Fused deposition modeling: process, materials, parameters, properties, and applications

Abstract

In recent years, 3D printing technology has played an essential role in fabricating customized products at a low cost and faster in numerous industrial sectors. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is one of the most efficient and economical 3D printing techniques. Various materials have been developed and studied, and their properties, such as mechanical, thermal, and electrical, have been reported. Numerous attempts to improve FDM products’ properties for applications in various sectors have also been reported. Still, their applications are limited due to the materials’ availability and properties compared to traditional fabrication methods. In 3D printing, the process parameters are crucial factors for improving the product's properties and reducing the machining time and cost. Researchers have recently investigated many approaches for expanding the range of materials and optimizing the FDM process parameters to extend the FDM process’s possibility into various industrial sectors. This paper reviews and explains various techniques used in 3D printing and the various polymers and polymer composites used in the FDM process. The list of mechanical investigations carried out for different materials, process parameters, properties, and the FDM process's potential application was discussed. This review is expected to indicate the materials and their optimized parameters to achieve enhanced properties and applications. Also, the article is highly anticipated to provide the research gaps to sustenance future research in the area of FDM technologies.

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-08860-7
CRITICAL REVIEW
Fused deposition modeling: process, materials, parameters,
properties, andapplications
KumaresanRajan1· MahendranSamykano2,3· KumaranKadirgama1,3· WanSharuziWanHarun1·
Md.MustazurRahman2
Received: 22 June 2021 / Accepted: 1 February 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2022
Abstract
In recent years, 3D printing technology has played an essential role in fabricating customized products at a low cost and
faster in numerous industrial sectors. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is one of the most efficient and economical 3D
printing techniques. Various materials have been developed and studied, and their properties, such as mechanical, thermal,
and electrical, have been reported. Numerous attempts to improve FDM products’ properties for applications in various sec-
tors have also been reported. Still, their applications are limited due to the materials’ availability and properties compared
to traditional fabrication methods. In 3D printing, the process parameters are crucial factors for improving the product's
properties and reducing the machining time and cost. Researchers have recently investigated many approaches for expand-
ing the range of materials and optimizing the FDM process parameters to extend the FDM process’s possibility into various
industrial sectors. This paper reviews and explains various techniques used in 3D printing and the various polymers and
polymer composites used in the FDM process. The list of mechanical investigations carried out for different materials, pro-
cess parameters, properties, and the FDM process's potential application was discussed. This review is expected to indicate
the materials and their optimized parameters to achieve enhanced properties and applications. Also, the article is highly
anticipated to provide the research gaps to sustenance future research in the area of FDM technologies.
Keywords Fused deposition modeling· 3D printing· Mechanical properties· Additive manufacturing· Fused filament
fabrication
Abbreviations
3DP Three-dimensional printing
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
AM Additive manufacturing
ANOVA Analysis of variance
ASTM American Society for Testing and Material
standards
β-TCP Beta-tricalcium phosphate
BJ Binder jetting
CAD Computer-aided design
CAM Computer-aided manufacturing
CF Carbon fiber
CFF Continuous flax fiber
CFR Continuous fiber reinforcement
CIJ Continuous inkjet
CNT Carbon nanotube
DCB Decellularized bone matrix
DED Direct energy deposition
DLF Direct light fabrication
DLP Digital light processing
DMD Direct metal deposition
Highlights
• Various methods of the additive manufacturing process were
discussed.
• Fused deposition modeling materials (polymers and polymer
composites) were discussed in detail.
• Various parameters used and optimization of the fused
deposition modeling process were discussed.
• Properties of different polymers and polymer composites have
been extracted from different kinds of experiments and studies.
• Applications in the various sectors using the fused deposition
process were discussed.
* Mahendran Samykano
mahendran@ump.edu.my
1 Faculty ofMechanical & Automotive Engineering
Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang,
26600Pekan,Pahang, Malaysia
2 College ofEngineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang,
26300Gambang,Pahang, Malaysia
3 Centre forResearch inAdvanced Fluid andProcesses,
Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300Gambang,Pahang,
Malaysia

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DMLS Direct metal laser sintering
DOE Design of experiments
EBW Electron beam welding
FDM Fused deposition modeling
FF Flax fiber
FFF Fused filament fabrication
G-Code Geometric code
GF Glass fiber
HA Hydroxyapatite
HIPS High-impact polystyrene
IP Inkjet printing
ISO International Standard Organization
LENS Laser-engineered net shaping
LOM Laminated object manufacturing
M-Code Machine code
ME Material extrusion
MJ Material jetting
MWCNT Multi-walled carbon nanotubes
OMMT Organic montmorillonite
PA Nylon/polyamide
PBF Powder bed fusion
PBS Poly(butylene succinate)
PC Polycarbonate
PCL Polycaprolactone
PEEK Polyetheretherketone
PEKK Polyetherketoneketone
PHB Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)
PLA Polylactic acid
PLGA Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)
PMMA Polymethyl methacrylate
PP Polypropylene
PPSF Polyphenylsulphone
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
PVDF Polyvinylidene fluoride
PS Polystyrene
RP Rapid prototyping
RSM Response surface methodology
SBF Simulated body fluids
SCF Short carbon fiber
SL Sheet lamination
SLA Stereolithography
SLS Selective laser sintering
STL Standard tessellation language
TMP Thermomechanical pulp
TPU Thermoplastic polyurethanes
UAM Ultrasound additive manufacturing
VP Vat photopolymerization
Symbols
μm Micrometer
$ American dollars
MPa Megapascal
GPa Gigapascal
1 Introduction
The need for greater versatility and the evolution of cus-
tomized products has directed the precipitous technologi-
cal advancement of additive manufacturing technology.
3D printing is an additive manufacturing technology, also
called rapid prototyping by the ASTM F42 technical com-
mittee, to differentiate between conventional production
(subtracting manufacturing method) processes [1]. Origi-
nally, AM methods were used only for concept visuali-
zations and validation. However, the advancement of the
technique has led to the development of end-use compo-
nents and tools [2]. The component manufactured by the
AM technique is shaped layer by layer using the digital
data designed using CAD and CAM [3]. In recent years,
the use of AM technology has snowballed due to its ability
to bring the product to market quicker than conventional
methods [4]. As reported by Forbes in 2017, 57% of the
global manufacturers have invested in 3D printing research
and development, and 95% of manufacturing companies
perceive 3D printing technology provides a significant
market advantage. Finding also reveals that 47% of 3D
printing businesses have been more successful than in pre-
vious years [5]. In the next 5years, analysts predict that
the 3D printing industry’s average growth will be 24% or
35 billion dollars [6]. In 2020, the AM industry grew by
7.5%, or nearly $ 12.8 billion. Figure1 indicates the global
annual report of AM parts’ production from independent
service providers (in millions of dollars) by Wohler.
Fused deposition modeling is a popular AM technol-
ogy because of its fast production, cost-efficiency, ease of
access, broad material adaptation, and capability to pro-
duce complex components [8,9]. In 1988, Crump-patented
fused deposition modeling (FDM) and formed Stratasys in
1989. The initial system has essential fundamental aspects
of AM except for the possibility of generating complex
geometry [10]. Later, several optimized series were intro-
duced, such as FDM Titan, FDM Dimension, FDM Van-
tage, FDM Maxum, FDM 3000, and FDM Prodigy Plus
[11,12] that can produce complex geometry designs. The
structure is created three-dimensionally over the build
plate per CAD design using thermoplastic filament in the
FDM process. Once the initial layer is printed, the bed
goes down, and the second layer is printed over the previ-
ous layer, and the process continues. Materials such as
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid
(PLA) are the most widely used materials in the FDM
because their thermal and rheological properties make it
easier to manufacture parts [13]. Other possible materi-
als for FDM are nylon, ULTEM, polyetheretherketone
(PEEK), polypropylene (PP), polyphenylsulphone (PPSF),
thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU), polyvinyl alcohol

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(PVA), high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and composite fil-
aments [14]. These materials have developed components
for various industries such as automotive, electronics,
biomedical, construction, aerospace, and domestic appli-
ance industries [15]. The processing parameters have been
reported to be the crucial factor determining the output
product's quality and behavior. The different processing
parameters used in the FDM process are layer thickness,
infill pattern, infill density, raster angle, raster width, print-
ing speed, build orientation, printing, and bed temperature.
FDM manufactured parts are heavily affected by deprived
mechanical and anisotropic properties. Several researchers
have investigated the FDM process parameter's effect on
mechanical behavior [16]. Lanzotti etal. [17] investigated
the effect of layer height, raster angle, and shells on the
tensile strength of a PLA. The author observed the tensile
strength reduces with raster angle increment and increases
with lower layer thickness. Ziemian etal. [18] analyzed
the anisotropic properties of the FDM printed ABS and
reported that the direction of the fracture depends on
the raster direction and strength of the individual layer.
Chacón etal. [19], in their work, reported that lower layer
thickness specimen resulted in higher tensile strength
and ductility; these higher mechanical properties were
achieved at flat edge orientation. The FDM technology
has also been shown to form porous internal structures in
the manufactured component, which leads to inadequate
mechanical strength and the “stair-stepping” effect to other
problems such as poor surface finish [20, 21].
Literature studies attest that FDM technology has been
used in various applications. This technology potential to
produce functional products by using innumerable poly-
mers and polymer composites. At present, most of the
reported works seem to focus on developing polymers and
polymer composites to be used with the FDM process. The
components produced with this method are reported to have
lower strength compared with the other conventional meth-
ods. Research in the field of additive manufacturing or 3DP
has been increasing every year. The number of publications
in this area from 2000 to 2020 is shown in Fig.2. After
2012, the rate of research contribution in this area has been
augmented significantly. The present review paper summa-
rizes the crucial advancements in the FDM process, mate-
rial characterization, and process parameters to develop the
optimum print quality and enhance the FDM process's prod-
uct quality. Also, the present paper attempts to present the
property matrix for all the materials investigated. Since most
researchers focus their review papers on particular areas,
the current work concentrates on the overall FDM review.
This current review paper includes the following sections:
materials, properties, parameters, applications, technical
challenges in the FDM process, and the conclusion.
2 3D printing technologies
The International Standard Organization (ISO) and the
American Society for Testing and Material standards
(ASTM) have categorized the techniques of 3DP/AM [1].
They have classified AM technology into seven categories
and discussed them in the preceding sub-sections.
2.1 AM categories
Sheet lamination, material extrusion, powder bed fusion,
direct energy deposition, binder jetting, material jetting,
and vat photopolymerization are the main categories of AM
technology. Each technique has different abilities depending
on its applications. The various processes and the methods
of AM are shown in Fig.3.
Fig. 1 Global annual report
of AM parts production from
independent service provid-
ers (in millions of dollars) by
Wohler [7]

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2.1.1 Sheet lamination
In the sheet lamination process, the raw material is added
together to form the final product in the form of sheets.
The raw materials (worksheets) are cut by laser or cutter as
per the geometry before the lamination process. The sheets
are stacked layer by layer, and the stacked sheets were
bonded by diffusion instead of melting [22–24]. Laminated
object manufacturing (LOM) and ultrasonic additive man-
ufacturing (UAM) are the main techniques in this process.
The processing speed is relatively high, with low operation
cost and ease of handling material [23, 25]. Various mate-
rials such as polymer, ceramic, paper, and metals can be
used in this sheet lamination process. This process's main
advantages are integrating as a hybrid manufacturing sys-
tem, working with ceramic and composite fiber material,
and without the necessity for support structures. The limi-
tation of this process is the availability of limited materials
and removing the excess materials after the lamination.
Compared with other methods, the wastage is high in the
sheet lamination process. In addition, the strength of the
bonding relies on the lamination technique, and in certain
Fig. 2 Number of journal pub-
lications on FDM for the period
of 2000–2020 ( source from
google scholars)
Fig. 3 Techniques and process of AM

