Content uploaded by Ramazan Yılmaz
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Ramazan Yılmaz on Jul 10, 2023
Content may be subject to copyright.
Received: 7 September 2022
|
Revised: 18 February 2023
|
Accepted: 25 February 2023
DOI: 10.1002/pits.22894
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Examining the role of cyberloafing, narcissism,
locus of control, and social appearance anxiety
on the Internet gaming disorder in university
students
Ramazan Yilmaz
1
|Fatma Gizem Karaoglan Yilmaz
1
|
Ummuhan Avci
2
1
Department of Computer Technology &
Information Systems, Faculty of Science,
Bartin University, Bartin, Turkey
2
Department of Management Information
Systems, Faculty of Economics and
Administrative Sciences, Bartin University,
Bartin, Turkey
Correspondence
Ramazan Yilmaz, Faculty of Science,
Department of Computer Technology &
Information Systems, Bartin University,
Bartin, Turkey.
Email: ramazanyilmaz067@gmail.com
Abstract
Individual and multiple games played on the Internet are
seen as a popular leisure activity, which is becoming
increasingly common among young people. With the Covid
19 pandemic, the interest in Internet games has increased
because young people spend more time at home. This has
led to an increase in Internet gaming disorder, which is
recognized by the American Psychiatric Association and the
World Health Organization. When the literature is exam-
ined, attention is drawn to the importance of revealing the
factors associated with Internet gaming disorder to combat
Internet gaming disorder in young people. This research
was carried out to reveal the Internet gaming disorder
profiles of university students in Turkey and to determine
the factors associated with it. In this direction, the
structural relationships between cyberloafing, narcissism,
locus of control, and social appearance anxiety variables,
which are thought to be associated with Internet gaming
disorder, were examined. The research data were obtained
from 596 university students studying in various cities in
Turkey. Research findings show that cyberloafing and locus
of control directly affect Internet gaming disorder. Narcis-
sism, on the other hand, has been shown to have a
mediating effect on Internet gaming disorder through
Psychology in the Schools. 2023;60:3040–3055.wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pits3040
|
© 2023 Wiley Periodicals LLC.
cyberloafing. It has been determined that Internet gaming
disorder affects social appearance anxiety. Research results
show that Internet gaming disorder can be reduced by
improving internal locus of control and reducing cyberloaf-
ing behaviors and narcissism. The results of the research
will provide tips to experts on interventions that can be
made for students with Internet gaming disorder. In line
with the findings obtained from the research, what can be
done to combat Internet gaming disorder is discussed.
KEYWORDS
cyberloafing, internet gaming disorder, locus of control, narcissism,
social appearance anxiety
1|INTRODUCTION
With the widespread use of the Internet, internet games have become one of the online pursuits frequently played
in every part of society. This prevalence has allowed individuals from all over the world to interact with each other
in both a social and competitive environment (Balhara et al., 2021;Yılmaz et al., 2018). With this aspect, internet
games have become one of the most popular online leisure activities, especially among young people. However,
problems such as spending too much time on the Internet, playing internet games for a long time, and losing control
over the game can impair young people's quality of life and cause psychological problems. Internet gaming disorder,
locus of control, social appearance anxiety, cyberloafing, and narcissism are some of these problems. Internet
gaming disorder is defined as a situation where young people desire to play digital games for a long time, causing a
loss of control in their emotions, thoughts, behaviors, and lives and deterioration in their daily quality of life (Basel
et al., 2020; Yilmaz et al., 2023). Young people who spend more time on internet games can see these environments
as an escape route in their social relations. Therefore it can be stated that their social appearance anxiety increases.
Internal and external locus of control causes young people to exhibit different behaviors toward many problems
they encounter in their lives. For example, young people with a high external locus of control tend to play more
internet games because they believe that a control source other than themselves, such as luck, is effective in their
lives, and this brings along some behavioral and psychological disorders such as cyberloafing, internet gaming
disorder, and anxiety. Young people with narcissistic personalities tend to find their own actions correct in
behaviors such as cyberloafing, as they see themselves as competent in every matter. With the spread of social
media and internet games, the frequency of these behaviors is increasing.
With the development of social media, the spread of technology, and the use of the Internet, the interest in
internet games has also increased. In the literature, it is possible to come across studies examining the effects of
some problematic behaviors, such as the intense use of internet games and the internet gaming disorder that
develops with it, in terms of various variables (Karaoglan Yilmaz, Avci, et al., 2022; Karaoglan Yilmaz, Yilmaz,
et al., 2022). However, there is a need for studies that address many variables that affect them together. Because
internet gaming disorder is a problematic behavior that negatively affects the quality of life of young people, this
negative cycle can have a negative impact on their social life and academic achievement (Avci et al., 2023). Looking
at these variables from a holistic perspective, which can affect the behavior, academic achievement, personality
traits, and even the whole lives of young people, who constitute an important part of society today, and therefore
university students will contribute to the literature.
YILMAZ ET AL.
|
3041
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2|THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES
2.1 |The role of cyberloafing on Internet gaming disorder
Excessive, wrong, or misuse of digital media and internet technologies may create undesirable results
in terms of education, business, and production in society. Such uses have paved the way for the emergence
of the concept of cyberloafing for individuals (Akgün, 2020). Cyberloafing is the use of nonpurpose
internet technologies by individuals at work. For example, surfing the web, playing games, checking social
media, and watching videos when individuals need to do business can be examples of this (Akbulut
et al., 2016). Cyberloafing, which is common, especially among young people, and is practiced at school, is
students' use of the Internet in courses for activities not related to schoolwork (Akbulut et al., 2016).
Cyberloafing negatively affects academic achievement as it causes students to engage in different jobs during
their classes (Tang & Austin, 2009). It is the most common way for students to waste time in class and with
people at work.
Losing control over online games, one of the ways cyberloafing happens, is one of the ways to waste time
on the Internet. This concept, called Internet gaming disorder, shows a similar structure to other addictive
disorders (Ko & Yen, 2020). Internet gaming disorder, a type of behavioral addiction, significantly impacts
mental health. It is a mental health disorder that includes many problems such as being too busy with internet
games, an increasing need to spend time, decreased interest in daily life, hobbies, or entertainment, and loss
of opportunities in relationships, work, or education (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Spending more
time on the Internet reduces students' relationships with their lessons and leads them to irrelevant behaviors
and time‐wasting, such as cyberloafing. In this study, the relationship between these two variables, which are
thought to be closely related to each other, was examined. It has been investigated how cyberloafing predicts
internet gaming disorder.
