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Ethogram and Time Budgeting of Rhesus Monkey Macaca
mulatta (Zimmermann, 1789) in Ramdhuni Forest, Nepal
Ramchandra Adhikari
1
ram.adhikari@pgc.tu.edu.np
Abstract
Ethogram provides a list of behaviours a species exhibits together with explanations of each
activity in the form of descriptive words and phrases. With the objective to explore the time
budgeting of the major behaviours of rhesus monkey the study was conducted from September
2022 to February 2023 by following scan sampling method in Ramdhuni forest, Sunsari,Koshi
province Nepal. A total of 750 events were recorded in field working time 300 hours. The time
allocated was documented as for foraging (26.67%), locomotion (18.93%), inactive (30.26%),
grooming (20.67%) and fighting (3.46%).There was not significant association in gender
regarding with the activities (Chi square=0.97, degree of freedom= 4, at significance level 0.05
and tabulated value= 9.49). There was a close relation between the activities in morning and
day time (r= 0.80906). Likewise, there was a significant relation between time budgeting for
activities with the place for activities (Chi square=78.74, degree of freedom= 20, significance
level =0.05 Chi square tabulated= 31.41). Most of the activities were recorded on floor and roof
of buildings and temples. There was not association between the allocated time for different
activities with the change of season (Chi square= 0.9, degree of freedom=4, significance level=
0.05 and chi square tabulated=9.49). It can be recommended that to manage the monkey and
reduce probable conflict between human and monkey, pilgrims should be restricted only in forest
sides, not in temple premises to provide foods to monkeys.
Keywords: foraging, grooming, roof, season, tree
Introduction
An ethogram is a record of behaviors exhibited by an animal used in ethology, the
scientific and objective study of animal behavior and it provides a list of the behaviors a species
exhibits together with explanations of each activity in the form of descriptive words and phrases
(Martin and Bateson, 2007).One of the most well-known, least concerned, Simian species is the
rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), which belongs to the Cercopithecidae family and it is
distributed from northern Afghanistan in the east to the Godavari River in India, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, Vietnam, Nepal, Bangladesh, Tibet, and China in the west. It is found across South
East Asia (Roonwal and Mohnot, 1977). In Nepal and also in whole Asia, rhesus monkeys are
found in tropical rain forests. But may live at high altitudes in the Himalayas and other temperate
regions with long snowy winters (Chalise, 2013).
1
Mr. Adhikari is a Lecturer (Zoology) at Degree Campus, Biratnagar, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
Journal of Research and Development
Vol.6, Issue-1, May 2023, pp.39-50
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/jrdn.v6i01.55238
ISSN: 2616-0366 (Print)
Research and Development Nepal (RDN)
R Adhikari/ Ethogram and Time ….. 40
Only three species of non-human primates-Hanuman Langurs, Rhesus monkeys and
Assamese monkeys have been identified in Nepal (Chalise et al., 2005). The rhesus monkeys (
Macaca mulatta Zimmermann, 1780) can be observed roaming freely in both urban and rural
religious settings places. Langurs (Semnopithecus entellus Dufresne, 1797) can be found
roaming freely in Nepal's natural forests and their fringe areas (Southwick et al., 1982). There
have been reports of Assamese monkeys (Macaca assamensis Mc Clelland, 1840) in Nepal's
mid-hills and high mountain forests (Chalise, 1999).
The rhesus monkey has a pale face, brown, olive, and yellowish brown fur, and no
obvious menstrual swelling is visible, but a sizable region of the buttock's exposed flesh turns
red during fertile season (Pocock, 1975). Male rhesus bodies range in length from 48 to 68 cm,
while female rhesus bodies are between 45 and 55 cm long. Male weighs between 6.5 and 12 kg
and female between 5.49 and 7.37 kg (Chalise, 1997). Rhesus is group dwelling monkey and
four types of groupims can be observed. It is mostly ground feeder and partly arboreal (Chalise,
1998).
In South and Southeast Asia, where monkeys are important to both Hindu and Buddhist
culture, one might find in temples and holy places (Fuentes et al., 2005 a). The primates most
frequently connected with temples are monkey species because they can survive in situations that
have been altered by humans. At these locations, there is extensive, uncontrolled, and frequently
close contact between humans and monkeys (Fuentes et al., 2005 b).