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instances, adhesive bonds will not suffice the strength and
integrity required for the long term.
2.1.2 Material extrusion
In this material extrusion process, a continuous filament
of thermoplastic or composite material is used to construct
3D parts. The polymer filament is forced over the nozzle
and fed over the build plate or previously solidified sub-
stance, and the product is built layer by layer technique at
a constant speed and pressure [22, 23, 26]. This process is
primarily used to build complex geometry that is impossible
to produce by the traditional manufacturing process. Also,
multi-material can be used in this extrusion process [27,
28]. Operation time and cost are minimal compared to other
methods, and the main techniques in these processes are
fused deposition modeling (FDM) and fused filament fab-
rication (FFF) [23, 25]. Low initial and running cost, easily
understandable printing technique, small equipment size,
simple and easy changing of print material, and comparably
low-temperature process are the main pros of this process.
The main cons of this process are visible layer thickness
and the support structure may be required. In addition, part
strength in the Z-axis is lacking, the structure of the parts
is delaminated due to warping and temperature fluctuation.
2.1.3 Powder bed fusion
In this powder bed fusion process, the raw materials are in
powder form. Initially, the powders are fed over the base plate,
and the materials are sintered using heat, laser, or electron
beam. Next, the Z-axis moves downwards to spread the pow-
der over the layer uniformly by a brush or wiper, and again the
process repeats [22, 24]. Selective laser melting (SLM), selec-
tive laser sintering (SLS), electron beam melting (EBM), and
direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) are the main techniques
of this process. In this PBF process, the previous layers are
reheated to reduce anisotropy, and this process is used to fab-
ricate intricate structures without additional supports [29, 30].
The process advantages are as follows: (1) comparatively low
cost as it does not require any supporting structure, (2) a wide
range of materials can be used, and (3) the remaining powders
in the process can be recycled. However, the limitations of the
process are relatively low speed, very long print time, post-
processing requirement, high power usages, weak structural
properties, and surface texture.
2.1.4 Direct energy deposition
This process creates three-dimensional objects by melting
material as it is deposited using concentrated thermal energy
such as a laser, electron beam, or plasma arc. A gantry sys-
tem or robotic arm manipulates both the energy source and
the material feed nozzle. In here, a movable chamber is fixed
along with a laser. The metal powder is routed into the noz-
zle to the specific area simultaneously; the laser operates and
melts the powder and solidifies the layer. The movable cham-
ber is not fixed at a particular axis, and it moves in various
directions. Depending on the material feedstock, the DED
process is classified into two types: (1)metal powder and (2)
metal wire [24]. Comparative from PBF, different types of
substrates can be used in DED. This process produces high
accuracy products with the minimized void formation and
improved density [31, 32]. The primary techniques used in
this process are laser engineered net shaping (LENS), direct
light fabrication (DLF), and direct metal deposition (DMD).
High build rate and faster build time, used for built larger
parts, fewer material wastages, multi-material range are the
advantages of this method. The limitations of this method
are low build resolution, high capital cost, and without sup-
port structures.
2.1.5 Binder jetting
In this process, the binder liquid bonds the powder and
forms the final part. Initially, the powder is spread over
the bed evenly, and the bonding agent is dropped over the
powder using the print head. Next, the electrical heater is
used to solidify, forming the desired shape. After the forma-
tion of the first layer, the powder bed moves down, and the
powder is spread over the previously printed layer, and the
method continues [24, 33, 34]. The energy utilized is low
compared to other AM processes, and the operation cost is
also relatively low [35]. Various parts can be made using
this process, and this process is faster than other processes.
The double material approach gives several different varia-
tions and mechanical characteristics of binder powder. This
process's limitations are that it is not suitable for structural
parts, post-processing is required, and high cost.
2.1.6 Material jetting
In this MJ process, liquid polymers are used as the raw mate-
rial. Using the piezo print head, the droplets of polymer liq-
uids are deposited over the build plate, and the solidification
is carried out using ultraviolet lamps [22, 36]. This process
is categorized into three types: (1) Polyjet technology, (2)
nanoparticle jetting, and (3) drop-on demand. The process is
capable of printing large components compared to VP [37].
The material jetting process is similar to ordinary inkjet
printers, where the droplets are controlled layer by layer to
produce a 3D object. After the layer finishes, it is cured in
the photo-sensitive material with ultraviolet light or heat
for metal and ceramic pieces. The advantage of this process

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is that it can be used to develop complex geometry com-
ponents, high precision, and efficient techniques. The main
techniques are inkjet printing (IP) and material jetting (MJ).
This process is capable of building high-accuracy parts at
less than 14 μm. The injection molding process has a bet-
ter surface finish, print multi-material, and low wastage of
materials due to high accuracy printing. The main limitation
of this process is non-suitable for function prototypes. Com-
pared with other AM techniques, the machine is expensive,
the parts are relatively brittle, and the high accuracy can be
achieved on limited materials such as polymers and waxes.
2.1.7 Vat photopolymerization
In this VP process, the materials are mixed with the high
reactivity acrylate resins. The mixed photopolymers are
placed in the platform, and the laser is used for sintering.
Here, the stereolithography (SLA) uses a laser, and direct
light printing (DLP) uses a projector for the sintering pro-
cess. The laser is exposed over the mixed metal resins, and
it undergoes a chemical reaction to become a solid. It is a
photochemical process where small monomers are linked
together like a chain to form a solid object [38, 39]. This
process has high accuracy and surface quality. This process
is also relatively quick and typically used to build large com-
ponents at a size of 1000 × 800 × 500 mm and a maximum
weight of 200 kg. The limitations of this process are that the
machines are relatively expensive, post-processing time and
the removal of resins time takes a significant amount of time,
and the material selection is limited.
2.2 Major techniques ofAM
All the AM methods have various printing techniques with
unique characteristics. Some of the techniques are cost-
effective, high accurate, user friendly, but few techniques
have low printing quality, are not an end-user product, and
require post-processing. The most common methods used in
the various industrial sectors are as follows.
2.2.1 Stereolithography (SLA)
This stereolithography (SLA) technology is a polymerization-
based process that was commercially introduced in 1986
[40]. Two techniques are used in this SLA process, one is
top–bottom, and another one is bottom-top. The top–bottom
technique is the most popular than another one [41]. Pho-
topolymerizable monomers of epoxy or acrylates resins are
used for laser irradiation. The resins cover the building plat-
form, and the laser head is computer-controlled. At first, the
boundary layer of the product and the supporting structures
are printed before the primary structures [42]. Then, a thin
amount of resins is placed over the building platform, and
the laser is exposed over the resin; the photo-sensitive layer
undergoes polymerization, known as the first layer of the
prints. After the first layer print, the platform lowers at the
y-axis, and the resins are spread over the specific area. The
process repeats until the whole component is printed. The
excess material in the platforms is removed after each layer
formation. This process prints the product layer by layer at
the range of 50–200µm [43]. This process is categorized into
two types based on the ultraviolet light used for curing: (1)
projection-based stereolithography and (2) scanning-based
stereolithography [44]. In PSL, the lamp is exposed over
the entire area in a single pass, but each layer is scanned
individually in the SSL. This SLA technique is relatively
quick and has the highest resolution compared to other AM
techniques. This drawback of this SLA technique is the slow
printing process and high cost.
2.2.2 Selective laser sintering (SLS)
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is one of the best powder-
based AM techniques developed in 1987 by Carl Deckard
[45]. In this technique, the powder particles are sintered
using a laser source to produce the solid structure [46]. Two
chambers are used in this SLS technique, the feed chamber
with a roller is to load the powder to the bed, and the build-
ing chamber is for printing. Initially, the feed chamber feeds
the powder evenly to the built chamber base plate with the
help of a roller. Before the laser is exposed, the building
chamber is heated (below melting temperature) then the Co2
laser is exposed over the powder to cure the material. The
building chamber then slightly moves down, and the feed
chamber applies the powder over the printed layers. The
excess powders in the building chamber act as a supporting
structure and are removed after completion, and the excess
material is reused. This is a cost-efficient and flexible pro-
cedure to make high-density prototype products [47, 48].
However, due to the high power of laser input, the operation
cost is high and the product quality compared to the SLS
process is low [49].
2.2.3 Inkjet printing (IP)
The modern inkjet printers were invented by Canon and
Hewlett-Packard in 1987. The inkjet printers are mainly
classified into two types based on the operation: continu-
ous inkjet printer and drop-on-demand inkjet printer. In the
continuous inkjet printer, the ink droplet creation is constant.
Meanwhile, in the drop-on-demand inkjet printer, the ink is
emitted when necessary. The resolution of continuous inkjet
(CIJ) printing is lesser than the DOD printing [50–52]. This
CIJ printing ink is extended through a small nozzle by a
high-pressure pump controlled by a piezoelectric crystal.
The charger electrodes selectively charge the inks from the

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print head, and the droplets form the image on the matrix.
The excess materials are deflected to the gutter and its reuse.
In the DOD process, the ink droplets are generated by the
piezoelectric actuation or pulses of the thermal resistor or
thermal buckling. In the thermal process of DOD, the ink
chamber is heated to a high temperature for vaporization,
and the bubbles are formed on the heater surface, which
will create the pressure pulse, push the ink from the nozzle,
and form the objects. The advantage of this technology is
to minimize wastage, environmentally friendly, and post-
processing is minimized [53].
2.2.4 Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is a vastly handy
technique to produce small to big-sized objects, and Feygin
and Pak developed it at Helisys Corp in 1991 [54, 55]. Ini-
tially, the raw material is stored as a roller and supplied to
the Platform, and the sheet material is cut by using a cutter
or laser. The same process endures on the second layer and
is placed over the first layer. Then, using a heated roller,
pressure is applied over the two sheets containing adhesive
coating in-between the sheets. The laser is then used to
remove the excess materials [56, 57]. Plastic, metals, fabrics,
paper, and synthetic materials are commonly used materi-
als in this technique. This technique’s main advantage is
mainly used to produce high-strength objects compared to
the conventional process, lower tooling cost, post-processing
not required, support structures not needed, and less time to
manufacture larger products [58, 59].
2.2.5 Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is the most popular mate-
rial extrusion-based additive manufacturing method invented
by Scott Crump, co-founder of Stratasys, in 1989 [60]. FDM
is a material extrusion process using thermoplastic poly-
mers. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polylactic acid
(PLA), and polycarbonate (PC) are the base material of this
FDM process [61, 62]. The layout of the FDM is shown
in Fig.4. Here, the filaments are stored in the roller and
directly connected to the extrusion head. This head moves
in X and Y directions, and the build platform moves in the
Z direction. An electric motor controls the movable head,
and the filament is directly connected to the extrusion head.
Generally, two types of material filaments are used for this
process. One is built material, and another one is the sup-
porting material. The filament diameter is typically 1.75 to
3.0mm. This FDM technique is consists of three stages for
the production: (1) pre-processing, (2) production, and (3)
post-processing.
The product’s design is drawn using CAD software and
saved in STL format in the pre-processing stage. Then,
before slicing the file, essential parameters for the process
are considered, like slicing parameters, building orienta-
tion, and temperature condition of the machine. These
are the vital parameters of the printing that will affect
the final product’s mechanical properties [63, 64]. The
essential parameters of the process are shown in Fig.5.
Once this procedure is completed, the slicing is done
using the software (e.g., idea maker, quick slice, etc.),
and the tool path is labeled as G-code. The G-code is a
computer numerical controller code to control the extru-
sion process. Figure6 shows the step-by-step process of
the FDM process.
After the pre-processing, the feedstock material con-
nected with the head is regulated by temperature and heated
to the semi-liquid stage. It forms the 2D layer over the build
platform [65]. The layer forms one over another until the 3D
objects are created [62, 66]. The filament is heated at a tem-
perature between 150 and 300℃ and printed over the plate
at the dimensional accuracy of 100µm [67]. The support
base is initially printed before the required object is printed.
The building platform moves downwards after every layer
is printed, then the extrusion process is sustained, and the
object is printed.
The post-processing technique is carried out for the final
product. Post-processing is a vital process in FDM since
the printed parts are not entirely ready for instant usage.
After the printing process, the product is taken out from
the bed platform, and the supporting structures are removed
and undergo post-processing. This process is mainly used
to improve the surface quality of the product [68, 69].
Kumbhar and Mulay [70] reported that the post-processing
techniques are usually used to improve the surface finish.
The post-processing process is categorized into two that
are mechanical and chemical methods [71]. The chemical
method uses painting, coating, heating, and vapor deposi-
tion process [72, 73]. In contrast, the mechanical method
includes machining, sanding, abrasive, vibratory, and barrel
finishing to improve the parts' surface quality and mechani-
cal properties [74, 75].
Daminabo etal. [27] and Bryll etal. [76] are reported
the different mechanisms in FDM methods classified by the
heads and feed mechanism. Figure7 shows the different
types of FDM processes.
• Single-head method
• Dual-head method
• In-nozzle impregnation method
Only one filament is used for production in the single
head FDM method, and it is a traditional method. Composite
materials of polymers with fiber, wood, and metals are used
in this method. The drawback of this process is, it is not
possible to fabricate products with more than one material