H1 Cyberloafing significantly predicts internet gaming disorder.
2.2 |The role of narcissism on internet gaming disorder and cyberloafing
Narcissism is defined as a person's self‐admiration, commitment, self‐empowerment, and sense of superiority
(Paulhus & Williams, 2002). In addition to behavioral addiction, digital games also cause many biological and
psychological disorders, especially in young people in development and adolescence (Ko & Yen, 2020). Narcissism is
one of these behavioral disorders and increases with internet gaming disorder (Çevik et al., 2021). The spread of
social media has also been one of the factors that triggered narcissism very quickly (Balci & Gargalik, 2020). In this
context, narcissism is thought to be related to internet gaming disorder.
H2 Narcissism significantly predicts internet gaming disorder.
Narcissism may cause students to feel empowered to make their own decisions with a sense of psychological
entitlement and authority and to see themselves as authorized to engage in extracurricular activities such as
cyberloafing (Lowe‐Calverley & Grieve, 2017; Rahaei & Salehzadeh, 2020). In this context, narcissism is thought to
be related to cyberloafing.
H3 Narcissism significantly predicts cyberloafing.
3042
|
YILMAZ ET AL.
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2.3 |Role of locus of control on social appearance anxiety, internet gaming disorder,
and cyberloafing
The locus of control, which is divided into internal and external, is expressed as the degree of perception of the
degree of control that individuals have over the events and results in their lives; in other words, the individual's
interpretation of responsibility for events (Rotter, 1954). With the locus of control, individuals can comment on
whether the control of events is in themselves or the external environment (Spector, 1982). According to Rotter
(1954), individuals with an internal locus of control think that they have control over their own lives and attribute
the consequences of events to their own behaviors. Individuals with an external locus of control attribute
responsibility to environmental factors and believe that the consequences of events are beyond their control.
Social appearance anxiety is defined as the individual's preoccupation with his physical appearance and his own
fear and anxiety arising from the negative evaluations of his environment regarding his external appearance (Hart
et al., 2008). Social appearance anxiety negatively affects individuals' social communication with others as well as
their academic and professional lives (Duran & Öz, 2021).
One of the most critical factors affecting social appearance anxiety is the source of control. Hovenkamp‐
Hermelink et al. (2019), individuals who experience a more external locus of control experience more stress as they
experience less control over their lives, and the initiation of some disorders and anxiety is triggered. Similarly, there
is a relationship between individuals’perception of internal or external control over their lives and internet gaming
disorder (Throuvala et al., 2019). Especially since individuals with an external locus of control have less belief in their
own abilities, they give more importance to external factors such as luck, which causes them to be individuals with a
higher intention to play online games (Ko & Yen, 2020). Individuals with a higher external locus of control exhibit
counterproductive behavior, which appears as cyberloafing behavior (Fox & Spector, 1999). These individuals, who
have a higher belief in luck, tend to be more cyberloafing because they think that their situation of being caught or
not caught in the cyberloafing process is due to a random event outside of them (Blanchard & Henle, 2008). For all
these reasons, it can be stated that locus of control is related to social appearance anxiety, internet gaming disorder,
and cyberloafing. In this context, answers to the following hypotheses were sought in the study.
H4 Locus of control significantly predicts social appearance anxiety.
H5 Locus of control significantly predicts internet gaming disorder.
H6 Locus of control significantly predicts cyberloafing.
2.4 |The role of internet gaming disorder on social appearance anxiety
Social anxiety is one of the important risk factors in the development and maintenance of internet gaming disorder
(Yu et al., 2022). Many internet games involve online social interactions. Young people concerned about social
processes, appearance, etc., show the possibility of sticking to games that allow them to avoid online or face‐to‐face
social interactions (Akçay & Akçay, 2020; Balhara et al., 2021). Because young people may see the game
environment as a mechanism to escape from difficulties and spend excessive time on the Internet (Wong
et al., 2020; Yen et al., 2019). The play environment is seen as a safe environment, especially for young people,
where their social appearance is not at the forefront and control is in their own hands (Haagsma et al., 2013).
However, spending a long time on internet games may cause emotional difficulties rather than coping with
adversity positively and may lead to problems such as internet gaming disorder (Yen et al., 2019). Spending more
time with internet games can also increase the level of anxiety in the social environment. Entering this vicious circle
YILMAZ ET AL.
|
3043
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
can increase anxiety levels, especially in young people. Therefore, in this study, the relationship between internet
gaming disorder and social appearance anxiety was examined. An answer was sought for the following hypothesis.
H7 Internet gaming disorder significantly predicts social appearance anxiety.
The model structure in line with the research hypotheses is given in Figure 1.
3|METHOD
3.1 |Participants and procedure
Within the scope of this research, it aims to determine the Internet gaming disorder, cyberloafing, narcissism, locus
of control, and social appearance anxiety of university students in Turkey and reveal the relationships between
these structures. For this purpose, descriptive statistics obtained by students from Internet gaming disorder,
cyberloafing, narcissism, locus of control, and social appearance anxiety scales were presented. At the same time,
the relationships between structural equation modeling and structures were tried to be determined.
The target participants of the research are students who play digital games on the Internet. In this context, the
purposive sampling method was adopted in the study. Within the scope of the purposive sampling method, it was
tried to reach the students who play digital games on the Internet. The Snowball sampling method was used to get
these students. Due to the snowball sampling method, the closest target audience is first reached within the scope
of research purposes. Then, it tries to reach other target audiences through this target audience so that the sample
is aimed to grow in the form of a snowball. In this direction, it was first tried to reach the students who play digital
games on the Internet at the university where the researchers work voluntarily. Then, these students were asked to
transmit and respond to the data collection tool to peers playing digital games over the Internet. Similarly, the
process continued. Research data were obtained from university students during the emergency distance education
process (spring term of 2020) carried out due to the COVID‐19 pandemic in Turkey. In the emergency distance
FIGURE 1 The hypothetical model of structural relations.
3044
|
YILMAZ ET AL.