When they adjusted in the human altered habitat with a different food rather than the wild
type, their behaviour might have altered. In Ramdhuni forest there are few groups of rhesus
monkey and one group resides around the premise of Ramdhuni temple. Till the date the study of
monkey of Ramdhuni forest and temple premise have not been included in the mind of
researchers. With the objective to explore the time budgeting of the major behaviours ( foraging,
moving, resting, grooming and fighting) this study was launched. Ethogram investigation and
creation is crucial to the planning of any ethological investigation since it enables proper
documentation and quantification of observed behaviors(Stanton et al., 2015).Behaviour study is
important because it finds any changes in their pattern, aware the people and reduces the conflict
with wild animals and also supports for their proper management.
Methods and Materials
Study Area
The study area is Ramdhuni forest. It is a forest dominated by sal tree (Shakhuwa)
vegetation, situated in Sunsari district, Koshi province, Nepal. It is located at the latitude 26° 41'
23" N and longitude 87° 7' 44" E. It offers Monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate
(Minidat, 2023).The holy Hindu temple is located in the middle of this spiritual forest, it is also
known as Ramdhuni ( Dhuni). Around 20.4 sq. km of Ramdhuni forest is located about 10 km
east of the Koshi river ( the largest river of Nepal). The predominant tree in the area is Shorea
robusta. The primary forest is still present in the central area, but secondary growth may be seen
there in periphery of forest. Around the edge of the woodland there are human settlements and
farmings. The recreation center in the forest is typically used by people. Seraha river and Sunsari
river both pass through the woodland (Dahal et al. 2016).
JRDN, Vol.6, Issue-1, May, 2023 41
Figure 1
Location map of Ramdhuni forest and temple, Sunsari
Troop Selection
Regular watching of group of monkey was done for few days around Ramdhuni temple
of Ramdhuni forest. We detected particular individuals by observing marked coloured, body
sized, tail size, behaviour, leadership etc. in group of monkey. Then we clearly identified the
troop by observing their body color, body proportion, height and body size (Roonwal and
Mohnot, 1977, Chalise, 1995).
Composition of Troop
The composition of the troop was differentiated into adult males, adult females, sub adult
males, young adult females, juveniles and infants according to their body size, coloration and
behaviour as described by (Chalise, 1995). According to this,
1. Adult male: Adult males are distinguished by large and hanging scrotal sacs.
2. Adult female: They are distinguished with small head and protruded nipple.
3. Young and sub adults: They are independent, mostly attained the height however not
matured in body fitness and sexual activities.
4. Juveniles: They are the individuals that are left nipple contact (weaned) and depend on
natural foods and mostly following their kin.
R Adhikari/ Ethogram and Time ….. 42
5. Infants: They are those who still suck the nipple as their main food on attaching or
following mother.
In the selected troop there were totally 18 individuals. Among them 2 males, 6 females, 4
young sub adult and 6 were juvenile.
Behaviour Recording
The scan sampling method (Altmann, 1974) was followed to record the activities of
rhesus monkey for the focal troop. Data collection was done for two seasons- autumn
(September, October and November) and winter (December, January and February of)in 2022
and 2023.Activities of individuals were documented to calculate the time budget. The activities
were recorded in every 10 minutes with two minutes scanning. The observation time was started
from 7:00 A.M. before sun rising and terminated to 5:00 P.M.Total time spent in Jungle is 300
hours at the rate of 10 hours a day for 5 days in each month and totally six months duration was
the observation period.
Activities were recorded with the help of binoculars. The study was done only in day
time so nocturnal activities were not documented. The zoologist like McHugh (1958), Jerman
and Jerman (1973), Jingfors (1980)classified animal activities broadly into two to five categories
viz. foraging, resting(Inactive), moving(Locomotion), grooming and fighting.
Table 1
Ethogram for the Categorization of Behaviour
Activities
Description
Foraging
The time use for searching of food and consuming food
or drinking water.
Locomotion
Movement from one location to other by pedal or
jumping movement
Inactive
Resting, inhabiting and sleeping on tree, roof or on any
support and sitting, stretched legs situation
Grooming
Searching for their own fur or other macaque’s body fur
for lice, ticks, fleas and bugs/activity of rubbing or
scratching.