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type. In the dual-head method, two material filaments are
used for this process. This method feasible the development
of components with two different materials. It is relatively
quick compared to the single head method. This method
is used to make skeletal structures like honeycomb and
square cells. Compared to the previous processes, this in-
nozzle impregnation method is unique. Here, the filaments
are directly fed into the nozzle head. The polymer filament
and the add-on materials (e.g., carbon fiber, glass fiber) are
directly fed into the nozzle, and the filaments are mixed, and
printing is performed.
The significant advantages of this FDM process are
ease of access, less cost of the machine, and multicolor
product printing; compared to other RP techniques, this
technique is cheaper and cost-effective. On the other
hand, the main limitations of this technique are poor sur-
face quality and it needs support structures. The vari-
ous materials used, the product quality of the technique,
merits and demerits, and the applications of these tech-
niques are shown in Table1.
3 Materials fortheFDM process
The materials used for FDM are usually polymer-based,
having different physical, mechanical, and thermal behav-
iors. The selection of the polymer materials depends on the
different applications and as per the requirements. How-
ever, at present, limited types of polymers are available and
have restrained FDM technology. Also, high melting point
materials could not be used in this process since the com-
mercially available FDM machines melting capability are
around 300 ℃ [77]. Due to these constraints, thermoplastic
polymers and several low melting temperature materials
are ideal for this process. Thus, various attempts have been
made to improve the quality and properties of the polymers
Fig. 4 Basic layout of the FDM process [291]

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by adding fillers such as ceramics, nanoparticles, metals,
and wood fiber.
3.1 Polymers
In the 3D printing process, polymers are the most common
materials used to form the prototype or products. The com-
mon materials are used in the FDM process are acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS), polylactic acid (PLA), polyethyl-
ene (PE), polypropylene (PP), nylon/polyamide (PA), and
polycarbonates (PC) [25, 78, 79]. Pure polymers such as
ABS, PLA, and PA are mainly used for prototypes as they
have low physical properties. In contrast, polyethyleneimine
(PEI), polyetherketoneketone (PEKK), polystyrene (PS),
and polyetheretherketone (PEEK) are used for components
that require improved properties. These materials have high
mechanical, thermal properties and chemical resistance [77].
Some special materials of ABS such as ABSi, ABS-M30,
ABS-M30i, ABS-ESD7, and ABS plus are also used as the
printing material in the FDM process [80, 81].
PLA is a biodegradable, easily compostable, and non-
toxic material obtained from sugar beets and corns. PLA is
the low-temperature thermoplastic, and it is the reinstate of
petroleum-based thermoplastics. They are mainly used for
biomedical and tissue engineering and scaffolding [82, 83].
Due to their low operating temperature, the cost of operation
is reduced with desirable mechanical properties. However,
low melting strength and slow crystallization rate are the
main limitations of this PLA. Due to this drawback, the
application of PLA in different sectors is constrained [84].
ABS is the most used petroleum-based material having
high mechanical strength, easy processability, corrosion
resistance, and high melt strength. In the FDM process,
the strength of printed ABS can achieve 80% of the raw
material [85–87]. Compared to PLA, the ABS has better
mechanical strength. In addition, the ABS material can be
easily extruded because of less friction coefficient, and they
are mainly used to print household products [88]. However,
ABS is not suitable for medical applications as they are not
biofriendly, and the layers do not merge completely to create
a watertight device [72].
Polyamide (PA)/nylon has been one of the most popular
engineered thermoplastics with excellent mechanical and
thermal properties [89]. PA/nylon has higher mechanical
properties compared to the PLA and ABS [90]. The most
promising biocompatible polymer with exceptional mechan-
ical qualities and outstanding processability is polyamide/
nylon. However, this material exhibits the most challenging
material characteristics compared with some other polymers
[91]. Pure PA-based FDM products are seriously warped,
lack shape infirmity and are distorted. Due to these limita-
tions, their applications are restricted [92].
Fig. 5 Important process parameters of the FDM process

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PEEK is a high-performance, non-toxic, semi-crystalline
thermoplastic polymer with good mechanical strength, high-
temperature resistance, and excellent dimensional stability
[93]. PEEK has a high melting point and mechanical strength
compared with PLA and ABS [94, 95]. PEEK is a biocom-
patible material used in biomedical applications and automo-
tive, aerospace, electronics, and medical industries [96]. It
also has good chemical resistance and mechanical properties
up to 240 ℃ and is usually used as an alternative material for
the metal in high-temperature applications [97].
3.2 Composites
Pure polymers were the primary filaments used in the FDM
process because of the low melting point and low cost,
process flexibility, and availability. 3D-printed polymer
products have a high degree of geometric sophistication,
and their wide application presents a significant challenge
with the lack of mechanical strength and functionality. Pure
polymers as a filament have many obstacles to increasing
the product’s strength some other materials added with
the polymers. Combining different materials to obtain the
required mechanical and functional properties is a promising
way of solving this problem. The production of composite
materials compliant with current printers has also gained
significant interest in recent years. Many promising findings
were demonstrated in producing new printable composites
strengthened by ceramics, metals, fibers, and nanomaterials.
The composites are mainly classified into four types, and
that is shown in Fig.8.
The polymers, ceramic, fiber, and nanomaterials were
added with the base polymers to create the composite fila-
ments. The materials used with the polymer materials are
mainly classified into two types: (1) biodegradable materials
and (2) non-biodegradable materials. Figure9 indicates the
various types of materials used in the FDM process.
3.2.1 Biodegradable materials
The increasing drawback of fossil supplies in blend with a
society that needs environmentally friendly and ecological
procedures has led to forming a market for biobased plastics.
The biodegradable materials are non-toxic so that this type
of material is mainly used in medical applications and recy-
clable products. The development of the filament as a biode-
gradable material was primarily motivated by this demand.
Biodegradable materials are natural materials, and the prop-
erties of these materials are relatively low compared with
non-biodegradable materials. Here, the bio-based polymers
are added with other bio-based polymers, ceramics, natural
fillers, and natural fibers. PLA and ABS are the standard
materials used as a base material in the composites because
of their low cost, ease of availability, and good mechanical
properties [98].
3.2.1.1 Biodegradable polymer blends In recent years,
a number of research on polymer blends have been con-
ducted aiming for biomedical applications. Researchers
mainly focus on PLA/PCL blends due to their compatibility
in biomedical. Haq etal. [99] investigated the mechanical
properties of PCL/PLA composite blended with PEG at dif-
ferent molecular weights. In their investigation, the 5 phr
of PEG containing the composite result showed the high-
est elastic modulus value (396.43 MPa). Meanwhile, the 15
phr PEG containing composites showed the highest impact
strength of 0.14 J. Menčík etal. [100] analyzed the mechan-
ical, thermal, and morphological properties of poly(3-
hydroxybutyrate)/poly (lactic acid)/plasticizer biodegrad-
able blends. Tributyl citrate C-4, acetyl tributyl citrate A-4,
acetyl tributyl citrate A-6, n-butyryl tri-n-hexyl citrate B-6
was used as a plasticizer. The PHB/ PLA/plasticizer ratio is
60/25/15 wt%, and the filament size is 1.75mm. The result
shows that the elongation of acetyl tributyl citrate (A-4)
and tributyl citrate (C-4) improved by 308% and 155%,
respectively, compared to the PHB/PLA composite blends.
Fig. 6 Process flow of FDM

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Poly(butylene succinate) (PBS)/polylactide (PLA) polymer
blend was analyzed by Ou-yang etal. [101]. The PBS-PLA
with the composition of 20, 40, 60, and 80 wt% and fila-
ment diameter of 1.75 mm were studied. The layer thick-
ness used is 0.1mm, and the printing orientation angle of
the first and second layers is 45° and 135°, respectively. The
result shows that 40 wt% of PBS added into PLA showed
a good tensile and low degree of crystallinity. Kim etal.
[102] analyzed the PLGA/β-TCP/hydroxyapatite nanocom-
posite scaffolds for a rabbit. The scaffold enrooted into the
femoral defect of the rabbit body and its osteoconductive
and biodegraded in 12 weeks. Polycaprolactone(PCL)/tri-
calcium phosphate (TCP) composite scaffolds invitro deg-
radation analyzed by Lei etal. [103]. The scaffolds were
immersed in simulated body fluids (SBF) at 37 ℃, and the
degradation behavior was monitored for a different period.
The findings revealed very good degradation behavior.
3.2.1.2 Polymer ceramic composites Ceramic materials are
naturally biodegradable and are mainly used as a human
bone replacement. Ceramics are favorable biomaterials
because of their similarity to natural bone structures. The
standard ceramic biomaterials used for medical applications
are alumina, silica, zirconia, calcium phosphate, and bioac-
tive glass–ceramics [104]. Liu etal. [105] investigated the
mechanical properties of PLA/ceramic and other compos-
ites. Their analysis reported that the maximum tensile mod-
ulus of PLA/ceramic was 1056.3MPa, the tensile strength
was 46.3MPa at the angle of 45°/ − 45°. The tensile modu-
lus of PLA/ceramic composites was found to be higher com-
pared to all other composites. The composition of polyamide
12 with 15 wt% zirconia and 15, 20, and 25 wt% of β-TCP
was analyzed by Abdullah etal. [106]. Their analysis con-
cludes that the specimen’s physical and mechanical proper-
ties were affected upon the addition of the fillers more than
30 wt%. Chen etal. [107] investigated the microstructure,
thermal behavior, printability, and mechanical properties
of poly(vinyl alcohol)/β-tricalcium phosphate. β-TCP was
mixed with the ratio of 5, 10, and 20 wt% respectively with
PVA. The printing parameters of the specimen were infill
percentage of 40%, raster angle 90°-layer thickness 0.3mm,
and the printing and the bed temperatures at 175 ℃ and 25
℃, respectively. The experiment's outcome shows that the 20
wt% of β-TCP with PVA has the most optimum properties.
The maximum stress improved from 8.3 to 10.7kPa and was
identified as a potential candidate for bone tissue engineer-
ing. Poly (e-caprolactone)/bioactive glass composite was
studied by Korpela etal. [108]. Their experiment suggests
that PCL with a 10 wt% BAG composition is stiffer than
the standard PCL structure. The operating parameters of the
specimen preparation were the layer thickness 0.4mm, raster
angle 0°/90°, and the temperature at 190 ℃. Wu etal. [109]
Fig. 7 Single, multi, and in-nozzle impregnation FDM methods