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
education process, universities switched to the online education process, and accordingly, students continued their
education from their homes via computers and internet. Therefore, data on students' Internet gaming disorder and
the variables thought to be related to it (cyberloafing, narcissism, locus of control, and social appearance anxiety)
are data related to the emergency distance education process. For this reason, urgent distance education conditions
and students' psychological characteristics should be considered in the interpretation of the research data. This is
important for the reproducibility and validity of research data.
The research data was obtained with a web‐based questionnaire developed by the researchers. In the first part
of the questionnaire, the study's aims and the voluntary basis of participation in the survey were mentioned. The
second part of the questionnaire became active after the student declared that he had volunteered to participate in
the research and played digital games on the Internet. In the next section of the survey, personal data such as
university, and city of residence was obtained. After the second section of the survey was replied, this form open. In
the 3rd section of the survey, scales are used to ascertain undergraduates' Internet gaming disorder, cyberloafing,
narcissism, locus of control, and social appearance anxiety.
As a result of snowball sampling, data were collected from 596 university students who declared that they played
digital games on the Internet. Students answered this questionnaire from 61 different cities. There are 81 provinces in total
in Turkey. Therefore, it can be said that university students from most cities in Turkey participated in the research. The age
range of the students participating in the research varies from 18 to 31. 61% of the students who answered the
questionnaire were male, and 39% were female. G*Power was benefited to evaluate whether the amount of
undergraduates whose data was collected within the scope of the research was sufficient (Faul et al., 2009). G*Power is a
software that offers suggestions for determining the sample size. Consequently, of the analysis performed in this software,
it was understood that 196 students would be sufficient for a sample with absolute power of 0.99. Based on this finding, it
can be said that the number of samples reached within the scope of the research is sufficient. The N:q rule was also used
to determine the suitability of the sample size. To evaluate the sample size and model complexity, the ratio of 20:1 was
taken into account and it was understood that the sample size was appropriate (Kline, 2005).
3.2 |Measures
3.2.1 |Internet gaming disorder scale
The scale developed by Pontes and Griffiths (2015) was used to determine students' Internet gaming disorder. This scale
was obtained by Aricak et al. (2018) and adapted into Turkish. The scale is in a 5‐point Likert structure, ranging from 1:
never to 5: very often. The scale consists of a single factor and nine items. The test−retest reliability coefficient of the scale,
whose validity and reliability studies were conducted with 455 students, is 0.78. The factor loads of the scale items were
found to vary between 0.39 and 0.71. As a result of confirmatory factor analysis, it was seen that the Minimum χ
2
value
(χ
2
/df =4.79, p= .01) was significant. The fit index values were found to be RMSEA = 0.09, TLI = 0.87, CFI = 0.90. Fit index
values show that the model is fit. As a result of the item analysis, it was observed that the corrected item‐total correlations
of the scale items ranged from 0.36 to 0.61 (Aricak et al., 2018). A higher score on the scale indicates an increased risk of
Internet gaming disorder. Within the scope of this research, the reliability of the scale was recalculated. For this purpose,
the Cronbach Alpha reliability of the scale was analyzed and the reliability coefficient was determined to be 0.81. Based on
this result, it can be said that the scale is reliable.
3.2.2 |Cyberloafing scale
Akbulut et al. (2016) cyberloafing scale was developed. The scale is a 5‐point Likert structure, ranging from 1: never
to 5: always. The scale consists of five factors (Sharing, Shopping, Real‐time updating, Accessing online content,
YILMAZ ET AL.
|
3045
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Gaming/gambling) and 30 items. As a result of the confirmatory factor analysis of the scale, whose validity and
reliability studies were conducted with 1799 individuals, it was seen that the Minimum χ
2
value (χ
2
/df = 2.4, p= .01)
was significant. According to the data obtained from university students, the fit index values were found to be
RMSEA = 0.128, NNFI = 0.92, CFI = 0.94, SRMR = 0.059, GFI = 0.87 and AGFI = 0.75 (Akbulut et al., 2016). Fit index
values show that the model is fit. A high score on the scale indicates that the student's level of cyberloafing
behavior is increased. Within the scope of this research, the reliability of the scale was recalculated. For this
purpose, the Cronbach Alpha reliability of the scale was analyzed. The reliability value calculated for the whole scale
was calculated as 0.92. Based on this result, it can be said that the scale is reliable.
3.2.3 |Narcissistic personality inventory
To determine the narcissistic behaviors of students in the study, Ames et al. (2006) narcissistic personality inventory
was used. Atay (2009) adapted the scale in question to Turkish culture. The scale is in a binary Likert structure. The
scale consists of 6 factors, such as “Exhibitionism,”“Supremacy,”“Authority,”“Claiming,”“Exploitation,”and “Self‐
efficacy”and a total of 16 items. A high score on the scale indicates a high narcissistic behavior. Within the scope of
this research, the reliability of the scale was recalculated. For this purpose, the Cronbach Alpha reliability of the
scale was analyzed. The reliability value calculated for the whole scale was calculated as 0.71. Based on this result, it
can be said that the scale is reliable.
3.2.4 |Locus of control scale
The locus of control scale adapted to Turkish culture by Dag (2002) was used to determine the student's locus of
control levels. The scale is a 5‐point Likert type and consists of 47 items and five factors (personal control, belief in
chance, meaninglessness of effortfulness, belief in fate, and belief in an unjust worldThe test−retest reliability
coefficient of the scale, whose validity and reliability studies were conducted with 383 university students, is 0.88.
The factor loads of the scale items were found to vary between 0.61 and 0.79. As a result of the item analysis, it
was observed that the corrected item‐total correlations of the scale items ranged between 0.20 and 0.70
(Dag, 2002). On the scale, high scores indicate an increase in external locus of control belief. Within the scope of
this research, the reliability of the scale was recalculated. For this purpose, the Cronbach Alpha reliability of the
scale was analyzed. The reliability value calculated for the whole scale was calculated as 0.87. Based on this result, it
can be said that the scale is reliable.