Fighting
Expression of aggressive nature to each other by bare
teeth, slapping or making noise which occurs mostly in
groups
Data Analysis
The numerical value 1 was given to each activity of each individual in a scan. All the
events were summed up for each period of time. Total time budgeting for each day, month and
season was calculated and presented using percentage of time allocated for particular activity
The overall activities of rhesus monkey of focal troop was calculated by using following formula
( Khatiwada et al., 2020)
Number of behavior records for each activity 100 %
Activity = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of behavior records for all activities
JRDN, Vol.6, Issue-1, May, 2023 43
Statistical Analysis
Time allocation for different activities by gender, fragments of day, place etc. were
calculated in Microsoft Excel. Chi square and correlation and other the data were analyzed in
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Results and Discussion
From our study focusing the activities of rhesus monkey we made the following results and
our results were compared and discussed with those of previously published documents.
Time Allocated by Monkey for Different Activities
In this research work we documented a total of 750 events among them maximum events and
time were for inactive (30.26%, n= 227) and least in fighting (3.46%, n=26)( table 2).
Table 2
Time Allocated by Monkey for Different Activities
Pandey and Chalise studied on focusing Assamese monkey. They recorded totally
769 events of Assamese monkeys and maximum time consumed in foraging/ eating (39.3%) and
secondly in locomotion ( 21.46%) in Shivapuri National Park (Pandey and Chalise, 2015)
The study of Assamese monkey, concentrated in Shivapuri National park recorded that
they spent more time in locomotion in spring claiming 27 % time and 13% in winter (Pandey and
Chalise 2005). In the next study Assamese monkey used 40% time in foraging and feeding
(Sarkar et al., 2012). This result was quite different from Thai Assamese monkey (31.2%) for
feeding (Schülke et al., 2011). Another finding described similar with Sebrubeshi monkeys of
Langtang National Park (43.4%) in foraging (Chalise, 2010). In the next finding(Chalise et al.
2013) had estimated in winter season 46% of total diurnal time spending on feeding and
foraging.
In the comparative study regarding with the time budget of rhesus monkey in Bangladesh
recorded that the rural group of rhesus had significantly longer feeding time than that in the
urban group. Oppositely, grooming and playing were significantly longer in the urban than the
rural group (Jaman and Huffiman, 2013).The macaques were passive (resting, sleeping, and
sitting) for 29% of the time. This research showed 19% difference from (Ghimire, 2017) findings
in the Nagarjun forest of Nepal.
Gender wise time allocation
From mentioned table (table 3) it could be expressed that female spent more time (25%)
for foraging in comparison to male (23%). The male remained more inactive ( time spent 33%)
in comparison to female ( 32%). Similarly male used more time (7%) in fighting but female
consumed only 5% for this purpose. In case of locomotion male allocated more time (17%) and
in locomotion male was spending more time (17%) than female (16%). There was no association
Activities
Foraging
Locomotion
Inactive
Grooming
Fighting
Total
Number of
events
200
142
227
155
26
750
Percentage
26.67
18.93
30.26
20.67
3.46
100
R Adhikari/ Ethogram and Time ….. 44
in gender regarding with the activities (Chi square=0.97, tabulated value= 9.49, degree of
freedom= 4, at significance level 0.05).
Table 3
Gender-wise Time Allocation
Activities
Percentage of time spent
Male
Female
Foraging
23
25
Locomotion
17
16
Inactive
33
32
Grooming
20
22
Fighting
7
5
An experiment was done in squirrel monkey (Saimiri sp.) to find out the activity
difference between male and female. It found that squirrel monkey's female were more strongly
attracted to strangers comparatively to males and hence their movement was more actively and
for more time than other activities at that time. They also made it plain that they preferred female
strangers to either other males or their male cagemates (Mason, 1975).
In the next study males spent more time on the ground scavenging for invertebrates.
Females consumed embedded, colonial invertebrates more frequently, consumed substantially
more sloppy stationary invertebrates. These female allocated more of their daily energy budget to
foraging for invertebrates (Melin et al. 2010). Time shared out in different activities was studied
on the gender base by Johnson and coworkers. The high-status females spent more time feeding
that did low-status females. It was at the constant age of female. It was applicable on
contemporary females (Johnson et al., 1991).
