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Incorporating Social Justice Advocacy and Interdisciplinary
Collaborative Training in the Recruitment and Retention of Diverse
Graduate Students
Andy V. Pham
1
&Philip Lazarus
1
&Annela Costa
1
&Quennie Dong
1
&Renee Bastian
1
Accepted: 9 September 2020
#California Association of School Psychologists 2020
Abstract
The critical shortage of school psychologists across the nationhas been a long-standing issue, along with the need to diversify the
profession. While recruitment efforts have attempted to attract culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students into school
psychology programs, novel practices integrating social justice advocacy and interdisciplinary collaborative training may aid in
both recruitment and retention efforts. Broadly, graduate programs in education and psychology disciplines are ripe with
opportunities to collaborate in a coordinated effort to meet the complex educational and mental health needs of diverse children
and adolescents. The purpose of the manuscript is to (1) outline and address barriers relating to the critical shortage of CLD
school psychologists, (2) promote integration of social justice advocacy and interdisciplinary collaborative training, and (3)
provide strategies and recommendations to recruit and retain CLD students in graduate training programs.
Keywords Advocacy .Culturally diverse students .Interdisciplinary training .Recruitment .Retention .School psychology .
Social justice
Recruitment and retention of culturally and linguistically di-
verse (CLD) students and practitioners in school psychology
have been challenging issues, contributing to the personnel
shortages in the United States (National Association of
School Psychologists [NASP] 2016a). Although recent data
indicate gradual increases in minority student enrollment in
school psychology programs in both specialist (30%) and doc-
toral programs (28–30%; American Psychological
Association [APA] 2018; Gadke et al. 2019), these percent-
ages still lag behind minority enrollments in APA-accredited
clinical (34–40%) and counseling psychology doctoral pro-
grams (42%; APA 2018). Racially and ethnically diverse
school psychologists in the U.S. are vastly underrepresented:
87% White, 6% Hispanic/Latinx, 5% Black/African
American, and 2.8% Asian/Pacific Islander, in relation to the
much more diverse K-12 student population, (McFarland et al.
2019) along with practitioners providing multilingual services
(e.g., 8%; Walcott and Hyson 2018). This disparity is espe-
cially true with the growing percentages of Hispanic/Latinx
and Asian students enrolled in public schools over the past
decade which are expected to continue through 2026. Beyond
ensuring that school psychologists reflect the diversity of the
student populations they serve, there is a need for all stake-
holders (e.g., graduate educators, field supervisors, graduate
students, and school districts) to collaborate and advocate for
the diversification of the profession as these longstanding is-
sues have significant implications for training and the provi-
sion of school-based services to diverse children and families.
Improving recruitment and retention of CLD students in
school psychology programs will likely aid in reducing short-
ages of school psychologists and in serving the diverse needs
of the community. (Proctor and Romano 2016). There is a
growing body of research on the benefits of increased diver-
sification and racial/ethnic matching in schools such as de-
creased problem behavior among youth (Downer et al.
2016), improved therapeutic relationships (Bernal et al.
2009; Cabral and Smith 2011; Kim and Kang 2018), and
increased parent participation in prevention trainings
(Dumas et al. 2008). African American school psychologists
are likely to connect with and advocate for children and fam-
ilies of color, along with challenging racial bias and decreas-
ing stigmatization in the delivery of services to Black
*Andy V. Pham
avpham@fiu.edu
1
Department of Counseling, Recreation, and School Psychology,
Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
Contemporary School Psychology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-020-00322-9
communities. (Givens 2020; Proctor and Romano 2016;
Truscott et al. 2014). There is also an increasing need for
bilingual school psychologists, since 1 in 10 school-aged stu-
dents are identified as English Language Learners (Ding et al.
2019; NCES 2020). With increasing diversification, school
psychologists can serve as models to youth with similar
racial/ethnic backgrounds so that those children are more like-
ly to view themselves in school psychology-related careers.