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Table 1 Materials used and characteristics of different AM printing processes
Techniques Materials used Energy
intake Resolution Production cost Surface properties Product properties Merits Demerits Applications
Stereolithography Liquid photopolymers Less 10µm Fair High accuracy Highly fragile Good surface finish
Resolution and precision
are high
Fabrication speed is high
Support structures
are required
Post-processing
is essential to
remove the sup-
port structure and
achieve improved
strength
Prototype and
conceptual models,
end-user parts,
patterns for metal
processing (e.g.,
epoxy molding,
metal spraying)
Selective laser
sintering
Polymers, metals,
ceramics
High 80–250µm High limited High Mechanical
properties
No need for a support
structure and unused
materials can be
recycled
Good accuracy and
resolution and a wide
range of materials are
available
Machine cost is
high
Slow build rate.
They are used for
small & medium
size production
High power usage
Uneven surface
finish while using
polymer materials
Agriculture sector,
aerospace, and
automotive indus-
tries, medical and
architecture
Inkjet printing Polymers, metals,
ceramics
Less 5–200µm High Good Fragile parts Can print multiple materials
and color products
There is no model material
waste
Can produce complex
structures also fast and
efficient
The maintenance
cost is high. In
addition, thin and
small features Can
be affected by
post-processing
Thin film transis-
tors, light-emitting
devices, solar cells,
Laser object
manufacturing
Polymer composites,
ceramic papers
Less The resolution is only
depending on the
thickness of the
laminate sheets
High Fine Fragile parts Process speed is high, and
the cost is less
No need for supporting
structure,
Can print multi colors and
multi-materials
Limited material
usages
post-processing
is required
depending on the
materials
Pattern making,
decorative objects,
and visual represen-
tation
Fused deposition
modeling
Polymers, composites
of ceramics, metals,
fibers, and nanopar-
ticles
Less 50–200µm Low Good accuracy Fragile parts Simple to adapt and
scalable
Low-cost machines and a
variety of raw materi-
als are available, and
Maintenance is less
Complex structures
are tricky to print
Less precision and
build time are
high
Anisotropic property
of the printed
components
Rapid prototyping,
Aerospace, and
automobile sectors,
biomedical, elec-
tronics, construc-
tion, household
goods, and crafts

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investigated the morphological and mechanical properties of
polylactic acid (PLA)/hydroxyapatite (HA) composite. Com-
positions are 5, 10, and 15 wt% for HA with PLA at the oper-
ating parameters of 0.6-mm layer thickness and the printing
head and the bed temperature was 210 ℃ and 60 ℃, respec-
tively. The mechanical properties of the composites were
found closer to the human bones, but the addition of HA into
PLA composition reduces the quality of the printing.
3.2.1.3 Natural fillers Recently, the addition of natural
fillers into biodegradable polymers has received seem-
ingly interest due to the increased demand for biodegrad-
able materials in the medical sector. Fillers such as wood,
bamboo wood, sugarcanes, kenaf with PLA, and other base
materials have been in progress for exploration. Ayrilmis
et al. [110] investigated PLA with 30 wt% of wood by
using FDM. The water absorption and mechanical property
changes were investigated at various layer thicknesses of
0.05mm, 0.1mm, 0.2mm, and 0.3mm. The finding indi-
cated that the increase in layer thickness would increase the
porosity and reduce the specimen's mechanical properties.
PLA/raw sugarcane bagasse and PLA/sugarcane bagasse
fiber were analyzed at different compositions of 3, 6, 9, and
12 wt% by Liu etal. [111] and reported to have the best
properties for industrial-scale applications. A study on bam-
boo/PLA composite preparation using FDM was carried out
by Zhao [112]. The addition of bamboo powder into PLA
polymer was found to reduce the nozzle clogging and has
superior biodegradable behavior. Daver etal. [113] analyzed
the morphological, mechanical, and thermal properties of
cork-filled PLA at various infill percentages. The printed
parts’ tensile and yield strength were low compared with
the compression molded composites, but the elongation at
break was higher. PLA/wood flour composite was examined
by Tao etal. [114]. Their result exhibits that the melting
temperature of the composite does not change with the addi-
tion of 5 wt% wood flour into PLA. Vaidya etal. [115] ana-
lyzed the composite’s warping behavior with respect to fill-
Fig. 8 Basic composites of
FDM
Fig. 9 Biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials in FDM

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ers addition polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB) and Pinus radiata
wood chips). The 20 wt% added filler into PHB changes the
melt viscosity and improves the warpage from 34 to 78%
compared with pure PHB printed parts. Tran et al. [116]
analyzed the thermal and mechanical properties of poly-
caprolactone (PCL)/cocoa shell composite. Different com-
position of cocoa shell added into PCL resulted into a low
temperature composite that suitable for printing biomedical
scaffolds and toys. Frone etal. [117] studied the morpho-
structural and thermomechanical properties nano crystal
cellulose added with Polylactic acid (PLA)/polyhydroxy
butyrate (PHB) composite and Dicumyl peroxide (DCP) as
a cross-linking agent. The reported good bonding and ther-
momechnical properties of the specimen.
3.2.1.4 Natural fibers The use of natural fibers as a filler
in the thermoplastic composite has been increasing. In
many applications, natural fibers are used as an alternative
to petroleum products. Natural fibers have a high specific
strength, are relatively cheaper, light in weight, and are bio-
degradable [118]. Mechanical properties of the harakeke
composite surpassed the plain PLA, as reported by Hu and
Lim etal. [119]. The harakeke was added at a composition
of 30, 40, and 50 wt% into PLA, and the findings exhibit
that the 40wt% fille composite has the highest mechanical
properties. Le Duigou etal. [120] experimented on PLA/
continuous flax fiber (CFF) composite. The filament and
printed sample microstructure were characterized, and
mechanical properties were analyzed. PLA/jute fiber and
PLA/flax fiber composites were examined by Hinchcliffe
et al. [121]. The jute fiber composite filament size was
2mm, and the flax fiber was 0.5mm. The findings revealed
the tensile strength increased by 116% and 26%, respec-
tively. The stiffness of the product was increased by 12%
and 10%. The effect of different l/d ratios of PLA/ Bamboo
fiber and PLA/Flax fiber were studied by Depuydt etal.
[122] and reported an increase in the stiffness. Le Duigou
etal. [123] investigated and showed that it is possible to
print hygromph biocomposite of PLA/wood fiber compos-
ite with dedicated bilayer microstructure. Mechanical prop-
erties and potential of the hemp and harakeke reinforced
with Polypropylene were studied by Milosevic etal. [124].
The ultimate tensile strength and Young’s modulus were
reported to improve by 50% and 143%, respectively, com-
pared with pure polypropylene. The mechanical properties
of thermomechanical pulp (TMP) fiber reinforced with
BioPE composite were analyzed by Tarrés etal. [125] and
reported that the printing quality improved. Thibaut etal.
[126] examined the mechanical properties and anisotropic
shrinkage of Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with natural
cellulose fiber during drying. The result showed that the
30 wt% composite has better mechanical properties and
reduced shrinkage.
3.2.2 Non‑biodegradable materials
Non-biodegradable bioplastics are fascinating because they
balance the advantages of decreased carbon footprint dur-
ing processing and better resource quality with microbial
degradation persistence [127]. However, most materials are
toxic, not easily decomposable by natural factors, and have
relatively poor mechanical properties. Therefore, metals,
fibers, nanomaterials have been used as filler materials to
improve the mechanical strength and biodegradability of the
materials.
3.2.2.1 Non‑biodegradable polymer blends Peng [128]
prepared and investigated the mechanical properties and
shape memory effect of polypropylene(PP)/nylon 6 (PA6).
The composition of 10, 20, and 30 wt% of PA6 was added
into the PP. The specimen was printed with the param-
eters of 0.1-mm layer thickness, 45°/ − 45° orientation,
and with nozzle and bed temperatures of 250 ℃ and 110
℃. The findings revealed that 30 wt% of PA6 blends with
PP have high dimensional stability and mechanical prop-
erties and a suitable SME deformation temperature of 175
℃. S. Chen etal. [129] developed a polymer blend of 10,
20, and 30 wt% of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) with
ABS as a primary blend. They added a small amount of
methacrylate − butadiene − styrene (MBS) with the blends.
The specimen was produced with layer thickness 0.2mm,
the orientation of the first layer is 45° and the second layer
is 135°, and the infill density of 100%. The impact strength
of the ABS/PMMA blend found to be 14.9kJ/m2 is lower
than the ABS. Singh and Singh [130] prepared PolyFlex™/
ABS blend at the composition 70/30 vol%. In this research,
the polymer blends’ mechanical properties were compared
with the other materials. Their analysis shows that the Poly-
Flex™/ABS blend has attained exceptional standards of
both strength and elasticity. Ahmed etal. [131] investigated
the time-dependent mechanical properties of FDM process
conditions using a definitive screen design of polycarbonate
(PC)/ABS blends. Their result exhibits that parameters of
layer thickness 0.2540mm, an air gap of 0mm, raster angle
0° and the print direction at 20° are the optimum conditions
for good properties.
3.2.2.2 Polymer metal composites In these polymer-metal
composites, metals in powder form are reinforced with the
base materials and extruded in filament form. However, the
major drawback of using metal is the viscosity effect. Still, it
can be improved by using additives such as plasticizers and
surfactants [132]. Aluminum and iron powders are the most
commonly used filler material in the PMC. Magnetic iron
and bronze fill powder reinforced with the PLA’s mechani-
cal properties were compared by Fafenrot etal. [133]. The
specimen is printed at various compositions and tempera-

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tures. The results exhibit the mechanical strength of the
composites is lesser than the original material. Sa’ude etal.
[134] investigated the dynamic mechanical properties of the
ABS/Copper composite. The filament composition was 57
to 63% ABS and 22 to 24% of copper powder, and 15 to
19% surfactant. The outcome of the differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) analysis glass transition temperature (Tg)
was obtained at 74% of ABS and 26% of the copper compo-
sition. The finding revealed improved Tg, tan delta, storage
modulus, and loss modulus. ABS-iron polymer-metal com-
posite metal flow analysis was performed by Nikzad etal.
[135]. The thermal conductivity of the 10wt% iron infilled
composite was found to have increased to 0.258 (W/m.K).
Masood and Song [8] investigated the iron with nylon P301
PMC. Tensile properties of the PMC at different composi-
tions 70% nylon, 30% iron and 60% nylon and 40% iron, and
60% nylon and 40% iron were investigated. The 70% nylon
and 30% iron reported giving better tensile modulus (E) of
54.52MPa than the other two compositions.
3.2.2.3 Fiber‑reinforced composites The fibers were added
with the polymers to overwhelm the inadequate mechani-
cal properties of the 3D printed products. Fibers are mainly
classified into two types: (a) short fiber and (b) continuous
fiber. These fibers are naturally corrosion resistive, rigid,
have high dimensional stability, stiffness, high strength,
and are lightweight compared with natural polymers [136].
These FRCs are mainly used in the aerospace and auto-
mobile sectors to reduce weight and increase the product’s
strength. However, the main limitation of the fibers is non-
biodegradable and non-eco-friendly. Therefore, Kevlar,
carbon, glass fibers are widely used to improve the perfor-
mance of the polymers.
3.2.2.3.1 Short fiber reinforced composites Due to the insuf-
ficient strength of the pure polymers, the short fibers are
reinforced with the polymers to enhance the resilience of
the FDM printed part. The fiber-reinforced composite is
generally made by adding the fiber particles into the molten
thermoplastic polymers [137]. When manufacturing a fiber-
reinforced filament, it is essential to monitor the orienta-
tion of the fiber, the percentage of the fiber mixture, and the
ideal size of the fiber to avoid unwanted problems such as
obstruction of the extruder during printing that will affect
the mechanical properties of the final product [138]. Carbon
fiber has good thermal conductivity, electrical properties,
corrosion, wear, and moisture resistance; thus, many analy-
ses were performed using CF [139]. Li etal. [140] analyzed
the flexural properties of CF/PEEK fiber-reinforced compos-
ite. The geometrical models of the specimen were designed
by using CATIA V5. The nozzle and bed temperatures are
400 ℃ and 160 ℃, the layer thickness of 0.1mm raster angle
of 45°/ − 45°, printing speed is 15mm/s, and the air gap is
0.18mm are the parameters used to print the specimens,
and the specimen printed different orientations (horizontal
and vertical). The CF/PEEK flexural properties of the verti-
cally printed specimens were higher than the horizontally
printed specimens; the porosity and uniform nucleation
of the CF added PEEK was improved compared with pure
PEEK. The microstructure, processability, and mechanical
properties of the ABS/CF reinforced composite were exam-
ined by Tekinalp etal. [141] using the FDM printing and
compression molding techniques. The CF was reinforced
with the ABS at 10, 20, 30, and 40 wt%, and the filament
was extruded at 1.75mm diameter. The specimen is printed
at 0.2mm layer thickness using a 0.5mm diameter nozzle at
the temperature range between 220 and 235 ℃ and the bed
temperature of 85 ℃. The author mentioned that the filament
containing 40 wt% of CF with ABS could not be printed
due to the nozzle clogging during the FDM printing. Apart
from these difficulties, both FDM and CM processes are
reported to have comparable tensile strength and modulus.
Spoerk etal. [142] investigated the anisotropic properties
of the short carbon fiber (SCF) filled polypropylene (PP).
SCF was mixed with 10, 15, and 20 wt% into the PP also
stabilizer and compatibilizer were added with the composi-
tion. Specimen printed 0.25-mm layer thickness using sin-
gle screw extruder the 1.75mm diameter filament feed to
the printer at 230 ℃ temperature and different orientation
angles. This study concludes that 10 wt% of CF with PLA
has excellent characteristics compared with the 15 and 20
wt% of CF with PP.
3.2.2.3.2 Continuous fiber reinforced composites In 3D print-
ing technology, continuous fiber reinforcement (CFR) is a
major challenge for researchers. The CFR composites offer
significant mechanical properties compared to the short fib-
ers. Since the fiber is continuous, the printing adapts the
co-extrusion method or uses dual-head printers [143]. The
thermoplastic and CFR filaments are supplied to the noz-
zle separately, and they will be fused inside the nozzle and
deposited over the build platform. Another method is a dual
head method [144]; the thermoplastic and the CFR filament
are fed separately to the printer and printed through two
different nozzles. Fabrication of nylon thermoplastic with
continuous carbon, glass, Kevlar fibers, and their mechani-
cal performance was analyzed by Dickson etal. [145]. The
standard filament diameter of the nylon was 1.75mm, and
the Kevlar, glass, and carbon were 0.3, 0.3, and 0.35mm,
respectively. The specimen was printed at different sizes
from 4 to 32 layers at 0.1mm layer thickness and fiber lay-
down at concentric and isotropic. The author exhibits that
the carbon fiber reinforced composite has better tensile, flex-
ural strength, and flexural modulus. Li etal. [146] examined
the continuous carbon fiber reinforced PLA composite’s

