentityshouldbe
apriority.Furthermore,giventheimportanceofmoralidentitytoethicalbehavior,demonstratingthataworkplace
leadercouldenhancethesalienceofothers’moralidentitythroughservantleaderbehaviors,andinturninfluence
ethicalbehavior,wouldbenoteworthy.
Inadditiontothegrowingattentionontheinfluenceofservantleadershiponfolloweroutcomes,asmallgroupof
researchhighlightsthevalueofservantleadershipinworkteamsandfocusesonprocessesbetweenservant

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leadershipandteameffec tiveness.Forexample,followingtheleadofWalumbwaandhiscolleagues’(2010)
individual-levelresearchrevealingthemediatingeffectofserviceclimateonrelationshipsbetweenservant
leadershipbehaviorsandindividualOCBs,werecommendthatscholarsplaceapriorityonexaminingservice
climateasamediatorbetweenservantleadershipandteamoutcomes.Especiallyintheserviceindustry,we
expectthatservantleadershipwillhaveasignificantimpactonteamoutcomesthroughserviceclimate.Anideal
settingforsuchastudymaybebranchesofbanksorarestaurantchainwheretherearefewlayersof
managementsuchthatleadersinteractfrequentlywithfollowers,whodirec tlyservecustomers.Inthesesettings,
weexpectthatserviceclimatemaybeanimportantmediator.Inadditiontoservicec limate,otherpotential
mediatorsoftherelationshipbetweenservantleadershipandteamoutc omesincludeteampotency,cohesiveness,
communalsharing,andproceduraljusticec limate.
ExaminetheOutcomesofServantLeadershipbeyondFollowerPerformanceandOCB
Becausescientificallydesignedempiric alresearchpublishedintopacademicoutletsonservantleadershipin
organizationsisrecent,withthefirststudyappearingin2004byEhrhart,thesetofoutcomesconsideredhasbeen
limited.Mostofthestudieshavelinkedservantleadershiptoindividualperformanc eandOCB.Fewstudieshave
investigatedoutc omesofservantleadershipthatmaybeuniquetothisparticulartheoryofleadership.In
addressingthisgap,wesuggestthatscholarsfocustheirattentionontheindividualoutcomeofcommunity
citizenshipbehavior,whichhasbeenaddressedinonlyonestudy(Lidenetal.,2008)toourknowledge.Oneofthe
distinguishingcharacteristicsofservantleadershipistheemphasisoncaringabouttheneedsofothers,including
thoseinthecommunity.Noothertheoryofleadershipfocusesattentiononthisbehavior,despitethegrowing
interestamongresearchersandpractitionersincorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR),whichinc ludesimprovingthe
largercommunity.Iffutureresearchfindstherelationbetweenservantleadershipandfollowercommunity
citizenshipbehaviorreportedbyLidenandcolleaguesgeneralizesacrosssituations,thiswouldfurtherdiscern
servantleadershipfromprevailingtheoriesofleadership.Itwouldalsoofferinsightsonhowleadershipmaybe
instrumentalinenablingorganizationstoachievetheirCSRgoals.
Anotherpriorityforresearchonservantleadershipoutcomesistoc ontinueinvestigatingteam-levelperformance
tobetterunderstandtheboundaryconditionsassociatedwiththerelationshipsbetweenservantleadershipand
teamperformancedemonstratedbyHuandLiden(2011)andSchaubroeckandhiscolleagues(2011)andthe
relationshipbetweenservantleadershipandteam-levelOCBsshowninEhrhart’s(2004)study.Anunderlying
assumptionisthatservantleadersattempttomeettheneedsandprovidesupporttoallfollowers,notjustasubset.
ThisisincontrasttoLMX,whicharguesthatduetoalackoftimeandresourcestheleaderdevelopsahigh-quality
exchangewithsomefollowers,butnotall.Becauseservantleadersattempttomeettheneedsofeachmember,
thequestioniswhetherservantleadershipenhancesinterpersonalrelationsamongteammembers,engendering
synergisticeffects,suchthatteamperformanceexceedsthecumulativeperformanceoftheindividualmembers.
ConductingresearchthatexaminesadditionalcontextualandmoderatingvariablesnotexaminedbyEhrhart
(2004),HuandLiden(2011),andSchaubroeck(2011)wouldlaythegroundworkforestablishingservant
leadershipasadriverofeffectiveteamdynamics.
IdentifyBoundaryConditionsforServantLeadership,IncludingCross-CulturalComparisons
Aswouldbeexpectedinanemergingareaofstudy,servantleadershipneedstobeexaminedatmultiplelevelsof
analysisandincludeawiderrangeofjobtypes,organizations,andcultures.Ehrhartstudiedgrocerystoreworkers
intheUnitedStatesandfoc usedontheteamlevel.Lidenandcolleagues(2008)examinedproduction,distribution,
andmarketingemployeesofasmallbuildingproductsorganizationlocatedintheUnitedStates.Walumbwaand
colleagues(2010)investigatedclerical,administrative,professional,andmanagerialemployeesrepresenting
sevenmultinationalorganiz ationslocatedinKenya,Afric a.Schaubroecketal.’sstudy(2011)wasconductedin
boththeUnitedStatesandHongKongwithinthesamebankingorganization.HuandLiden’s(2011)studywas
basedondatacollectedinbankslocatedinthePeople’sRepublicofChina.Thelattertwostudieswereconducted
onlyattheteamlevel.Neubergandcolleagues(2010)employedanonlineresearchservicescompanytocollect
theirdata,andthusthecountry(ies)fromwherethedataoriginateddonotappeartobeknown.Petersonetal.
(2012)studiedCEOsintechnologycompaniesintheWesternUnitedStates.Thesestudiessuggestthatservant
leadershipmaybeimpactfulinabroadrangeofjobsandindifferentc ultures.However,weencouragescholarsto
exploreculturalfactorswithinthecontextofservantleadership.Specifically,servantleadershipstudiesthatare

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abletoinvestigatenationalcultureasamoderatorbetweenleadercharacteristicsandengagementinservant
leadershipwouldmakegreatstridesindeterminingboundaryconditionsforthisformofleaderbehavior.Although
culturemayneedtobeassignedbasedoncountrytendencies,thepreferredapproachistodirectlymeasure
culturalvaluessothatbothwithin-andbetween-groupvariancecanbeassessed,andsothattestsinvolving
cultureasamoderatingvariablearemoreacc urate.
Co nclusion
Althoughover40yearshavepassedsincethepublicationofGreenleaf’s(1970)seminalessay,empiricalresearch
beginningwithEhrhart(2004)hasshowngreatpromiseforservantleadership.Resultshavedemonstratedthat
servantleadershipinfluencesimportantworkoutc omes,suchasOCBsandperformance,atboththeindividualand
teamlevels,evenwhencontrollingLMXand/ortransformationalleadership.Withrecentaccusationsthateconomic
downturnsareoftencausedbygreedandexcessiveself-interest,servantleadershipholdspromiseforthefuture
oforganiz ationsandsociety.Wehopethatourmodelandaccompanyingpropositionswillstimulatec ontinued
interestandfurtherresearchonservantleadership.
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RobertC .Lid en
RobertC.Liden,UniversityofIllinoisatChicago
AlexandraPanaccio
AlexandraPanaccio,ConcordiaUniversity
JeremyD.Meus er
Je remyD.Meuser,UniversityofIllinoisatChicago
JiaHu
JiaHu,Un iversityofNotreDame
SandyJ.Wayne
SandyJ.Wayne,Un iversityofIllino isatChicago