Several organizations, including APA and NASP, and
scholars have provided frameworks (e.g., Grapin et al. 2015)
and practical recommendations to support CLD students in
school psychology programs (NASP 2016b). However, these
efforts often require graduate programs to engage proactively
in systemic-level reflection and change, which includes as-
sessment of institutional climate, capitalizing on resources
from a variety of stakeholders, as well as collaboration and
commitment to uphold diversity and inclusion (Mena and
Rogers 2017). These efforts go beyond the graduate program
and align with a social justice orientation and advocacy for the
profession. The Professional Standards of the National
Association of School Psychologists (NASP 2020) require
that school psychologists “ensure that their knowledge, skills,
and professional practices reflect understanding and respect
for human diversity and promote effective services, advocacy,
and social justice for all students, families, and schools”
(p.19). Moreover, collaboration and building partnerships
are pivotal for examining how systems function in graduate
school or school districts, and for fostering shared understand-
ing of cultural values, processes, and identities between facul-
ty and students (Toporek and Vaughn 2010). NASP (2020)
indicates that school psychologists promote interdisciplinary
partnerships by functioning “as change agents, using their
skills in communication, collaboration, and consultation to
advocate for necessary change at the individual student, class-
room, building, district, state, and national levels”(p. 4). Thus,
there is a pressing need for school psychology programs na-
tionwide to incorporate social justice, advocacy, and interdis-
ciplinary collaborative training as the impetus for supporting
CLD students in graduate programs and the profession.
Challenges with Recruitment and Retention
Lack of Knowledge
Barriers to recruiting qualified CLD graduate students include
limited understanding and exposure to school psychology in
undergraduate studies (Graves and Wright 2007;Haselhuhn
and Clopton 2008), along with limited knowledge of the mul-
tifaceted roles and functions of a school psychologist in
schools (Bocanegra et al. 2015). This is in part due to the
school psychology profession not being well represented in
introductory psychology or education courses or textbooks.
Bocanegra et al. (2015) conducted a study examining knowl-
edge of junior and senior psychology majors and found that
students demonstrated less knowledge of school psychology
compared with other graduate psychology disciplines (e.g.,
clinical or counseling psychology), and students with more
knowledge of school psychology demonstrated greater inten-
tions to apply to school psychology graduate programs. In an
older study, Gilman and Handwerk (2001) found that educa-
tion majors were slightly more knowledgeable than psychol-
ogy majors about school psychology, but that many obtained
information largely from nonprofessional sources (e.g., per-
sonal experiences, family, and friends). However, students
were less likely to consider school psychology as a potential
career choice as they perceived the roles to be limited in scope
compared to clinical psychology. In another study,
Astramovich and Loe (2006) explored preservice teachers’
understanding of role differences between school psycholo-
gists and school counselors and found that preservice teachers
view both school psychologists’and counselors’roles as sim-
ilar in improving academic development and providing
counseling services, but that school psychologists engage less
in student career readiness than school counselors.
Consequently, school psychology programs must be more
deliberate in communicating the specific roles and functions
across education, psychology, and other allied disciplines.
This knowledge can also help minimize graduate students
leaving graduate school due to professional misalignment or
mismatch with their career aspirations (Proctor and Truscott
2012).
Financial Considerations and Job Responsibilities
Some applicants may be discouraged from attending postsec-
ondary education due to factors such as family and job respon-
sibilities, and limited transportation and financial support
(Goforth et al. 2016; Stewart et al. 2015). Studies exploring
academic persistence among racial and ethnic minority col-
lege students found that many experience financial burdens,
requiring them to work full-time and take fewer classes
(Santos and Haycock 2016). Scheduling conflicts and inflex-
ible program guidelines may prohibit qualified applicants, in-
cluding working professionals and teachers who wish to pur-
sue a career change, from applying to school psychology pro-
grams. Since many school psychology programs require com-
pletion of practicum and internship during school hours, ap-
plicants may find it difficult to give up their full-time day jobs
to accrue field experience, often unpaid. This may also create
hardship for those who require an annual salary to support
families, cover tuition, and/or the high cost of living in urban
and metropolitan areas, where CLD individuals are more like-
ly to reside (Parker et al. 2018). Moreover, historically under-
represented groups, including Black or Latinx students, tend
to score lower on GRE scores exams than White students,
Contemp School Psychol
which may decrease their likelihood of acceptance into grad-
uate programs that require these exams for admission (Bleske-
Rechek and Browne 2014). Native American students also
face similar barriers to entering graduate school due to family
commitments, cultural mismatch with the academic institu-
tion, lack of faculty representation, and poverty (Goforth
et al. 2016).