3.2.5 |Social appearance anxiety
In the study, Hart et al. (2008) social appearance anxiety scale was used. The scale was adapted into Turkish by
Dogan (2010). The scale is Likert type ranging from 1: none to 5: extreme. The scale consists of a total of 16 items
and a single factor. The test‐retest reliability coefficient of the scale, whose validity and reliability studies were
conducted with 340 students, is 0.85. The factor loads of the scale items were found to vary between 0.35 and
0.87. As a result of confirmatory factor analysis, the Minimum χ
2
value (χ
2
= 143.79, N= 254, p= .01) was found to
be significant. The fit index values were found as RMSEA = 0.051, NFI = 0.98, CFI = 0.99, IFI = 0.99, RFI = 0.98,
GFI =0.93 and AGFI = 0.90. Fit index values show that the model is fit. As a result of the item analysis, it was
observed that the corrected item‐total correlations of the scale items ranged between 0.32 and 0.82 (Dogan, 2010).
A high score on the scale indicates that the student has high social appearance anxiety. Within the scope of this
research, the reliability of the scale was recalculated. For this purpose, the Cronbach αreliability of the scale was
3046
|
YILMAZ ET AL.
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
analyzed and it was determined that the reliability coefficient was 0.90. Based on this result, it can be said that the
scale is reliable.
3.3 |Data analysis
For the study, descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and structural equation modeling analyzes were used in
data analysis on internet gaming disorder, cyberloafing, narcissism, locus of control, and social appearance anxiety
structures. Before testing the research hypotheses, it was evaluated whether the data obtained from the students
were suitable for structural equation modeling. For this purpose, it was first tested whether the data showed a
normal distribution. Skewness and kurtosis values were examined to test the univariate normality assumption.
Consequently, evaluation showed that the values changed within ±1. From this point of view, it can be said that the
data show a normal distribution (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and tolerance (T)
indices were used to determine whether the data met the multivariate normality assumption (Hair et al., 2014). As a
result of the examination, it was determined that the data distribution provided normality. With the maximum
likelihood test, it was understood that the scale data were compatible for structural equation modeling. Model fit
indices were calculated within the scope of the research model and these results were discussed in the findings
section of the article.
4|RESULTS
4.1 |Students' responses to Internet gaming disorder, cyberloafing, narcissism, locus of
control, and social appearance anxiety scales
Descriptive statistics are given in Table 1.
As presented inTable 1, the mean score of participants on the internet gaming disorder scale is 18.64 (2.07 out
of 5), the mean score on the cyberloafing scale is 89.1 (2.97 out of 5), the mean score of the narcissism scale is 6.84
(0.43 out of 2), the mean score of the locus of control scale is 130.07 (2.77 out of 5). The mean score for social
appearance anxiety is 38.37 (2.4 out of 5). In this context, it can be said that students' cyberloafing, locus of control,
and social appearance anxiety scores are moderate also, and internet gaming disorder and narcissism scores are low.
4.2 |Relations between students' Internet gaming disorder, cyberloafing, narcissism,
locus of control, and social appearance anxiety
The structural relationships between internet gaming disorder, cyberloafing, narcissism, locus of control, and social
appearance anxiety structures are given in Table 2.
As given in Table 2, there is a strong and positive correlation between internet gaming disorder—social
appearance anxiety (r= 0.566, p< .01) (Pallant, 2013). Also, there is a moderate and positive correlation between
internet gaming disorder—cyberloafing (r= 0.322, p< .01), internet gaming disorder—the locus of control (r= 0.380,
p< .01), and social appearance anxiety—the locus of control (r= 0.487, p< .01) (Pallant, 2013). Moreover, there is a
positive small association among internet gaming disorder—narcissism (r= .177, p< .01), cyberloafing—narcissism
(r= 0.110, p< .05), cyberloafing—the locus of control (r= 0.245, p< .01), cyberloafing—social appearance anxiety
(r= 0.235, p< .01) and narcissism—the locus of control (r= 0.177, p< .01). Also, there cannot be found an important
association between narcissism—social appearance anxiety (r= 0.063, p> .05).
YILMAZ ET AL.
|
3047
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4.3 |Path analyses with the structural equation modeling technique
The results of the structural equation modeling and their reference ranges are given in Table 3.
When the model fit indices given in Table 3are evaluated, it is understood that the model generally fits well and
is significant at the 0.05 level. The visual structure of the model is given in Figure 2.
As shown in Figure 2, locus of control had a meaningful influence on social appearance anxiety (β= .32),
internet gaming disorder (β= .30), and cyberloafing (β= .23). Also, internet gaming disorder had a meaningful
influence on social appearance anxiety (β= .45), and cyberloafing had a meaningful influence on internet gaming
disorder (β= .24). Besides that, narcissism had a meaningful influence on internet gaming disorder (β= .10) and
cyberloafing (β= .07).Evaluation of the hypothesis results is given in Table 4.
When the results in Table 4are examined, it is seen that all of the hypotheses put forward within the scope of
the research are significant and accepted.
5|DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
It has been reported that there is a significant increase in Internet gaming disorder behaviors, especially among
young people, due to the increase in social isolation with the Covid‐19 process and the fact that students are mostly
at home due to distance education (Ko & Yen, 2020; Oka et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2021). Researchers emphasize the
importance of investigating the factors associated with Internet gaming disorder in young people in the context of
different cultures (Oka et al., 2021). In this current study, Internet gaming disorder was investigated in university
TABLE 1 Descriptive statistics.
Scales Number of items The lowest score The highest score
X
¯
ss
X
¯
/k
Internet gaming disorder 9 9.00 45.00 18.64 8.94 2.07
Cyberloafing 30 30.00 150.00 89.1 26.47 2.97
Narcissism 16 1.00 15.00 6.84 2.9 0.43
Locus of control 29 59.00 178.00 130.07 18.89 4.49
Social appearance anxiety 16 16.00 79.00 38.37 16.25 2.4
TABLE 2 Correlations between variables.
Internet gaming
disorder Cyberloafing Narcissism
Locus of
control
Social appearance
anxiety
Internet gaming disorder −
Cyberloafing 0.322** −
Narcissism 0.177** 0.110*−
Locus of control 0.380** 0.245** 0.177** −
Social appearance anxiety 0.566** 0.235** 0.063 0.487** −
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2‐tailed).
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2‐tailed).
3048
|
YILMAZ ET AL.
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
students in Turkey; Structural relationships between Internet gaming disorder, cyberloafing, narcissism, locus of
control, and social appearance anxiety were examined.