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thermodynamic and mechanical properties. The PLA par-
ticles partially dissolved in a magnetic stirring process for
30min with the methylene dichloride solution to increase
the filament’s interfacial strength. The analysis result
shows that modified CFR/PLA composites’ tensile strength
improved by 13.8% and flexural strength by 164% better
than the other composite. The storage modulus was 3.25
GPa, and the glass transition temperature (Tg) was 66.8 ℃.
Mechanical properties of the continuous Kevlar fiber with
nylon thermoplastic composite was analyzed by Dong etal.
[147]. The specimen was made of 0.1mm layer thickness
and infill density of 100% with different fiber orientations. It
was reported that continuous Kevlar/nylon composites have
an elastic modulus of 27GPa and ultimate tensile strength
of 333MPa. The strength of the Kevlar composite found to
be close with some metal-polymer composites. However,
the author reported the bonding between Kevlar and nylon
was relatively weak.
3.2.2.4 Nanocomposites Thermoplastic polymers used in
FDM products have poor mechanical and thermal proper-
ties. Thus, to enhance the product’s strength, the nanomate-
rials are used in conjunction with thermoplastic polymers.
The lack of adhesion contact between nanofillers and poly-
mer material consequences the brittleness of the composite
material [21]. Many hydrogels and polymer matrices, ther-
moplastics, and thermosetting resins have been introduced
with nanofillers such as carbonaceous nanofillers, nano clay,
and metallic nanofiller to develop functional and property-
enhanced structures. In the fabrication of electrically con-
ductive nanocomposites, metallic nanowires and nanopar-
ticles, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, and graphene
have been used owing to their excellent conductivity. These
improved composite structures have been used in various
applications, ranging from sensing instruments (e.g., liquid
sensors, strain sensors) to protect electromagnetic shield-
ing in aerospace to household industries [148]. Ivanov etal.
[149] analyzed the electrical and thermal properties of PLA/
Graphene/MWCNT composites. The composition of PLA/
Graphene and PLA/MWCNT were also studied. The mono-
fillers PLA/Graphene and PLA/MWCNT composition were
1.5, 3, and 6 wt%. Meanwhile, PLA/Graphene/MWCNT's
bi-filler composition varied between 3 and 6 wt%. The
mono-fillers had 6wt% GNP and MWCNT were reported
to have conductivity compared to the pure PLA success-
fully. The 6wt% of PLA/graphene/MWCNT composites
reported having measured thermal conductivity of 0.4692
(W/m.K) than the other bi-filler and mono-filler compos-
ites. Sezer and Eren [150] analyzed the MWCNT reinforced
into ABS thermoplastic. The specimen is printed by FDM
using the parameters of 100% infill rate, 0.2mm layer thick-
ness, and the nozzle and the bed temperature of 245 ℃ and
110 ℃, respectively. Their study result shows that 7wt% of
MWCNT with the ABS has a tensile strength of 58MPa at
a raster angle of 0°/90°. Raster angle 45°/ − 45° resulted in
a lower tensile strength. The 10 wt% of MWCNT achieved
the highest electrical conductivity of 232 e−2 S/cm with the
metal flow index (MFI) value decreased to 0.03g/10 mm
due to the nozzle clogging issues. The mechanical and
thermal properties of ABS/montmorillonite nanocom-
posites were researched by Weng et al. [151]. The results
showed that the overall mechanical strength of the FDM
printed parts is lower than the injection molding process.
However, the thermal stability of the OMMT nanocompos-
ite was reported to increase. Coppola etal. [152] analyzed
the FDM printed PLA/clay nanocomposite. Different types
of PLA were used, PLA 4032D and PLA 2003D, with a
layered silicate of 4 wt%. The study mainly focuses on the
specimen printed using three different temperatures for PLA
4032D (185–200–215 °C) and PLA 2003D (165–180–195
°C), and the properties were analyzed. The experiment dem-
onstrates thermal stability, and the elastic modulus of PLA/
clay nanocomposite was higher than the ordinary PLA. Kim
etal. [153] analyzed the piezoelectric properties of poly-
vinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and Barium titanate (BaTiO3)
composite. N-Dimethylformamide was used as a dissolving
agent in the fabrication of the PVDF/BaTiO3 composite.
The finding revealed that, compared with solvent-casted
nanocomposites, this nanocomposite has three times the
higher piezoelectric response.
Table2 establish the detail of various analysis carried
out in the FDM process and the data obtained from various
literatures [21, 89, 103, 112, 118, 131, 138–228]. It specifi-
cally identifies the materials used in the FDM process and
the various test such as mechanical, electrical, and thermal
investigations.
In this section, the various materials used in the FDM
process and their findings were clearly discussed. ABS
and the PLA are the most commonly used materials for the
entry-level. Materials such as nylon, polycarbonate, PEAK,
PEEK are mainly utilized for high-strength properties.
Moreover, various composite materials were added with
the polymers to increase the product's strength and other
properties. In many applications, fibers and nanocomposites
are used to increase the product’s strength. Biocompatible
polymer blends and polymer composites are mainly used in
the medical sectors for human tissue and organs.
4 Parameters ofFDM process
The noteworthy performance of the FDM products depends
on the proper selection of printing parameters during fabri-
cation. Due to the availability of several competing param-
eters, the influence on the accuracy of the variable and the
material properties varies. Appropriate process parameters

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Table 2 List of mechanical tests conducted in polymers, blends, and composite materials
Material Tensile test Compression
test
Flexural test Impact test Thermal test Electrical test
ABS ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
PLA ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) ✔x x x x x
Polypropylene (PP) ✔x x x ✔x
Nylon/Polyamide (pa) ✔x x x ✔ ✔
Polycarbonate (PC) ✔x✔x x x
Polyetherimide (PEI) ✔x✔ ✔ x x
PEKK x x ✔x x x
PEEK ✔x✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Polystyrene (PS) ✔x x x x x
PET ✔x✔x✔x
PET-G ✔ ✔ ✔ x x x
PLA/PCL ✔x✔x x x
PLA/PET-G ✔x x x ✔x
Poly(3-hydroxybutate)/PLA ✔x x ✔x x
PBS/PLA ✔x x ✔x x
PLGA coated β-TCP x✔✔x x x
PCL/TCP x✔x x x x
GPET/PC ✔x✔✔✔x
PLA/ceramic ✔x✔x x x
PLA/β-TCP ✔ ✔ x x x x
PEI/PC x x x x ✔x
PEI/PETG x x x x ✔ ✔
PVC/ionic liquid ✔ ✔ x x x x
Polyvinyl alcohol/β-TCP ✔ ✔ x x x x
PLA/HA ✔x x x x x
PCL/HA ✔x✔x x x
PLA/wood ✔x✔x x x
PLA/coconut wood ✔x✔x x x
PLA/bamboo powder ✔x x x x x
PLA/wood flour ✔x x x ✔x
PLA/wood chips ✔x x x x x
PLA/cocoa shell ✔x x x x x
PLA/hemp ✔x x x x x
PLA/Harakeke ✔x x x x x
PLA/flax fiber ✔x x x x x
PLA/continuous flax fiber ✔x x x x x
PLA/bamboo fiber ✔x x x x x
PLA/wood fiber ✔x x x x x
PP/hemp fiber ✔ ✔ x x x x
PP/Harakeke fiber ✔x x x x x
TMP/BioPE ✔x x x x x
CMC/natural cellulose fiber ✔x x x x x
CABS/ZnO ✔x x x ✔ ✔
PP/Nylon 6 ✔x x x x x
ABS/PMMA ✔x✔ ✔ x x
ABS/PMMA/MBS ✔x✔ ✔ x x
ABS/PolyFlexTM ✔x x x x x
ABS/ZnO ✔x x x ✔ ✔

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are attributed to the fabricated part’s efficiency and mechani-
cal characteristics [217]. The optimized process variables for
the FDM process are shown in Fig.10.
The process parameters affect the efficiency of the pro-
duction and the properties of the product. The essential
parameters used in the FDM printing are infill pattern,
infill density, raster angle, raster width, layer thickness,
build orientation, printing speed, air gap, and operating
temperature.
4.1 Infill pattern
The infill pattern is the structure, shape, and technique of
the material inside of the part. Grid, honeycomb, cubic,
Table 2 (continued)
Material Tensile test Compression
test
Flexural test Impact test Thermal test Electrical test
ABS/TiO2✔x x x x x
ABS/Jute ✔x x x x x
ABS/TP rubber ✔x x x x
ABS/PC ✔x x x ✔x
ABS-PC /graphene ✔x x x ✔x
ABS/iron ✔x x x ✔x
Nylon/iron ✔x x x ✔x
PLA/magnetic iron ✔x x x x x
PLA/bronze ✔x x x x x
PLA/copper ✔x✔x x x
PLA/aluminum ✔x✔x x x
ABS/copper ✔x x x x x
ABS/copper ✔x x x x x
PE/copper x x ✔x x x
ABS/CF ✔x x x x x
PLA/CF ✔x✔x✔x
PEEK/CF ✔x✔ ✔ ✔ x
PEEK/GF ✔x✔ ✔ ✔ x
PET-G/CF ✔x x x x x
PP/GF ✔x x x ✔x
PP/CF x x x x x x
Nylon/Kevlar x x ✔x x x
Nylon/carbon x x ✔x x x
Nylon/glass x x ✔x x x
ABS/graphene ✔x x x ✔ ✔
PLA/graphene ✔x x x ✔ ✔
Polyethylene/graphene ✔x x x ✔x
PLA/graphene/CNT ✔x x x ✔ ✔
PLA/CNT ✔x✔x✔ ✔
ABS/CNT ✔x x x ✔x
PEEK/CNT ✔x x x x x
ABS/MWCNT ✔x x x x ✔
PLA/MWCNT ✔x x x x ✔
PLA/graphene/CNT x x x x ✔x
ABS/OMMT ✔x✔x x x
PLA/clay nanocomposite ✔x x x x x
PLA/cellulose nanofibril ✔x x x x x
PET-G/sepiolite ✔x x x x x
PEU/nano HA ✔x x x x x
OMMT/nano clay ✔x x ✔ ✔ x