Cultural Mismatch, Misalignment, and Discrimination
With regard to retention, CLD students may likely encounter
unique challenges to psychosocial adjustment in graduate
school, which include prejudice, covert racism, and discrimi-
nation. For example, Proctor and Truscott (2012) interviewed
African American students who expressed reasons for leaving
the school psychology program, and found that cultural mis-
match, misalignment with professional goals, and negative
relations with faculty, such as experiencing microaggressions
(i.e., statements or behaviors that convey racial/gender slights
that discriminate against members of a marginalized group;
Sue 2010) contributed to their attrition. Lack of cultural con-
gruity with peers, curriculum, and program expectations may
also discourage students to continue in their academic pro-
gram (Goforth et al. 2016). Some studies also described how
CLD students in preservice teacher training programs encoun-
ter curricula that do not align with or reflect their cultural
experiences (Bristol and Goings 2019). Without a social jus-
tice agenda, the absence of culturally responsive practices and
multicultural training are likely to perpetuate in these pro-
grams, resulting in continuing attrition. School psychology
programs housed in Minority-Serving Institutions (MSIs)
may recruit higher proportions of CLD students than in
Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs), although studies
have found that undergraduate students in Historically Black
Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) demonstrate significant
unawareness of the school psychology profession (Chandler
2011; Graves and Wright 2009). At Florida International
University, a Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI), the program
recruits over 75% of students from CLD backgrounds, many
locally in Miami-Dade and Broward counties. Similar to find-
ings from Chandler (2011), these students often report being
unfamiliar with the career of school psychology earlier in their
undergraduate studies.
Social Justice Advocacy
Advocacy is considered a core component in the practice of
psychology that encompasses the activities and efforts indi-
viduals engage in to promote social change (Linnemeyer et al.
2018;Oyenetal.2019). As agents of change, school psychol-
ogists can engage in advocacy efforts at an individual, school,
community, or policy and systems level (Lazarus and Cash
2020;Oyenetal.2019). More specifically, social justice ad-
vocacy within school psychology has been endorsed as
“protecting the rights and opportunities for all”(Shriberg
et al. 2008); advocating for the rights of children and families
(Shriberg et al. 2011); engaging in culturally responsive and
nondiscriminatory practices (Graybill et al. 2018); and has
been linked to equality and equity (Briggs et al. 2009). The
practice of school psychology closely aligns with the princi-
ples of social justice given the role of school psychologists in
ensuring equality in educational decision-making and access
to resources for all students and families. Implementing social
justice and advocacy to enhance training within school psy-
chology has been viewed as highly favorable among graduate
students (Miranda et al. 2014; Moy et al. 2014). Students in
the Miranda etal. study reflected on how social justice training
developed their cultural competence, awareness, and empathy
as well as their understanding of students’needs. Integrating
social justice within a school psychology training program has
also provided students with the opportunity to reflect upon
their own experiences and begin viewing their world, and their
potential practice thereof, through a lens of social justice
(Jenkins et al. 2018). Graduate students have also expressed
the importance of advocacy for promoting social justice
awareness at a systems or policy level (Moy et al. 2014).
Student-led groups related to the discussion of social justice
and advocacy can provide diverse students with the opportu-
nity to discuss their experiences and address social issues that
are relevant to these lived experiences (Grapin et al. 2015).
The school psychology program at Florida International
University recruits a large percentage of underrepresented
populations and first-generation immigrants, with the majority
coming from Hispanic or Latinx, African American, Haitian,
or Caribbean descent. Most of the graduate students are bilin-
gual or multilingual and come from diverse backgrounds.