In the study's first hypothesis, the relationship between cyberloafing and Internet gaming disorder was
examined. The findings show a significant relationship between students' cyberloafing behaviors and Internet
gaming disorder. According to this finding, students' cyberloafing behaviors increase as their Internet gaming
disorder status increases. Therefore, it can be said that students with Internet gaming disorder engage in
cyberloafing behaviors during the lesson and use the Internet more than for their course purposes. Metin‐Orta and
Demirtepe‐Saygılı(2021) revealed in their research that game addiction is significantly related to cyberloafing for
university students. Accordingly, as the game addiction of students increases, cyberloafing behaviors also increase.
It is seen that the result of our research is consistent with the study of Metin‐Orta and Demirtepe‐Saygılı(2021).
Accordingly, it can be said that cyberloafing behaviors are positively related to Internet gaming disorder.
Cyberloafing behavior is also an important variable in the education process. Students' use of technological tools
and the internet for purposes not related to the course causes them to stay away from the course, lose their
TABLE 3 Values of the goodness of fit index in structural equation model.
Model value Perfect fit Acceptable fit
X
2
/df 2.393 0 ≤χ
2
/df ≤3 3<χ
2
/df ≤5
CFI 0.99 0.95 ≤CFI ≤1 0.90 ≤CFI < 0.95
GFI 0.99 0.95 ≤GFI ≤1 0.90 ≤GFI < 0.95
AGFI 0.97 0.90 ≤AGFI ≤1.00 0.85 ≤AGFI < 0.90
IFI 0.99 0.95 ≤IFI ≤1 0.90 ≤IFI < 0.95
TLI 0.97 0.95 ≤TLI ≤1 0.90 ≤TLI < 0.95
RMSEA 0.05 0.00 ≤RMSEA ≤0.05 0.05 < RMSEA ≤0.08
SRMR 0.0188 0.00 ≤SRMR≤0.05 0.05 < SRMR ≤0.10
FIGURE 2 The results of the hypothetical model of structural relations.
YILMAZ ET AL.
|
3049
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
attention and cannot focus on the course. There are many studies that show that intensive use of the Internet
negatively affects academic achievement (Feng et al., 2019; Jacobsen & Forste, 2011; Zhang et al., 2018). This
situation creates negative educational environments for educators and causes the concept of cyberloafing to
emerge in educational environments (Soh et al., 2018). Therefore, any factors associated with cyberloafing, such as
internet gaming disorder, should be considered.
In the study's second hypothesis, the relationship between narcissism and Internet gaming disorder was
examined. The findings show a significant relationship between students' narcissism behaviors and Internet gaming
disorder. However, it was observed that the level of this relationship was low The digital games that students play
mostly to socialize with friends or family members, reduce stress, keep the mind active or dive into a different world
cause behavioral addiction as well as many biological and psychological disorders (Ko & Yen, 2020). Narcissism, one
of these disorders, is a phenomenon that increases with gaming disorder (Çevik et al., 2021). Di Blasi et al. (2020)
concluded that narcissism is associated with game addiction. It is seen that the result of our research is consistent
with the results of the study in the literature. Accordingly, it can be said that narcissism and Internet gaming
disorder are positively related. From this point of view, taking measures to reduce students' narcissism behaviors
may also reduce their Internet gaming disoerder behaviors. However, it should be said that this effect will be low.
Reducing narcissistic behaviors can be difficult because these behaviors are often deeply ingrained and can be
enhanced by social and cultural factors (Brailovskaia & Bierhoff, 2016; Lasch, 2018). However, some strategies can
be followed that can help individuals reduce their narcissistic behavior. Narcissism can often be associated with
psychological problems such as low self‐esteem, insecurity or the need for approval (Zeigler‐Hill et al., 2008). A
therapist can help individuals identify and address these underlying issues that can reduce their narcissistic
behavior. In this sense, it may be beneficial for students to seek help from therapists. Another strategy to be
followed in the prevention of narcissistic behaviors is to develop the empathy skills of these individuals
(Urbonaviciute & Hepper, 2020). Narcissists often lack empathy for others and place their own needs above those
of others. Another strategy to be followed in the prevention of narcissism is to support these individuals to develop
themselves in accepting criticism or feedback. These individuals often do not accept criticism and feedback.
Supporting these people to establish and maintain healthy relationships with others can help them develop more
empathy. Again, enabling these individuals to set realistic/achievable goals and helping them in this regard can help
these individuals to accept themselves and others more and reduce the need for constant approval and admiration.
In the third hypothesis of the study, the relationship between locus of control and Internet gaming disorder was
examined. The findings show a significant relationship between students' locus of control and Internet gaming
disorder. According to this finding, Internet gaming disorder status increases as students' locus of control decreases.
Lloyd et al. (2019) found that locus of control was an essential predictor of game addiction. It has been concluded
that as individuals' internal locus of control decreases, their game addiction may increase. In his research, Koo
(2009) revealed that locus of control is effective on intention to play. It is seen that these results obtained from the
TABLE 4 Results of hypotheses tests.
Hypothesis Antecedents Supported?
H
1
Cyberloafing →Internet gaming disorder Yes
H
2
Narcissism →Internet gaming disorder Yes
H
3
Narcissism →Cyberloafing Yes
H
4
Locus of control →Social appearance anxiety Yes
H
5
Locus of control →Internet gaming disorder Yes
H
6
Locus of control →Cyberloafing Yes
H
7
Internet gaming disorder →Social appearance anxiety Yes
3050
|
YILMAZ ET AL.
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
studies in the literature are consistent with the results of our research. Accordingly, Internet gaming disorder may
decrease as individuals' internal locus of control improves. Individuals with low locus of control are more likely to
lack a sense of self‐control in relation to their online behavior. Therefore, it can be assumed that they are more
prone to continuous and uncontrolled online gaming.
In the fourth hypothesis of the study, the relationship between narcissism and cyberloafing behaviors was
examined. Individuals with high narcissism personality traits may exhibit unethical and maladaptive behaviors. They
deal with non‐social behaviors such as gaming addiction and internet addiction. This personality trait is especially
associated with using more intense social media or having larger online networks. These behavior patterns bring
cyberloafing with them, especially for students. The findings show a significant relationship between students'
narcissism behaviors and cyberloafing behaviors. However, it was observed that the level of this relationship was
low. Like the results of our study, Lowe‐Calverley and Grieve (2017) found that there was no direct relationship
between narcissism and cyberloafing behaviors. However, narcissism has played a mediating role in cyberloafing
behaviors.