Time Allocated in Morning and Day Time for Different Activities
The mentioned table (table 4) shows the time allocated by rhesus monkey of Ramdhuni in
two parts of a day (12 hours). For foraging morning time was mostly used (33%) but in day they
used only 24% for this activity. Similarly, they reduced locomotion in morning but increased in
day time. Longer resting or inactive situation (27%), grooming (20%) and fighting (9%) were
recorded in daytime. This reading showed the monkeys in the morning depend on pilgrims since
they provide food them in temple premises. There was a close relation between the activities in
morning and day time (r= 0.80906).For example if they spent more time in foraging in morning,
they reduced time for this activity in day.
Table 4
Time Allocated in Morning and Day Time for Different Activities
Activities
Percentage of time spent
Morning ( Before 12:00 noon)
Day(After 12:00 noon)
Foraging
33
24
Locomotion
18
20
Inactive
22
27
Grooming
19
20
Fighting
8
9
JRDN, Vol.6, Issue-1, May, 2023 45
The study on Nagarjun of Sivapuri National Park showed a variation in activities in
morning and day time. According to this the troop spent 29% of their time in inactive, it was
highest value and 1% in fighting (lowest) in the morning time. In day time, 27% time of the
troop activity was inactive (highest) and for fighting only 1% as lowest during day ( Ghimire
and Chalise, 2021). In some places the monkeys expressed a much time spending in locomotion
during day rather than morning. Their home range and diurnal range of moving was larger and
hence much time was found to be spent (Neville, 1968). In the experimental research also the
monkeys were fed in the morning (Mattison et al. 2017) keeping it in mind that they use most of
time in foraging specially in morning and with the hypothesis morning feeding was good for
health.
Allocation of Time and Place Used in Different Activities by Monkeys
The focal troop spent time for different activities in different places. The mentioned table
(table 5) expressed that 24% of time of foraging used on grassland, 23% on roof, 15% on shrub,
27% on floor of temple, 6% on roadside and 5% of time of foraging was used on tall trees.
Likewise, the locomotion was maximally (32%) in the roof of temple and least on roadside. The
time spent for being inactive maximally on tall tree (22%) and floor of temple and least on
roadside. Maximum time for grooming was in shrub (27%) and least on roadside (2%). Finally
time used for fighting was maximum on grassland (27%) and least percentage (7%) on tall trees.
The chi square test showed that there was significant relation between time budgeting for
activities with the place for activities ( Chi square=78.74, degree of freedom= 20, significance
level =0.05 Chi square tabulated= 31.41).
Table 5
Allocation of Time and Place Used in Different Activities by Monkeys
Activities
Percentage of time spent in different place
Grassland
Roof of
construction
Shrub
Temple's
floor
Roadside
Tall tree
Foraging
24 (n=48)
23 (n=46)
15( n=30)
27 (n=54)
6 (n=12)
5 (n=
10)
Locomotion
28
16
12
32
5
7
Inactive
15
20
21
21
1
22
Grooming
16
19
27
17
2
19
Fighting
27
24
12
19
11
7
The research work in Nagarjun highlited that rhesus monkeys were mostly terrestrial,
with 58.5% of their activities on the ground (Khatiwada et al., 2020). This finding resembles
with that previously done. The research in Nagarjun forest found that Assamese Monkeys spent
highest time ( 24.21%) inSchimawallichiifor foraging, 35.82% for locomotion and 36.26% for
inactive. Similarly the rhesus monkeys on the same habitat spent maximum time on same species
of trees and least time in time in Myrica esculenta for foraging, locomotion and
resting/sleeping/sitting ( inactive) (Ghimire and Chalise, 2021).
R Adhikari/ Ethogram and Time ….. 46
Season-wise Time Division for Different Activities
The season wise variation was recorded concerning with the activities of monkey. In
spring season the focal troop spent maximum time in foraging (35%) and least in fighting
(13%). Similarly, in winter maximum time for foraging(37%) and least for fighting and
grooming(13% each). Comparatively it can be concluded that in winter the time for foraging,
locomotion and inactive was more than for those in autumn ( table 6).
The chi square calculation showed that there was not association between the allocated
time for different activities with the change of season ( Chi square= 0.9, degree of freedom=4,
significance level= 0.05 and chi square tabulated=9.49)
Table 6
Season-wise Time Division for Different Activities
Activities
Percentage of time spent
Autumn
Winter
Foraging
35
37
Locomotion
15
17
Inactive
19
20
Grooming
18
13
Fighting
13
13
During the period of inactivity, monkeys spent the majority of the time (53%) at rest.