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rectilinear, rectangular, triangular, octet, and wiggle are the
commonly used infill patterns shown in Fig.11. In terms of
the properties, i.e., the tensile and compressive properties
of the product, they reported changes with different infill
patterns.
4.2 Infill density
Infill density implies the total amount of material used for
printing the specimen. The mechanical properties of the
specimen are primarily affected by the infill density. Groza
Fig. 10 Cause-and-effect
diagram of FDM process
parameters [218]
Fig. 11 a–i Various infill pat-
terns used for the FDM process
[225]

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and Shackelford [217] denotes three types of filling styles
in the study. A “solid normal” infill has a tough interior and
good mechanical properties. In “spares,” the printing time
and the material volume are also minimized by leaving gaps,
and it utilizes a uni-directional raster. Finally, in “sparse
double dense,” the printing time and material volume are
reduced in “sparse double dense,” using a crosshatch raster
pattern.
4.3 Raster angle
The raster angle is the most common printing vector for
FDM printing optimization. The raster angle is how each
layer is oriented while printing the desired shape. Figure12b
exhibits the raster angle used for printing. The generally
used raster angle differs from 0° to 90°, and regularly used
raster angles are (0°/90°) and (45°/ − 45°). However, it is
possible to control this variable for each layer either at one
angle or at a different angle. The raster angle proved to affect
the properties, and various experiments have been carried
out to study the impact of the raster angle. Rajpurohit etal.
[138] and Es-Said etal. [139] analyzed the effects of ras-
ter angle on mechanical properties in both experiments.
The raster angle of 0° was reported to have better tensile
and impact resistance. Meanwhile, the raster angle of 30°
presents maximum impact and tensile strength [220, 221].
Nancharaiah etal. [222] reported the 0° angle having the
best surface finish and the worst at 60°. The differences in
the CAD models and other parameters have led to differ-
ences in the interpretation of various authors.
4.4 Raster width
Raster width is the size of the deposition of the material
droplet of the product. This raster or road width is usually
1.2 to 1.5 times the nozzle diameter. Figure12b shows the
raster width, which varies on the diameter of the nozzle.
Thus, the reduced width value leads to improved strength
and reduced build time. Sood etal. [223] and Arumaikkannu
and Uma Maheshwaraa [224] reported the top surface finish
and dimensional accuracy could be obtained using minimum
raster width.
4.5 Layer thickness
The layer thickness is the breadth of material deposited by
the nozzle on the vertical axis, as shown in Fig.12c. The
size of the nozzle tip usually determines or controls the layer
thickness. The effect of layer thickness and other param-
eters of a specimen has been analyzed by Mohamed etal.
[226], and the result displays 0.1-mm layer thickness has the
best flexural force. Therefore, this experiment directing less
amount of layer thickness will increase the flexural proper-
ties of the product. On the other hand, Wu etal. [96] also
mentioned that the increase in the size of the layer thickness
would reduce the product's strength.
Fig. 12 a Printing orientation of specimen [130], b operating parameters of raster angle, air gap, raster width, contours, and c layer thickness of
the product [231]

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4.6 Build orientation
The build orientation is the most versatile and impressive
pre-processing parameter to obtain the best surface proper-
ties. The machine coordination system can be modified in
the CAD model to achieve desired objectives by the angle of
orientation or deposition angle. It indicates the orientation of
printing of the specimen inside the build platform in respect
of X, Y, and Z directions. Figure12a shows the orienta-
tion and style (flat, on-edge) and orientation angles. The X,
Y direction printed parts do not need supporting structure,
but the Z-direction requires support structure. Afrose [188]
investigated and observed the fatigue life and best capacity
to store strain energy specimens printed at 45° orientation.
4.7 Printing speed
Printing speed is the pass-through speediness of the nozzle
on the build platform during the printing. The printing speed
regulates the build time of the product. Also, the printing
speed has a maximum effect on the deformation of the prod-
uct because, during the production, this fast printing could
induce substantial residual stresses. Vinitha etal. [227]
examined the printing speed effect of burning parts built by
FDM. They reported that reducing the speed of the print-
ing would increase the surface finish of the product. When
thinner layers are printed, the impact of the print speed is
considered negligible [228].
4.8 Air gap
In the same layer, the gap between two contiguous raster's
is denoted as the air gap. The default value of the air gap is
usually zero, which results in the two closest beads being
touched. The positive air gap will reduce the density of the
part and reduce the product's build time. Hence, the denser
structure (negative air gap) would have a longer build time,
and the raster has good bonding strength. Also, the nega-
tive air gap was testified to significantly improve the tensile
strength [229]. Meanwhile, with negative and positive air
differences, the surface finish generally increases [223]. The
air gap between the rasters is shown in Fig.12b.
4.9 Operating temperature
The operating temperature is categorized into nozzle tem-
perature (extrusion temperature) and bed temperature (build
platform). Before the printing process, the nozzle is required
to reach a specific temperature to melt the filament to print
the product, called nozzle temperature. Similarly, during the
printing process, the building platform bed needs to be at a
suitable temperature, termed bed temperature. Due to the
delay in the solidification, the higher temperature produces
smooth surfaces. Vasudevarao etal. [230] distinguished after
the layer thickness, raster angle, the operating temperature is
the third most significant factor affecting the product surface
finish.
Quite a number of research have been carried out on FDM
parameters to improve process parameters aiming to enhance
surface finishing, dimensional precision, and the mechanical
features of printed components. Since the process param-
eters are essential for enhancing mechanical properties, build
time, dimensional accuracy, and surface roughness. Several
investigators proposed that the effects of process parameters
on FDM processed parts be analyzed with sufficient com-
putational designs and optimization techniques to reduce
the experimental effort and feasibility. The optimal process
parameter combination was established experimentally in
most cases, and the best experimental result was deemed
the optimum solution. The optimal process parameter com-
binations may vary from the experimental combinations but
must be within the process parameter range. Researchers
used several optimization techniques to address this flaw. It
is a mathematical model of the connection between process
parameters and a single part attribute. Multi-objective opti-
mization represents the connection between process param-
eters and various component attributes using mathematical
models. This shows the FDM machine’s maximum and
lowest levels of process parameters, or a range of process
parameters proven to provide excellent component qualities.
Many studies have utilized the full factorial, fractional
factorial, and face-cantered central composite designs to
get more information from fewer trials. Alternatively, the
experimental design established optimal values for analyzing
component properties. In some of the researches validat-
ing the relationship between the part quality and process
parameter by creating various mathematical models such
as quantum-behaved particle swarm optimization (QPSO),
differential evolution (DE), genetic algorithm (GA), non-
dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) were
used. Peng etal. [232] produced ABS components based
on a standardized experimental design. Controllable factors
in their case study were line width compensation, extrusion
velocity, filling velocity, and layer thickness. Additionally,
they inferred from the experimental findings that a thin layer
thickness was preferred for dimensional accuracy improve-
ment. Additionally, they found the optimal combinations of
these four process parameters for three response variables,
including dimensional accuracy, using the response surface
method (RSM), fuzzy inference system (FIS), artificial neu-
ral network (ANN), and genetic algorithm (GA). Several
studies improved the features of more than two components
concurrently to find the optimal combination(s) for multiple
conflicting qualities. Sood etal. [233] identified the optimal
combination of five process parameters (layer thickness,
build orientation, raster orientation, raster width, and air

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gap) for dimensional accuracy in three dimensions (length,
width, and height). The authors optimized all dimensional
accuracies using the Taguchi technique and found an opti-
mum solution that reduced three-dimensional dimensional
accuracy. The author also used an ANN to make predic-
tions. Montero etal. [234] examined five process factors
(raster width, air gap, filament color, extrusion tempera-
ture, and raster orientation) and used a fractional factorial
design to conduct their experiment. The experimental find-
ings indicated that the air gap and raster orientation were
two important tensile strength factors and that a negative
air gap and 0° raster orientation were preferred for maximal
tensile strength. The effect of build orientation and raster
orientation on tensile characteristics was investigated by
Durgun and Ertan [235]. Their testing findings indicated
that the 0° raster and 0° build orientations were appropriate
for optimizing tensile strength. The orientation of the build
was shown to be more important than the orientation of the
raster. The optimal combination of five process parameters
(raster width, layer thickness, build orientation, raster ori-
entation, and airgap) that optimize the tensile strength of
ABS printed components was determined by Rayegani and
Onwubolu [229]. A mathematical model that linked process
characteristics to tensile strength was developed using the
group method of data handling (GMDH). To enhance tensile
strength, a DE optimization technique was used to optimize
each parameter. The optimization findings indicated that the
minimum layer thickness, build orientation, raster width, and
negative air gap increased tensile strength. Raster orientation
was shown to be less important.
Dimensional accuracy and surface quality of the FDM
component were investigated by Nancharaiah etal. [222].
The properties of the component affected due to raster angle,
raster width, air gap, and layer thickness were analyzed, and
the analysis was conducted adapting Taguchi's DOE method.
The findings were evaluated statistically to assess the rel-
evant variables and their relationships. The ANOVA analysis
reports that the part accuracy and the surface quality of the
product were affected significantly by the raster width and
layer thickness. Meanwhile, the air gap has more impact on
dimensional accuracy and little influence on surface quality.
Pavan Kumar and Regalla etal. [236] analyzed the support
material and build time optimization on FDM adapting the
DOE method. Based on the ANOVA result, the specimen’s
orientation was found crucial to minimize the build time,
and the build time is decreased as the layer thickness, ras-
ter width, contour width, and raster angle increased. Using
Taguchi's DOE method, the effect of the process parameters
on the PLA filament using FDM was analyzed by Alafaghani
and Qattawi [237]. Adapting the L9 DOE method, infill pat-
tern, infill percentage, layer thickness, and extrusion tem-
perature were investigated for the specimen's dimensional
accuracy and mechanical properties. Their result showed
that the lower infill pattern and infill percentage of hexago-
nal infill pattern at 190 ℃ have fewer dimensional errors
and better dimensional accuracy. The processing param-
eters of 0.3mm layer thickness, 100% infill percentage at
210 ℃, and triangular infill pattern reported having good
strength and young's modulus. Also, the author exhibits
the product's mechanical properties while printing in high
extrusion temperature, and the rectilinear infill pattern has
better strength and stiffness than the triangular pattern. The
best relationship consequence and process variables are said
could be established using the Taguchi method [238]. In
contrast, compared with the RSM method, the number of
experiments could also be reduced using the Taguchi method
[239]. Table3 exposes the different mathematical optimiza-
tion methods that have been commonly used to analyze the
process conditions of the FDM prototyping process.
This section demonstrates the importance of the process
parameters in the FDM process. The most studied FDM
parameters were layer thickness, build orientation, raster
orientation, raster width, air gap, and infill density. Accord-
ing to the previous research, the layer thickness and the build
orientation are the most important factors on dimensional
accuracy and surface roughness of the product. Reducing
the layer thickness will increase the dimensional accuracy
and surface roughness. Also, the shrinkage happens along
the X- and Y-axes of construction platforms, whereas growth
occurs along the Z-axis. Low print speed and extrusion tem-
perature are also important factors to increase the surface
finish. The build orientation determined the tensile proper-
ties of the product, also the tensile and flexural strength was
greatest at 0°. To increase the infill density and the extru-
sion temperature is recommended to increase the strength.
Reducing the air gap of the layer would form voids in the
products, which reduce the properties.
5 Mechanical properties ofFDM parts
The mechanical properties of the FDM printed specimen
are mainly dependent on the material and the input process
parameters. Layer thickness, build orientation, raster angle,
raster width, and air gap are the primary factors affecting the
mechanical properties of the 3D printing parts [205, 247,
248]. The build orientation significantly affects the mechani-
cal properties and the surface roughness compared with the
raster angle [235]. Research groups used ASTM standard
criteria in preparing the sample and performing mechanical
experiments; e.g., ASTM D638 was adopted by nearly all
research groups tested for tensile tests [176, 205].Most of
the research findings reported that the process parameters
mainly affect the ultimate tensile strength, yield strength,
elasticity, and elongation of the component. Also, in most
published literature, the mechanical behavior was revealed