In the fifth hypothesis of the study, the relationship between locus of control and cyberloafing behaviors was
examined. The locus of control, which determines students’own control, is a personal trait. Locus of control is an
important variable in terms of understanding some behaviors of students such as cyberloafing in learning
environments and taking necessary precautions. The findings show a significant relationship between students'
locus of control and cyberloafing behaviors. According to this finding, the cyberloafing behaviors of students
increase as the locus of control decreases. Blanchard and Henle (2008) concluded that there is a significant
relationship between external locus of control and cyberloafing behaviors and that cyberloafing behaviors increase
as the external locus of control develops. Accordingly, it can be said that the findings of our study support the
literature.
In the sixth hypothesis of the study, the relationship between locus of control and social appearance anxiety
was examined. Findings show a significant relationship between students' locus of control and social appearance
anxiety. According to this finding, as the locus of control of the student's decreases, social appearance anxiety
increases. Pahlevan Sharif et al. (2020) concluded that locus of control is associated with negative appearance
evaluation. Based on these results, it can be said that individuals with an internal locus of control experience less
social appearance anxiety. The internet environment offers individuals various opportunities such as managing their
own body perceptions and promoting themselves as they wish (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011). These behaviors reveal
social appearance anxiety, which is the anxiety of individuals being dissatisfied with their own body appearance and
being negatively evaluated by others (Hart et al., 2008). This anxiety may increase with the individual's inadequate
self‐perception (Boursier et al., 2020) and deactivate the locus of control. This increasing level of dissatisfaction
increases social appearance anxiety and can lead to negative consequences such as social media, gaming and
internet addiction.
In the seventh hypothesis of the study, the relationship between Internet gaming disorder and social
appearance anxiety was examined. The findings show a significant relationship between students' Internet gaming
disorder and social appearance anxiety. According to this finding, Internet gaming disorder behaviors increase as
students' social appearance anxiety increases. Kircaburun et al. (2019) concluded that there is no direct relationship
between Internet gaming disorder and body image dissatisfaction. However, body image dissatisfaction plays a
mediating role in Internet gaming disorder.
In line with the findings obtained from the research, we can make various suggestions. First, it is essential to
develop students' internal locus of control. Students with an internal locus of control can be aware of their behavior
and control it better. As a result, students can contribute to solving their problems related to cyberloafing, Internet
gaming disorder, and social appearance anxiety. Developing an internal locus of control is a behavior that can be
acquired from an early age (Findley & Cooper, 1983). Therefore, programs can be prepared to develop student's
internal locus of control in schools, and cooperation can be made with school guidance services. Physical changes
(such as acne) may occur in young people depending on adolescence. This can cause them to experience social
YILMAZ ET AL.
|
3051
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
appearance anxiety. Social appearance anxiety appears to be associated with Internet gaming disorder. They are
training to overcome the social appearance anxiety of young people in school guidance services, etc. Sharing may
be helpful. Thus, the Internet gaming disorder behavior of young people may also decrease. Some strategies can be
followed in developing individuals’internal locus of control. In this context, it is important to first gain the behavior
of taking responsibility in individuals (Ernst et al., 2017). For this purpose, individuals can be taught to take
responsibility by setting small goals. People with a high internal locus of control believe that they have their own
choices in life and that they will be affected by the consequences (Asante & Affum‐Osei, 2019). Therefore,
individuals can be helped to realize their choices and make informed decisions. In this sense, the self‐efficacy of
individuals in decision making can be developed (Yilmaz & Karaoglan Yilmaz, 2022). Establishing self‐efficacy can
enable individuals to take responsibility for the consequences of their behavior and to feel confident in this regard.
It can be effective in providing feedback from others in developing an internal locus of control. Feedback can
provide individuals with valuable information about their strengths and weaknesses (Mantesso et al., 2008). This
can help individuals identify areas of growth and development and improve their skills and abilities. Over time, it can
provide the development of an internal locus of control in individuals. However, the frequency and scope of the
feedback to be provided here should be reduced over time so that the individual needs this external support less.
It can be said that this research has some limitations. First of all, the research data were obtained from 596
university students from all over Turkey. A study can be carried out with a larger number of participants in future
studies. Thus, the validity of the research findings can be examined. The research model can be tested on
participants from different age groups (secondary school students, high school students, adults, etc.). Thus, the
validity of the research model can be examined for various participant groups. For example, the internal locus of
control may be low in younger age groups, and accordingly, how the research model will work can be tested. In
addition, the research model can be tested in different cultural contexts other than Turkish university students in
future research. Thus, it can be examined whether cultural differences affect or not.
5.1 |Implications for practice
Internet gaming disorder is a problem that has become widespread with the Covid 19 pandemic. This research is
important in terms of revealing the factors affecting Internet gaming disorder in Turkish university students. In other
words, it is unique in terms of detecting related factors in the cultural context. Research results reveal that locus of
control, cyberloafing, and narcissism have significant direct effects on Internet gaming disorder. Locus of control
and Internet gaming disorder were found to be factors affecting students' social appearance anxiety. Research
results show that Internet gaming disorder can be reduced by improving internal locus of control and reducing
cyberloafing behaviors and narcissism. The results of the research will provide tips to experts on interventions that
can be made for students with Internet gaming disorder.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The authors are willing to share their data, analytics methods, and study materials with other researchers upon
request. The authors used AMOS functions for their statistical analyses.
ETHICS STATEMENT
All procedures performed in these studies were in accordance with the APA ethical guidelines, the ethical standards
of the institutional research committee, and the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. All participants
gave full informed consent to participate. All participants gave consent for their data to be used in publication.
3052
|
YILMAZ ET AL.
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ORCID
Ramazan Yilmaz http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2041-1750
REFERENCES
Akbulut, Y., Dursun, Ö. Ö., Dönmez, O., & Şahin, Y. L. (2016). In search of a measure to investigate cyberloafing in
educational settings. Computers in Human Behavior,55, 616–625.
Akçay, D. & Akçay, B. D. (2020). The effect of computer game playing habits of university students on their sleep states.