Therefore, students are familiar with different cultures and
understand both the challenges and opportunities of immi-
grants and diverse populations. Though approximately 75%
of the students reside in southeastern Florida, out-of-state ap-
plicants enter the program because they are looking for a mul-
ticultural experience. The program at Florida International
University offers one specific course that covers multicultural
issues in counseling, consultation, and assessment whereas
information about diversity, multiculturalism (e.g., race, eth-
nicity, disabilities, religion, SES, sexual orientation and ex-
pression) and advocacy is infused within the rest of the
curriculum.
Social Justice Committee
School psychology programs may consider establishing a
Social Justice Committee (SJC) to address relevant issues
and engage in activities to promote social justice advocacy.
The mission of SJC as developed by graduate students at
Contemp School Psychol
Florida International University is to promote non-
discriminatory and equitable practices in school psychology
to ensure the educational rights, opportunities, and well-being
of all children and families, especially for those whose voices
and experiences have been marginalized. With guidance from
the program director, graduate students set the agenda and
help coordinate activities that address social justice. The com-
mittee best defines social justice as “the conscience of human-
ity,”which aims to improve graduate students’capacity to
engage in advocacy to address social justice issues at the pro-
gram, local, state, and national levels. This student-oriented
component of social justice advocacy is integral to its inclu-
sion in training programs. For example, in Lantz et al. (2016),
graduate students discussed their experience in creating
student-led social justice advocacy forums called Grad
Student Talks (GST). GSTs were organized by graduate stu-
dents as a safe forum for students from across institutions to
discuss their experiences and feelings related to social injus-
tices. Brady-Amoon et al. (2012) also described an initiative
for social justice that included collaboration between
counseling and psychology graduate programs. This social
justice chapter was similar to the forums in Lantz et al.
(2016) in that it created a safe space for dialog, reflection,
and collaboration between students and faculty.
At Florida International University, the program director in
coordination with the SJC initiated biweekly town hall meet-
ings centering on a specific topic related to social justice.
These town hall meetings focus on individuals sharing expe-
riences, engaging in meaningful conversations, providing in-
formation, and taking mutually agreed upon actions. For ex-
ample, in the beginning of the school year, concerted efforts
have focused on informing students on voting in the
November election as well as assisting others in this process.
Also, the school psychology faculty at Florida International
University believe that it is best to have challenging conver-
sations regarding race, discrimination, equity, and social jus-
tice by critically examining systemic barriers within the uni-
versity, community, and profession, and to serve as better role
models for students. Presently, faculty have these conversa-
tions on a weekly basis and haveread the book White Fragility
(DiAngelo 2018) and an accompanied study guide to facilitate
discussions. In this way, social justice advocacy is not an
adjunct activity, but instead is woven into the fabric of the
program. Moreover, faculty do not take the position as ex-
perts, but as fellow travelers on the road towards self-
understanding and a more just society. Figure 1provides sam-
ple activities that programs can use to promote social justice
advocacy that have been incorporated at Florida International
University.
When developing the SJC, students should consider: (1)
outlining the vision and mission statement of the SJC that
aligns with both student and program goals (e.g., learning
about different cultures, providing meaningful CLD
experiences, promoting social justice for marginalized student
populations, sharing individual experiences, and recruiting
and retaining CLD graduate students), (2) reviewing the
NASP website for resources on social justice, (3) developing
a leadership core within the student body, and (4) creating
concrete short-term and long-term goals. Serendipitously, es-
tablishing the SJC can provide two distinct benefits. First, it
provides more opportunities for leadership for graduate stu-
dents. Second, it creates a strong sense of belonging and pur-
pose based on shared values. The SJC also provides graduate
students the opportunity to present at local and national con-
ferences informing programs on incorporating aspects of so-
cial justice in their future work as school psychologists
(Bastian et al. 2019; Lazarus et al. 2019). Since CLD graduate
students often encounter or experience unique and personal
hardships, the SJC provides a voice for them to share con-
cerns, reflect on experiences, and problem-solve potential so-
lutions regarding individual, professional, and societal issues.
Interdisciplinary Collaborative Training
Efforts to educate graduate students to advocate for social
justice, must exist within student and faculty communities.
Graduate programs often operate within organizational sys-
tems (i.e., higher education, school districts, departments,
etc.) that have their own distinct culture, and at times, reflect
privilege and power (Toporek and Vaughn 2010).