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Table 3 Previous analysis of mathematical optimization methods for analyzing the process condition of the FDM process
Authors Analyzed
materials Methodology Input process parameters Determination Discussion
Mohamed etal. [240] PC-ABS Response surface methodology
(RSM)
Layer thickness, number of contours,
raster angle, build orientation, air gap,
and raster width
Part structure and dynamic
mechanical properties
R2 values are high for the complex and dynamic
module and the optimal process parameters for
concluded to be as ensues layer thickness is
0.3302mm, air gap value is 0, raster angle is 0˚,
build orientation 90˚, raster width is 0.4572mm,
and the number of contours is 10
Zhang and Peng [241] ABS Taguchi method combined with
fuzzy
comprehensive evaluation
Wire-width compensation, extrusion
velocity, filling velocity, and layer
thickness
Dimensional error and
warpage deformation
The findings of this paper do not entirely refer to
the real criteria, but the approach in this paper
can be used to direct the optimization of process
parameters
Nancharaiah [242] ABS DOE analyzed by S/N ratio and
ANOVA analysis
Layer thickness, air gap, and raster
angle
Build time ANOVA analysis observed layer thickness con-
tributes 66.57% at 99%, and air gap contributes
30.77% at 95% on build time significantly.
Therefore, the S/N ratio optimizes the build time
on layer thickness at level 3, air gap at level 3,
and raster angle at level 2
Mohamed etal. [243] PC-ABS Q-optimal design response surface
methodology
Layer thickness, air gap, raster
angle, build orientation, road width, and
number of contours
Build time, feedstock material
consumption, and dynamic
flexural modulus
The air gap, layer thickness build direction, and the
number of contours are affected by build time,
feedstock material consumption, and dynamic
flexural modulus. Build time and feedstock con-
sumption will be reduced while increasing the air
gap and layer thickness substantially
Nagendra and Prasad [244] Nylon–Aramid
Composite
Gray Taguchi technique Layer thickness, raster angle, extrusion
temperature, infill density, and infill
pattern style
Optimize the process
parameter
Tensile, flexural, impact, and compression strength
were analyzed, and from the S/N ratio analysis,
the optimized parameters are layer thickness
0.4mm, raster angle 90°, 90% infill pattern, and
the extrusion temperature of 300 ℃
Wankhede etal. [245] ABS Taguchi’s L8 orthogonal array (OA) Infill density, layer thickness, and
support style
Build time and surface
roughness
The layer thickness is an effective parameter for
both surface finish and the layer thickness from
the analysis. The optimized layer thickness for
build time is 0.3302mm and for the surface finish
is 0.254mm. Whereas the infill density is low-
density sparse and smart support style
Dong etal. [246] ABS Taguchi method Extrusion temperature, print speed, fan
speed, layer thickness
Lattice structures Horizontal and inclined struts of lattice structure
were investigated by the Taguchi method, and
parameters were optimized by S/N ratio analysis
and ANOVA. The result shows that the fan speed
is the most crucial parameter for inclined struts
and layer height for the horizontal struts. Also,
the mechanical performance of the lattice struc-
ture can increase using the proposed optimization
method

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Table 4 Mechanical properties of the FDM products by using various materials and process parameters
Author Material Infill Process parameters Ultimate tensile
strength (MPa) Elastic modulus
(MPa) Flexural
strength
(MPa)
Flexural
modulus
(MPa)
Compressive
strength (MPa) Elastic
modulus
(MPa)
Elongation of
break (%) Toughness (energy
absorption Jm−3)
Samykano etal.
[171]
ABS - Layer thickness
0.5mm,
Raster angle 55°,
80% infill percentage
31.57 774.50 19.95 - - - 0.094 2.28
Chacón etal. [19]PLA - Layer thickness (Lt)
0.06, 0.12, 0.18,
0.24mm),
Infill pattern (flat,
upright, on-edge),
Print speed (20, 50,
80mm/s)
89.1 4409 65.0 1886 - - - -
Liu etal. [257]PLA - Layer thickness
0.3mm,
Infill pattern
linear, raster angle
45°/ − 45 and 0°/
90°, Infill pattern
flat, upright, and
on edge
67.6 901 109.5 2605.9 - - 8 -
Wood 38.7 808.1 71.0 2704.3 - - 6 -
Ceramic 46.5 1056.3 100.1 4621.4 - - 7 -
Copper 58.3 1016.9 118.7 3845.1 - - 8 -
Aluminum 51.1 838.4 97.8 3275.8 - - 7 -
Carbon fiber 41.3 745.7 75.6 2939.2 - - 8 -
Kesavarma etal.
[198]
PLA Coconut wood Layer height
0.3mm, printing
speed 30mm/s,
extrusion tem-
perature 200 ℃,
different build
orientation and
infill percentage
25, 50, and 75%
- - 23.183 515.1 - - - -
Torrado Perez
etal. [154]
ABS TiO2 (5 wt%) Layer thickness
0.27mm, 100%
infill percent-
age, the speed
at 55mm/s, 230
℃ extrusion
temperature at
the orientation of
XYZ and ZYX
32.2 1708 23.8 - - - - -
Jute fiber
(5 wt%)
25.9 1543 23.6 - - - - -
TP rubber
(5 wt%)
24.0 1580 18.1 - - - - -
Chen etal. [107]PVA β-TCP
(5, 10, 20 wt%)
Printing temperature
175 ℃, speed
200mm/s, raster
angle 0–90° and
0.3mm layer
thickness
3.92 29.36 - - - - - -

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Table 4 (continued)
Author Material Infill Process parameters Ultimate tensile
strength (MPa) Elastic modulus
(MPa) Flexural
strength
(MPa)
Flexural
modulus
(MPa)
Compressive
strength (MPa) Elastic
modulus
(MPa)
Elongation of
break (%) Toughness (energy
absorption Jm−3)
Corcione etal.
[258]
PLA HA micro-
sphere
Range if temperature
175–200 ℃, 50%
infill pattern, layer
thickness 0.9mm
and the speed at
300mm/s
- - 124.04 - - - 2–10 -
Yu etal. [212] PEU Nano HA Layer thickness of
0.3mm,70% infill
pattern printing
speed 2mm/s at
165 ℃
65–85 - - - - - - -
Ning etal. [259] ABS CFRP Printing speed
1.5m/min, the
layer thickness
of 0.2mm, infill
percentage 100%,
build orientation
45° and 135° at
230 ℃
42 2500 18.75 - - - 4.14 6.3
Caminero etal.
[260]
Nylon Carbon Layer thickness
0.1mm (for
carbon 0.125mm),
infill Pattern
flat, on edge,
rectangular infill
pattern, 100%
infill density, and
raster angle 0°
70–90 (kJ/m2) - - - - - - -
Kevlar 160–200 (kJ/m2) - - - - - - -
glass 250–300 (kJ/m2) - - - - -
Tekinalp etal.
[261]
PLA Cellulose
nanofibril
(CNF)
Layer thickness
0.2mm print
speed 7.5mm/s,
operating tempera-
ture 180 to 215 ℃,
and bed tempera-
ture of 93 ℃
- 6570 – 1720 - - - -
Stoof etal. [262]PLA Hemp Layer thickness
1mm, bed tem-
perature 110 ℃,
at 10, 20, and 30
wt% infills
35–40 3–4 (GPa) - - - - - -
Harakeke 35–40 4–5 (GPa) - - - - - -

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Table 4 (continued)
Author Material Infill Process parameters Ultimate tensile
strength (MPa) Elastic modulus
(MPa) Flexural
strength
(MPa)
Flexural
modulus
(MPa)
Compressive
strength (MPa) Elastic
modulus
(MPa)
Elongation of
break (%) Toughness (energy
absorption Jm−3)
Yang etal. [263]PLA CNT (2, 4, 8
wt%)
Build orientation
0°, air gap 0,
bed temperature
200–230 ℃, layer
thickness 0.1, 0.2,
0.3mm, and speed
at 20–60mm/s
105–110 3.3–3.8 GPa 100–120 - - - - -
Camargo etal.
[173]
PLA Graphene
(22–89 wt%)
Infill pattern
flat (internal
honeycomb fill
and external
rectilinear fill),
layer thickness
0.10–0.27mm,
raster angle at
45°, extrusion
temperature 200
℃ and speed at
50mm/sec
33.7 907.759 - - - - 10.403 -
Sezer and Eren
[264]
ABS MWCNT
(1–10 wt%)
Layer thickness
0.2mm, printing
speed 30mm/sec,
extrusion tempera-
ture 245 ℃, 100%
infill percentage,
and raster angle
(0°/90°) and (45°/-
45°)
55–60 1900–2100 - - - - 4–5 -
Xu etal.
[265]
PCL HA - - - - - 15.43 80.16 - -
Nyberg etal.
[266]
PCL Tricalcium
phosphate
(TCP) 30
wt%
The layer height of
0.640mm for the
first two layers and
raised to 4mm
- - - - - 253 - -
Hydroxyapatite
(HA) 30
wt%
- - - - - 338 - -
Decellularized
bone matrix
(DCB) 30
wt%
- - - - - 241 - -

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1 3
to be contingent on printing parameters [249]. The tensile
strength of the product is mainly affected by the build ori-
entation and the poor interlayer bonding. Likewise, high
tensile can be obtained in the printing direction on parallel
and longitudinal [250, 251]. Anisotropic mechanical proper-
ties of the FDM printed ABS were analyzed by Ahn etal.
[205]. Their study shows that the negative air gap increases
the tensile and compressive strength of the FDM product
compared to injection molding. Reese [252] investigated the
mechanical behavior on various raster angles of PEEK mate-
rial prepared by FDM. Their result showed that maximum
strength was observed at a 0° raster angle. Fatimatuzahraa
etal. [253] studied the mechanical properties and the micro-
structure of the FDM printed ABS parts at different raster
angle orientations. Their result showed that the angle at
45°/ − 45° at crisscross cross-section structures has a higher
strength for flexural, deflection, and impact tests. Hossain
etal. [254] examined how to improve the ultimate tensile
strength, young’s modulus, and tensile strain by modifying
the raster angle, contour width, air gap, and build orienta-
tion. Three approaches have been used for this assessment:
default, insight, and visual response. The finding revealed
that a higher UTS could be obtained by optimizing process
parameters using the insight revision method. Ognjan etal.
[255] investigated the effect of raster angle variations in ten-
sile, flexural strength, and surface finish. The researcher rec-
ommends 0° raster angle delivers higher mechanical strength
with lower surface finish. Caminero etal. [256] assessed the
effects of orientation, layer thickness, and fiber volume con-
tent on impact properties of Kevlar, glass, and continuous
carbon-reinforced nylon composites. Their results exhibit
that the layer thickness has a higher impact on strength.
Table4 shows the properties of different polymer materials
and composites by various process parameters.
The materials used in the FDM process have various
ranges of strength and modulus. The wide range of materials
has the ultimate tensile strength between 40 and 70 Mpa, and
Young’s modulus range is between 0.5 and 2.5. Figure13
indicates the Ultimate Tensile Strength and Young’s modu-
lus of polymers, polymer blends, and various composite
materials used in the FDM process.
The mechanical properties of the FDM printed polymers
and polymer composites are demonstrated clearly in this
section. Printing parameters played an important role in
the mechanical properties. Reducing the layer thickness
and infill density seen could increase the strength of the
product. Besides, the materials like PP, PA, PE, PLA, and
ABS are reported to have lower properties compared with
other materials. Hence, composite materials were added
with the base polymers to enhance their properties. Com-
pared with the other composites (Polymer blends, ceramic,
metal), the fiber and nanocomposites are shown to have
high strength, stiffness, surface finish, and toughness. Also,
the research is mainly focused on the fiber (GF, CF) and
nanocomposites (CNT, MWCNT, CNC) for the medical
and aerospace sector.
Fig. 13 Ultimate tensile strength and Young’s modulus of polymers, polymer blends, and various composites