Perspectives in Psychiatric Care,56(4), 820–826.
Akgün, F. (2020). Investigation of high school students' cyberloafing behaviors in classes. Egitim ve Bilim,45(201), 79–108.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM‐5 (Vol. 5), American
psychiatric association.
Ames, D. R., Rose, P., & Anderson, C. P. (2006). The NPI‐16 as a short measure of narcissism. Journal of Research in
Personality,40, 440–450.
Aricak, O. T., Dinc, M., Yay, M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2018). Adapting the short form of the internet gaming disorder scale into
Turkish: Validity and reliability. Addict: The Turkish Journal on Addiction,5, 615–636.
Asante, E. A. & Affum‐Osei, E. (2019). Entrepreneurship as a career choice: The impact of locus of control on aspiring
entrepreneurs’opportunity recognition. Journal of Business Research,98, 227–235.
Atay, S. (2009). The standardization of narcissistic personality inventory into Turkish. Gazi University Journal of Economics &
Administrative Sciences,11, 181–196.
Avci, U., Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G., & Yilmaz, R. (2023). Parental attitude and instagram addiction: The mediating role of
obsessive‐compulsive disorder. Psychology in the Schools,60(3), 830–842.
Balci, Ş. & Gargalik, E. (2020). Is there a link between narcissistic personality traits and social media usage? The Journal of
Selcuk University Social Sciences Institute,44, 125–140.
Balhara, Y. P. S., Singh, S., Saini, R., Dahiya, N., Singh, A. B., & Kumar, R. (2021). Should Internet gaming disorder be
considered a subtype of generalized problematic internet use? Findings from a study among medical college students.
Perspectives in Psychiatric Care,57(1), 272–278.
Basel, A., McAlaney, J., Skinner, T., Pleva, M., & Ali, R. (2020). Defining digital addiction: Key features from the literature.
Psihologija,53(3), 237–253.
Blanchard, A. L. & Henle, C. A. (2008). Correlates of different forms of cyberloafing: The role of norms and external locus of
control. Computers in Human Behavior,24(3), 1067–1084.
Boursier, V., Gioia, F., & Griffiths, M. D. (2020). Do selfie‐expectancies and social appearance anxiety predict adolescents’
problematic social media use? Computers in Human Behavior,110, 106395.
Brailovskaia, J., & Bierhoff, H. W. (2016). Cross‐cultural narcissism on facebook: Relationship between self‐presentation,
social interaction and the open and covert narcissism on a social networking site in Germany and Russia. Computers in
Human Behavior,55, 251–257.
Çevik, O., Koçak, O., Younis, M., & Çevik, E. (2021). The mediating role of gaming disorder in the effect of narcissism on
happiness in children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,18(13), 7137.
Dag, I. (2002). Locus of control scale: Scale development, reliability, and validity study. Turkish Journal of Psychology,17,
77–90.
Di Blasi, M., Giardina, A., Lo Coco, G., Giordano, C., Billieux, J., & Schimmenti, A. (2020). A compensatory model to
understand dysfunctional personality traits in problematic gaming: The role of vulnerable narcissism. Personality and
Individual Differences,160, 109921.
Dogan, T. (2010). Adaptation of the social appearance anxiety scale (SAAS) to Turkish: A validity and reliability study.
Hacettepe University Journal of Education,39, 151–159.
Duran, S. & Öz, Y. C. (2021). Examination of the association of muscle dysmorphia (bigorexia) and social physique anxiety in
the male bodybuilders. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care,58, 1720–1727. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppc.12980
Ernst, J., Blood, N., & Beery, T. (2017). Environmental action and student environmental leaders: Exploring the influence of
environmental attitudes, locus of control, and sense of personal responsibility. Environmental Education Research,
23(2), 149–175.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G* Power 3.1: Tests for correlation
and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods,41(4), 1149–1160.
Feng, S., Wong, Y. K., Wong, L. Y., & Hossain, L. (2019). The Internet and Facebook usage on academic distraction of college
students. Computers & Education,134,41–49.
Findley, M. J. & Cooper, H. M. (1983). Locus of control and academic achievement: A literature review. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology,44(2), 419–427.
Fox, S., & Spector, P. E. (1999). A model of work frustration–aggression. Journal of Organizational Behavior,20(6), 915–931.
YILMAZ ET AL.
|
3053
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Haagsma, M. C., Caplan, S. E., Peters, O., & Pieterse, M. E. (2013). A cognitive‐behavioral model of problematic online
gaming in adolescents aged 12–22 years. Computers in Human Behavior,29(1), 202–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
chb.2012.08.006
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2014). Multivariate data analysis (7th Ed.). Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Hart, T. A., Flora, D. B., Palyo, S. A., Fresco, D. M., Holle, C., & Heimberg, R. G. (2008). Development and examination of the
social appearance anxiety scale. Assessment,15(1), 48–59.
Hovenkamp‐Hermelink, J. H. M., Jeronimus, B. F., van der Veen, D. C., Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B. W. J. H., Schoevers, R. A.,
& Riese, H. (2019). Differential associations of locus of control with anxiety, depression and life‐events: A five‐wave,
nine‐year study to test stability and change. Journal of Affective Disorders,253,26–34.
Jacobsen, W. C., & Forste, R. (2011). The wired generation: academic and social outcomes of electronic media use among
university students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking,14(5), 275–280.
Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G., Avci, U., & Yilmaz, R. (2022). The role of loneliness and aggression on smartphone addiction among
university students. Current Psychology,1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03018-w
Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G., Yilmaz, R., & Erdogdu, F. (2022). The relationship between nomophobia, emotional intelligence,
interpersonal Problem‐Solving, perceived stress, and self‐esteem among undergraduate students. Journal of
Technology in Behavioral Science,1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41347-022-00282-2
Kircaburun, K., Griffiths, M. D., & Billieux, J. (2019). Psychosocial factors mediating the relationship between childhood
emotional trauma and internet gaming disorder: a pilot study. European Journal of Psychotraumatology,10(1),
1565031.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principle and practice of structural equation modelling. Guilford.
Ko, C. H. & Yen, J. Y. (2020). Impact of COVID‐19 on gaming disorder: Monitoring and prevention. Journal of Behavioral
Addictions,9(2), 187–189.