Infants remain playing( 27 %) when adult goes for rest. The annual average for sunbathing is
29%, with the winter months accounting for 49% of the total (Pandey and Chalise, 2015). The
monkeys spent a lot less time socializing during the winter season (14%), preferring to sunbathe
and relax instead. Just opposite, social behavior was essentially the same during the spring and
autumn seasons (19% and 17%, respectively). The social pre-monsoon behavior was 9+1%,
monsoon behavior was 6+1%, post-monsoon behavior was 12+1%, and winter behavior was
14+1% (grooming + playing) ( Sarkar et al. 2012).
It was found a difference in the activities throughout the year in some research.
According to that study done by ( Sarkar et al., 2012) the monkeys spent considerable time in
winter (20%) but in while spring and autumn it had spent a small difference i.e. 11% and 14%
for particular activities respectively.The next research work stated that not only the behavioural
but the social structure of group was found to be changed in different season. The researchers
fully believe to the occurrence of behavioural and time budgetary changes according to seasonal
change( Brent et al., 2013). Next study in India recorded no seasonal variation in the activitity
pattern. The researcher published the report stating there was variation on reproductive
behaviour, home range etc but no seasonal variation in daily activity pattern and diurnal
movement ranges throughout the year in the sanctuary (Ganguly and Chauhan, 2018).
In Spring, more contact aggression was aimed at males, and fighting between males for
estrous females couldnot explain the pattern of agonistic activity seen. Although the oldest guys
played more in the Spring, there was noticeably greater play among the subjects in the Autumn
(Brenstein, 1993). In the work focusing to female rhesus monkey in china showed significant
different in the activity pattern in different season. In autumn, they spent 35.9% in feeding,
JRDN, Vol.6, Issue-1, May, 2023 47
30.0% in resting and15. 9% in travelling but in winter, adult females spent 35.4%, in feeding,
39.7% in resting and 8.0% of time in traveling (Zhenwei et al., 2015).
Figure 2
Individuals of Focal Troop, in Ramdhuni Temple Premise. (Photo Credit: Nabin Regmi)
Conclusion
Ethogram provides a list of the behaviours a species exhibits together with explanations
of each activity in the form of descriptive words and phrases. Behaviour and time budgeting are
important to study because they reflect the situation of adaptation of monkey and any changing
in their different habit and the study supports for the sustainable management of the particular
animal.
With the objective to explore the time budgeting of the major behaviours of rhesus
monkey the study was conducted from September 2022 to February 2023 by following scan
sampling method in Ramdhuni, Sunsari. A total of 750 events were recorded in field working
time 300 hours. The time allocated was documented as for foraging (26.67%), locomotion
(18.93%), inactive (30.26%), grooming (20.67%) and fighting (3.46%). The much time spent for
inactive (Resting, inhabiting and sleeping on tree, roof or on any support and sitting, stretched
legs situation) indicates that they fill up the stomach in short period of time and go on rest. Since
there was least time recorded for fighting it can be concluded that there was no competition for
food and other resources. With the hypothesis there would be a variation in time budgeting sex
wise, the study was forwarding to this direction. The theme of finding states that there was not
R Adhikari/ Ethogram and Time ….. 48
significant association in gender regarding with the activities (Chi square=0.97, degree of
freedom= 4, at significance level 0.05 and tabulated value= 9.49). There was a close positive
relation between the activities in morning and day time (r= 0.80906).The monkey used more
time for foraging in morning and for the rest of the activities they used much more time on day
(after noon). The selected troop used the manmade construction (temple, buildings) for the
activities. While feeling danger they moved to tall tress too. Hence, there was a significant
relation between time budgeting for activities with the place for activities (Chi square=78.74,
degree of freedom= 20, significance level =0.05 Chi square tabulated= 31.41).The troop showed
longer time taken for foraging, locomotion and inactive in Winter season with the comparison of
Autumn. There was no association between the allocated time for different activities with the
change of season (Chi square= 0.9, degree of freedom=4, significance level= 0.05 and chi square
tabulated=9.49).From the finding of this study it can be recommended that to manage the
monkey and reduce probable conflict, the area should be defined for the feeding to monkey by
pilgrims in forest sides, not in temple premises.
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