Furthermore, addressing barriers to advocacy in social justice
requires skilled interdisciplinary collaboration. For example, a
graduate student whose professional identity as a school psy-
chology intern may feel insecure initially when collaborating
with other seasoned professionals (e.g., teachers, social
workers, principals, etc.). Moreover, in courses that school
psychology students take with other disciplines, such as in
special education, counseling, or clinical psychology, there
may be preconceived judgment from faculty or other students
about the profession. The ability to engage in interdisciplinary
collaboration is an essential part of the professional socializa-
tion process. Building partnerships and alliances with individ-
uals within these systems is important not only to understand
how each system works, but also to provide graduate students
with adaptive tools and guidance necessary to navigate sys-
tems. Acknowledging these opportunities as well as address-
ing adaptations for graduate training can greatly enhance cur-
riculum and cultural understanding, while providing an inte-
grated form of training and service delivery.
The call for interdisciplinary (or interprofessional) collab-
oration is not necessarily new in school psychology (Hinshaw
and DeLeon 1995; Margison and Shore 2009;Power2006).
Interdisciplinary collaborative training in graduate schoolmay
be a purposeful way to promote social justice by (1) increasing
understanding of the professional roles of each discipline, (2)
Contemp School Psychol
developing collegiality and trust among students, supervisors,
and faculty, (3) distributing power equitably in decision-mak-
ing, (4) expanding skill sets and training to serve underserved
populations in various settings, and (5) self-examining and
evaluating outcomes on a continuous basis to achieve goals
(Hinshaw and DeLeon 1995). Because the needs of under-
served populations are complex and systemic, schoolpsychol-
ogy is well-suited to partner with disciplines in education
(e.g., special education, counselor education), psychology
(e.g., clinical psychology, neuropsychology, neuroscience,
pediatric psychology), health (e.g., public health, medicine,
psychiatry, nursing), and other allied professions (e.g., social
work, occupational therapy, speech-language therapy) to fa-
cilitate dialog and coordinate activities. Figure 2provides
sample activities that can be used to promote interdisciplinary
collaborative training.
For example, faculty at Florida International University
across three departments developed a specialized program,
which focused on training graduate students in school psy-
chology and special education in culturally responsive and
evidence-based practices. Faculty in school psychology, spe-
cial education, and clinical psychology along with school-
community partners met biweekly to develop a proposal for
the project which included: a conceptual framework, an out-
line of student competencies and program goals, and an
assessment/evaluation of student outcomes that were unique
to the interdisciplinary program. Specifically, the team
established the following goals for the interdisciplinary train-
ing: (1) modifying the existing graduate programs of study to
focus on collaborative coursework, field-based experiences,
seminars, and group assignments; (2) organizing a collabora-
tive summer institute with a specialization in intensive, indi-
vidualized multi-tiered supports; (3) integrating research skills
in conducting and presenting action research projects focusing
on issues related to underserved or marginalized populations
in schools; (4) establishing school-community partnerships to
support family-centered projects and school-, community-,
and clinic-based internships; and (5) developing an advisory
board with university, school, and community stakeholders.
Methods to recruit diverse students included holding informa-
tion workshops, and dissemination of the interdisciplinary
program through news outlets, social media, and email blasts
to universities across the country. Retention of students fo-
cused on providing financial incentives (e.g., scholarships,
tuition waivers, conference travel funding, stipends), network-
ing opportunities, and mentorship from multiple faculty mem-
bers, field supervisors, and doctoral students to create a pro-
fessional community of support.
Federal funding agencies, such as the Health Resources
and Services Administration (HRSA), National Institutes of
Mental Health (NIMH), and Office of Special Education and
Programs (OSEP), for example, are increasingly encouraging
longitudinal, multi-site, and interdisciplinary efforts that con-
centrate diverse resources to create innovative and impactful
Social Justice Committee Activities
Organizational/ Structural
Develop a vision and
mission statement.
Evaluate goals and
outcomes as outlined by the
SJC; reflect on
experiences.
Discuss with applicants how
social justice is integrated in
the program during
admission interviews.