Koo, D.‐M. (2009). The moderating role of locus of control on the links between experiential motives and intention to play
online games. Computers in Human Behavior,25(2), 466–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.10.010
Kuss, D. J. & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Online social networking and addiction—a review of the psychological literature.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,8(9), 3528–3552.
Lasch, C. (2018). The culture of narcissism: American life in an age of diminishing expectations. WW Norton & Company.
Lloyd, J., Frost, S., Kuliesius, I., & Jones, C. (2019). Locus of control and involvement in video gaming. New Media & Society,
21(7), 1613–1635.
Lowe‐Calverley, E. & Grieve, R. (2017). Web of deceit: Relationships between the dark triad, perceived ability to deceive
and cyberloafing. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace,11(2), 5. https://doi.org/10.5817/
CP2017-2-5
Mantesso, J., Petrucka, P., & Bassendowski, S. (2008). Continuing professional competence: peer feedback success from
determination of nurse locus of control. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing,39(5), 200–205.
Metin‐Orta, I. & Demirtepe‐Saygılı, D. (2021). Cyberloafing behaviors among university students: Their relationships with
positive and negative affect. Current Psychology,1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02374-3
Oka, T., Hamamura, T., Miyake, Y., Kobayashi, N., Honjo, M., Kawato, M., Kubo, T., & Chiba, T. (2021). Prevalence and risk
factors of internet gaming disorder and problematic internet use before and during the COVID‐19 pandemic: A large
online survey of Japanese adults. Journal of Psychiatric Research,142, 218–225.
Pahlevan Sharif, S., Ahadzadeh, A. S., Ong, F. S., & Naghavi, N. (2020). Fear of negative appearance evaluation and attitude
towards mammography: Moderating role of internal health locus of control, cancer worry and age. Health Promotion
Perspectives,10(3), 220–229.
Pallant, J. (2013). SPSS survival manual. McGraw‐hill education.
Paulhus, D. L. & Williams, K. M. (2002). The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy.
Journal of Research in Personality,36(6), 556–563.
Pontes, H. M. & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Measuring DSM‐5 Internet gaming disorder: Development and validation of a short
psychometric scale. Computers in Human Behavior,45, 137–143.
Rahaei, A. & Salehzadeh, R. (2020). Evaluating the impact of psychological entitlement on cyberloafing: the mediating role
of perceived organizational justice. Vilakshan‐XIMB Journal of Management,17(1/2), 137–152.
Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Prentice‐Hall, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1037/10788-000
Schumacker, R. E. & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling, Erlbaum.
Soh, P. C. H., Koay, K. Y., & Lim, V. K. G. (2018). Understanding cyberloafing by students through the lens of an extended
theory of planned behavior. First Monday,23(6). https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v23i6.7837
Spector, P. E. (1982). Behavior in organizations as a function of employee's locus of control. Psychological Bulletin,91,
482–497.
3054
|
YILMAZ ET AL.
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Tang, T. L. P. & Austin, M. J. (2009). Students' perceptions of teaching technologies, application of technologies, and
academic performance. Computers & Education,53(4), 1241–1255.
Teng, Z., Pontes, H. M., Nie, Q., Griffiths, M. D., & Guo, C. (2021). Depression and anxiety symptoms associated with
internet gaming disorder before and during the COVID‐19 pandemic: A longitudinal study. Journal of Behavioral
Addictions,10(1), 169–180.
Throuvala, M. A., Janikian, M., Griffiths, M. D., Rennoldson, M., & Kuss, D. J. (2019). The role of family and personality traits
in Internet gaming disorder: A mediation model combining cognitive and attachment perspectives. Journal of
Behavioral Addictions,8(1), 48–62.
Urbonaviciute, G., & Hepper, E. G. (2020). When is narcissism associated with low empathy? A meta‐analytic review.
Journal of Research in Personality,89, 104036.
Wong, H. Y., Mo, H. Y., Potenza, M. N., Chan, M. N. M., Lau, W. M., Chui, T. K., Pakpour, A. H., & Lin, C. Y. (2020).
Relationships between severity of internet gaming disorder, severity of problematic social media use, sleep quality and
psychological distress. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,17(6), 1879.
Yen, J. Y., Lin, H. C., Chou, W. P., Liu, T. L., & Ko, C. H. (2019). Associations among resilience, stress, depression, and
internet gaming disorder in young adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,
16(17), 3181.
Yilmaz, R. & Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G. (2022). Problematic internet use in adults: The role of happiness, psychological
resilience, dispositional hope, and self‐control and self‐management. Journal of Rational‐Emotive and Cognitive‐
Behavior Therapy: RET,1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-022-00482-y
Yilmaz, R., Sulak, S., Griffiths, M. D., & Yilmaz, F. G. K. (2023). An exploratory examination of the relationship between
internet gaming disorder, smartphone addiction, social appearance anxiety and aggression among undergraduate
students. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports,11, 100483.
Yu, Y., Mo, P. K. H., Zhang, J., Li, J., & Lau, J. T. F. (2022). Maladaptive cognitions, loneliness, and social anxiety as potential
moderators of the association between Internet gaming time and Internet gaming disorder among adolescent Internet
gamers in China. Addictive Behaviors,129, 107239.
Yılmaz, R., Karaoğlan Yılmaz, F. G., & Kılıç, A. E. (2018, April). Examination of relation between high school students' online
game addiction, loneliness, aggression, and depression tendency. International Child and Information Safety Congress,
Ankara, Turkey.
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Clark, C. B., & Pickard, J. D. (2008). Narcissistic subtypes and contingent self‐esteem: Do all narcissists base
their self‐esteem on the same domains? Journal of Personality,76(4), 753–774.
Zhang, Y., Qin, X., & Ren, P. (2018). Adolescents' academic engagement mediates the association between Internet
addiction and academic achievement: The moderating effect of classroom achievement norm. Computers in Human
Behavior,89, 299–307.
How to cite this article: Yilmaz, R., Yilmaz, F. G., & Avci, U. (2023). Examining the role of cyberloafing,
narcissism, locus of control, and social appearance anxiety on the Internet gaming disorder in university
students. Psychology in the Schools, 60, 3040–3055. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22894
YILMAZ ET AL.
|
3055
15206807, 2023, 8, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.22894 by Bartin University, Wiley Online Library on [10/07/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