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1 3
6 Applications ofFDM process
FDM can generate virtually any geometry that can be
designed. This technology can print hollow interiors and
irregular shapes with elegant geometrical forms. The essen-
tial benefits of using FDM technology in various industries
are printing lightweight products, multi-material printing,
short production time, reduced tool investment cost, and
optimum materials usage. This technique is used primarily
for prototyping and rapid manufacturing since it is inexpen-
sive compared to conventional fabrication, which requires
expensive machines. Many potential applications for FDM
parts include aerospace, automobile, electronics, biomedi-
cal, and construction sectors. Figure14 shows the global use
of additive manufacturing in various sectors.
6.1 Aerospace
Most of the components in the aerospace industry have com-
plicated geometry, and manufacturing these components has
high costs and is time-consuming. Compared with metal,
the polymers have lower strength and flame retardant, but
these thermoplastic parts are used to reduce the weight of
aircraft parts and improve fuel efficiency. In addition, the
aeronautical industries have always been expensive as many
iterations on the design occur for large products and limited
production. For these reasons, FDM could be the alterna-
tive to produce parts without any tool modifications and
low production volume [268]. Using FDM and other AM
technologies, metallic and non-metallic components such
as engine parts, heat exchangers, and turbine blades can be
manufactured for aerospace applications [269, 270]. FDM
is primarily used to produce plastics, ceramics, and fiber
composites [271]. For rapid part production and tooling,
Stratasys has adopted FDM processes along with several
other aerospace industries like NASA Bell Helicopter and
Piper Aircrafts [272]. Figure15a shows Evektor aircraft
components fabricated using FDM. In NASA’s Mars rover,
nearly 70 FDM-printed thermoplastic components have been
used and reported to be fairly robust to survive space rigors.
Stratasys and Aurora Flight Sciences also reported signifi-
cant production time reduction in producing polycarbonate
cabling pipes of V-22 Osprey of Bell Helicopter using FDM
technology [273].
6.2 Electronics
3D printing technologies testified to shorten production
times for geometrically fitting electronic prototypes [274].
The 3D-printed polymer composites shown could act as
electronic instruments and can be used in various forms in
combination with leading electrical materials. Using FDM,
the carbon-black/PCL composites were added to electronic
sensors to convert the piezoresistive to capacitive. Capaci-
tive sensors may be printed as part of the custom interface
system or embedded in smart vessels [275]. FDM printed
PLA/graphene electrodes for electrochemical sensing were
analyzed by Manzanares Palenzuela etal. [276]. A basic
activation process consisting of the DMF supported the
partial dissolution of the polylactic acid insulating polymer
shown to contribute to the rise in electroactivity. Similarly,
PLA/graphene printed electrodes were established for elec-
troanalysis of picric and ascorbic acids with successful effi-
ciency of sensing [277]. Figure15b shows FDM printed
electric circuit with an LED. Electrodes fabricated by carbon
nanotube (CNT) /zinc oxide (ZnO) and CNT/copper (Cu)
were blended with PLA and used for the electronic tongue
research as cyclic voltammetric sensors [278]. Dawoud etal.
Fig. 14 Global additive manu-
facturing application of various
sectors [267]

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1 3
[279] developed the carbon black–filled acrylonitrile buta-
diene styrene (ABS) composite strain sensor using FDM
capable of analyzing the internal stresses.
6.3 Biomedical
At present, the biomedical sector accounts for 11% of the
overall AM market share and is anticipated to be the driver
for AM production and growth. Unique requirements of
biomedical applications such as high complexity, ease of
access, small production quantities, patient-specific needs,
and customization have been the driving factor for the FDM
technology. In medical applications, using magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) tech-
nology, 3D images of organs and tissues developed with
high resolution [280]. The obtained image data allows 3D
printing technology to generate patient-specific tissues and
organs with sophisticated 3D micro-architectures. Currently,
several biocompatible natural and synthetic polymers are
used for biomedical applications [281]. Printability, bio-
compatibility, strong mechanical properties, and structural
properties are consideration factors for biomedical applica-
tions [282]. Teixeira etal.[283] described that the FDM
printed PCL/TCP composite scaffold degradation rates were
faster than the PLA in PCL scaffold. Polydopamine coat-
ing (PDA) with PLA scaffolds assists in smoothing over the
scaffold of the type-1 collagen. The study has contributed to
increased cell response and extracellular matrix deposition
and enhanced PLA postinduction. Rasoulianboroujeni etal.
[284] reported that the polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)/
TiO2 scaffolds have higher compression modules, wetta-
bility, and glass transition temperature compared with pure
PLGA. Medicines produced from polyethylene glycol fila-
ments filled with indomethacin (IND) and Hypromellose
succinate (HPMCAS) are less bitter and dissolve quicker
[285]. Chai etal. [286] prepared hollow intragastric floating
sustained-release (FSR) tablets to reduce the frequency of
the administrating tablets. FDM printed human ribcage as
replacement are shown in Fig.15c.
6.4 Construction
The application in the building sector started in 2014. Cast-
ing, molding, and extrusion are the traditional methods of
the building industry. 3D printing can be used in the con-
struction industry in areas where limitations such as geo-
metric complexities and hollow structures are required. The
contour craft technology for automated constructions of
buildings and structures and space applications was devel-
oped by Khoshnevis287]. The technology can be readily
used to construct low-income homes and build a shelter on
the moon because of its capacity to operate insitu materi-
als. Using special bioplastic on XXL 3D printers and FDM
technology, the European Union constructed the ‘Europe
Building’. Also, using the 3D printer, a Chinese company
ZhuoDa Group built a two-story villa in 3h at which cost
Fig. 15 a Evektor aircraft components and FDM printed duct adapter [290]. b FDM-printed electric circuit with LED [291]. c FDM-printed
Ribcage [292]. d FDM concrete printing process and the first FDM printed house by WinSun company in 2014 [293]

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1 3
of $400 to $480 [288]. Figure15d shows the FDM concrete
printing process and the first FDM printed house by WinSun
company in 2014. The house parts were initially printed in
pieces; after that, the pieces were assembled. The cost of 200
m2 homes is stated to be less than $5000 [289]. Mainly, the
FDM-constructed buildings are classified as green buildings;
more than 30% of energy costs are saved.
6.5 Automobile andother sectors
The FDM process is also frequently used in automotive and
other sectors for prototype development and functional pro-
totypes, architecture models, jewelry, toys, household prod-
ucts, and end-user products. High strength polymers such as
polycarbonate, nylon, ULTEM have been used in numerous
applications essential for automobile production. The main
applications in the automotive sectors are for printing jigs,
fixtures, check gauges, interior accessories, air ducts, lights,
bezels, and full-scale panels [294]. This technology is also
used in the jewelry industry to minimize wastage and to
produce complex geometries. The FDM process was found
to be a time saver and cost-effective in this sector [295]. This
technique is also used for children’s toy fabrication and is
also used in household product creation.
7 Technical challenges ofFDM process
This review discussed the techniques used in additive manu-
facturing, the materials, properties, process parameters, and
FDM applications. The properties of the FDM products
shown could be improved by anticipating proper process-
ing parameters and materials. Also, different materials like
polymer composites, metal polymers composites, ceramic
composites, polymer blends, fiber composites, and nano-
composites used in FDM are discussed in detail. Several sig-
nificant studies are required in terms of technical advance-
ment, considering the advantages of FDM printing, such as
design freedom, customization, and the ability to print com-
plex structures, seem required. On the other hand, the lim-
ited materials availability, accuracy and quality, anisotropic
mechanical properties, limited application in large production,
mass production, printing time, clogging, and void formation
also need extensive research.
Materials and process parameters play an essential role
in this process. Currently, low gradient thermoplastic poly-
mers and some composites are used in the FDM process.
These delimited materials do not satisfy the range of indus-
try application criteria, so the range of materials should be
expanded. Most of the products prepared by suing FDM
are stated to have low mechanical strength; the main rea-
son for this delinquent is the void formation between the
subsequent layers of the part. Thus, it results in inferior and
anisotropic mechanical properties of the product. A proper
selection of the parameters would minimize the problem.
I.e., increasing the layer thickness will reduce the poros-
ity but degrade the cohesion in the composite, reducing the
tensile strength. Alternatively, reinforcing fibers with poly-
mers helps to improve the product’s properties. However, the
addition of fiber during feedstock preparation and part fab-
rication results in void formation, which affects mechanical
behavior. Several investigators have overcome this problem
by adding a thermally expandable microsphere to reduce
the void formation and increase the strength. Another vital
challenge is the nozzle clogging due to the fiber or particle
reinforcement. The clogging significantly affects the quality
and quantity of the production. Also, the filament will be
brittle with the addition of a high amount of fillers.
Another limitation of the FDM technology is the mass
production and larger product fabrication capability. Com-
pared with the traditional manufacturing process, the 3D
printing process is not suitable for mass production. Still,
currently, researchers are attempting to fabricate large prod-
uct manufacturing using FDM and other 3D printing tech-
nology. At present, 3D printing technology has advanced
to another phase of manufacturing technique known as 4D
printing technology. 4D printing uses shape memory poly-
mers as the printing materials. Also, 5D printing technol-
ogy is taking up the feasibility and possibility of additive
manufacturing technology and is anticipated to capture the
market very soon. Compared to the 3D printing process,
the 5D printing process is highly accurate and efficiently
minimizes material wastages.
8 Conclusion
This paper presents a detailed review of AM process and mate-
rials, properties, process parameters, and the applications of
the FDM technique. The present review paper also discusses
the advanced materials used in the FDM process and the vari-
ous parameter optimization to achieve maximum mechani-
cal properties and dimensional accuracy. Compared with the
conventional machining process, FDM is cost-effective and
user-friendly. The fiber-reinforced polymers and nanocompos-
ites are shown to have excellent characteristics than other pure
materials. But in the filler reinforcement composites, increas-
ing the composition percentage by more than 30 wt% produces
clogging in the nozzle. Numerous analyses show that the layer
thickness, raster angle, infill pattern affects the printing quality.
Various studies also show that the product’s tensile strength
increases in 0° raster and concentric patterns. Furthermore,
the product’s surface finish increases by reducing the layer
thickness, decreasing the air gap, minimizing the porosity,
and increasing the product's strength. Currently, the research
in FDM focuses on developing new polymer composite and

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1 3
optimizing the parameters to achieve better quality products
for applications in various manufacturing applications. Nano-
polymer composites have gained significant attention in many
applications, especially in medical fields for scaffolds and
tissue engineering. However, very few researches have been
carried out using nanopolymer composites. The nanocompos-
ites testified could reduce the issues related to bonding and
clogging, which will feature a significant advantage. Finally,
the present review is anticipated helpful for researchers in the
field to understand the FDM in general and identify the gasp
for future research in this area for betterment.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the Universiti
Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia, for providing funds and facilities under
research grants RDU190352, RDU192401 and RDU192217 to conduct
this research.
Author contribution Kumaresan Rajan: Data curation, writing—original
draft preparation. Mahendran Samykano: Supervision, conceptualization,
writing—original draft preparation. Kumaran Kadirgama:Supervision,
writing—reviewing and editing. Wan Sharuzi Wan Harun:Writing—
reviewing and editing. Md. Mustafizur Rahman: Writing—reviewing
and editing.
Funding This study is financially supported by the Universiti Malaysia
Pahang, Grant RDU190352, RDU192401, and RDU192217.
Availability of data and material Data sharing is not applicable to this
article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.
Declarations
Ethics approval Not applicable.
Consent to participate Consent to participate has been received from
all co-authors before the work is submitted.
Consent for publication Consent to publication has been received from
all co-authors before the work is submitted.
Additional declarations for articles in life science journals that report
the results of studies involving humans and/or animals Not applicable.
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
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