Community Efforts
Participate in philanthropic
activities with children who
are in foster care,
hospitalized, or homeless.
Present or discuss
methods to serve children
and youth who are
marginalized or
disenfranchised in schools.
Professional Development
Present at state and
national conferences on
how to establish a SJC in
their school psychology
program.
Review articles, book
chapters, position papers,
podcasts, on topics of
interest related to social
justice.
Attend the NASP Public
Policy Institute.
Multicultural/ Educational
Enrichment
Organize events where
students discuss their
immigration experience or
those of their families.
Connect with other student-led
organizations (e.g., LGBTQA)
on campus with similar
missions.
Organize events related to
mental health and discuss the
impact from both student and
parent perspective (e.g., movie
nights, podcast discussions).
Hold town hall meetings
focused on conversations
surrounding race,
discrimination, equity and
social justice.
Fig. 1 Sample Activities Promoting Social Justice Advocacy
Contemp School Psychol
training, research, services, and policies on a larger scale.
School psychology programs should work closely with their
university administrators to accrue internal funding (e.g., seed
grants) for the development of the grant proposal, and to ne-
gotiate additional incentives after obtaining external funding
(e.g., providing tuition waivers for graduation assistantships,
technology support). These grants have also been found to
improve diversity recruitment of students (Washington et al.
2020). At Florida International University, close to 90% of
student scholars funded by OSEP training grants were from
CLD backgrounds. These opportunities also facilitate en-
hanced training in collaborative activities, provide funding
supports, and aid in reducing the critical shortage of school
psychologists.
Interdisciplinary collaborative training can integrate so-
cial justice advocacy at both organizational and individual
levels (Toporek and Vaughn 2010). The importance of en-
gaging in interdisciplinary collaboration have revealed
benefits to improving graduate student educational out-
comes, student confidence in knowledge and skills, and
dissemination of information (Muncy et al. 2019). It allows
for better coordination, improvement of access to school-
based services, and consistent follow-through on planning
and interventions (Bates et al. 2019). Moreover, prospec-
tive applicants may be better informed about the multifac-
eted roles of school psychologists as their skills become
more visible than if they work in isolation. Although grad-
uate students should develop a strong professional identity
as future school psychologists (i.e., incorporating oneself
into the disciplinary culture and absorbing the professional
identity and role demands of that discipline), collaborative
training enables individuals from various disciplines to
share their own personal and professional struggles, espe-
cially those who may have experienced oppression, and
guides them to work towards social justice goals, such as
engaging in community outreach, disseminating research,
or influencing policy change in mental health care for mar-
ginalized populations.
Since social justice advocacy addresses issues of
power and oppression that are often embedded in mul-
tiple systems, resources and leadership are needed to
influence positive change (Papa et al. 1998). There are
a number of barriers to interdisciplinary collaboration
that could prohibit such change, such as time constraints
or scheduling, group dynamics, resistance from other
professionals, and lack of support from employers/
administration (Pfeiffer et al. 2019). While diversity in
disciplines can lead to creative and informed decision-
making, each discipline comes to the team with its own
history, norms, and priorities. Graduate programs and
departments should provide administrative support and
trainings for such collaborations particularly for students
Interdisciplinary Collaborative Training Activities
Individual Level
Role-play and practice team -
based scenarios in assessment,
intervention, consultation,
systems-change or advocacy
skills.
Publish journal articles related
to interventions or collaboration.
Create websites or videos to
disseminate research or
intervention strategies.
Present at state and national
conferences on case studies or
research projects.
Program-Level
Share coursework, practicum
and fieldwork.
Reflect upon activities,
challenges, and achievements
as a group.
Engage in collaborative action
research projects.
Attend workshops and seminars
provided across departments.
District/Community Level
Provide professional development to
school districts.
Share projects related to advocacy
for integrated behavioral healthcare
or mental health services.
Partner with school districts,
university centers, communities or
clinical sites for enhanced,
specialized training (e.g., bilingual
training, evidence-base practices,
culturally responsive teaching,
bullying prevention).
Develop activities that meet needs of
underserved communities (e.g.,
parent training).
Fig. 2 Sample Activities Promoting Interdisciplinary Collaboration Training
Contemp School Psychol
early in their graduate training. These processes enable
students and faculty to develop a common language
within and across disciplines that supports and enhances
the graduate school experience.
Recruitment Efforts
Undergraduate Outreach
School psychology programs should dedicate efforts to in-
crease exposure of the profession to undergraduate students.
Academic advisors play a predominant role in informing stu-
dents about potential career paths in addition to actual
coursework and related opportunities in school psychology
(Bocanegra et al. 2017; Graves and Wright 2009). Social me-
dia and social networking (e.g., videos, Twitter, Facebook)
can be beneficial platforms for widespread dissemination of
promotional material, faculty/student accomplishments and
research, and information on unique roles, achievements,
and advocacy of local practitioners in schools (Pham et al.
2014;NASP2019b). Additional outreach can include presen-
tations to undergraduate courses not only in psychology or
education, but also in other departments and colleges (e.g.,
biology) where students may be considering switching majors
or career paths. Encouraging involvement with student-
governed organizations and state, national, and international
professional organizations (e.g., Student Affiliates in School
Psychology [SASP], state associations, NASP, APA, Psi Chi,
Psi Beta) may also help promote visibility of the profession
(NASP 2019b). For example, the School Psychology Student
Assocation (SPSA), a student-governed organization at
Florida International University, offers free membership to
all students, staff, administrators, and alumni and aims to en-
hance members’experiences by providing opportunities for
networking, professional development, leadership, and ser-
vice. Professional organizations such as APA and NASP pro-
vide access to career and professional development tools, re-
sources (e.g., research journals, books, videos, online data-
bases), and discounted conference registration fees (APA
2016;NASP2019a). The NASP African American subcom-
mittee of the Multicultural Affairs Committee also initiated
the Exposure Project to provide resources for high school
and undergraduate students to promote the school psychology
profession. The APA Division 16’s Committee for Ethnic
Minority Affairs (APA 2020) has recently initiated the
Undergraduate Scholars program to inform and encourage
undergraduate students to pursue doctoral studies in school
psychology. Incentives for participating in the program in-
clude registration fee waivers to attend the NASP convention,
graduate mentorship, and student networking. Figure 3pro-
vides multiple ways that school psychology programs can
recruit and retain CLD students and faculty.
Collaboration between school psychology and other re-
lated disciplines (e.g., teacher education, social work,
school counseling, mental health counseling, and rehabili-
tation counseling) can increase visibility of school psy-
chology to undergraduate students. For instance, school
psychology student organizations can collaborate with oth-
er professional student organizations (e.g., National
Student Speech Language Hearing Association) and
diversity-related organizations and clubs (e.g., LGBTQA,
Black Student Union) by creating social events for students
and faculty advisors to learn more about the field of school
psychology and allied disciplines. Practicing school psy-
chologists or field-based supervisors can serve as guest
speakers to advanced psychology courses, undergraduate
conferences, and professional student organizations to aid
in career planning (Halonen and Dunn 2018). While there
has been lack of research citing the effectiveness of
implementing collaborative activities as a means of
recruiting school psychology students, these opportunities
serve to increase exposure of the profession to prospective
applicants and faculty, since there has been limited out-
reach to psychology departments and CLD students
(Beeks and Graves 2017). Faculty should monitor whether
these recruitment efforts which involve collaborative activ-
ities (e.g. social events, guest speakers, presentations, etc.)
lead to increasing number of applications and enrollment
in school psychology programs.
Partnerships with institutions that historically serve
CLD students may also foster recruitment (e.g., HBCUs,
HSIs). Proctor and Romano (2016) found that the active
recruitment of CLD students from such institutions was an
overarching theme in minority recruitment studies within
the field of school psychology. These targeted efforts pre-
dominantly involved the offer of financial support as well
as opportunities for mentorship and diversity among
students in the school psychology program. However,
Beeks and Graves (2017) revealed that department chairs
in HBCU psychology programs noted many challenges
with recommending prospective students to pursue grad-
uate study in school psychology. These challenges include
(1) lack of research focus or support in school psychology
on racial identity and Black strengths and (2) lack of
visibility and knowledge about school psychology.
Given the history of the profession as being complicit in
the testing and placement of Black students into special
education, along with limited numbers of Black leaders in
the profession, school psychology programs need to pro-
vide more concerted and intentional efforts to collaborate
with HBCUs. Fostering collaboration may improve stu-
dentandfacultyawarenessandbeliefs regarding the roles
and functions of the profession along with the commit-
ment to diversity and advocacy (Graves and Wright
2007).
Contemp School Psychol
Diversity Statements
School psychology programs would benefit in recruitment of
CLD students and faculty by publishing statements that em-
phasize several components: (1) commitment to diversity and
inclusion in training, (2) anti-discrimination policies, (3) iden-
tification of minority faculty members, (4) specific minority-
focused research and training opportunities, (5) dedication to
recruiting a diverse study body, and (6) minority-based finan-
cial supports (Bidell et al. 2007; Smith et al. 2016). Diversity
statements can be printed on program webpages, program
brochures, and student handbooks. Smith et al. (2016)ana-
lyzed APA-accredited psychology program websites in order
to determine whether diversity statements were used a method
to recruit CLD students into the profession. Findings indicated
that school psychology program websites were less likely to
post diversity statements, funding information specific to
recruiting CLD students, and faculty interests in diversity-
related topics in comparison to clinical and counseling psy-
chology programs. Since previous research indicated that
higher multicultural content in recruitment materials is asso-
ciated with higher enrollment of CLD students (Bidell et al.
2007), more research is needed to determine whether provid-
ing diversity statements would lead to positive trends in re-
cruitment of both students and/or faculty in school
psychology. Proctor and Romano (2016) recommended estab-
lishing priorities for preparing and hiring CLD faculty in
school psychology, which in turn can lead to improvements
in recruitment of future students. Thus, commitment to diver-
sity should be publicly emphasized and prioritized in any pro-
gram documents, programwebsites, and information sessions.
Undergraduate Coursework and Opportunities
Special topics courses, directed studies, and undergraduate
field experiences related to school psychology should be
available to all undergraduate students. For example, Florida
Gulf Coast University (which does not offer a graduate pro-
gram in School Psychology), offers a Special Topics: School
Psychology course taught by a practicing school psychologist
and provides historical overview and introductory information
on the roles of functions of school psychologists. Sample field
experience activities include shadowing the school psycholo-
gist in private practice, observing classrooms, and learning
assessment procedures with diverse clients. Topics and issues
related to social or racial injustices can also allow students to
promote proactive solutions and develop advocacy skills. At
Montclair State University, undergraduate students take part
in opportunities to complete a 45-h field experience as part of
the School Psychology Undergraduate Recruitment (SPUR)
Fig. 3 Recommendations for Recruitment and Retention Strategies
Contemp School Psychol
program, shadowing a school psychologist and receiving su-
pervision from a graduate faculty member (NASP 2019). In
addition, providing specializations and bilingual training
tracks (e.g., promoting field-based internshipexperienceswith
bilingual school psychologists) enables CLD students
(Proctor et al. 2014) to gain unique experiences, skills, and
understanding of the complex needs of diverse populations
(Maton et al. 2011; Proctor et al. 2014).
Early Involvement in Research
Early involvement in school psychology research can increase
exposure to the profession while preparing undergraduate stu-
dents with knowledge and skills in conducting research, espe-
cially when applying for doctoral programs (NASP 2019b).
Although school psychology faculty are involved primarily in
graduate education, departments should support endeavors of
faculty who mentor undergraduate students. Faculty can bol-
ster college students’sense of support when supervising or
collaborating on research projects (Taraban and Logue
2012). For underrepresented groups, scholarships and fellow-
ships (e.g., McNair or TRIO programs) support aspiring grad-
uate students financially and academically to engage in re-
search and other scholarly activities under faculty mentorship.
One study found that students who enrolled in the McNair
program were almost six times as likely to enroll in graduate
programs (Renbarger and Beaujean 2020). Additionally, for-
mer McNair participants experienced academic and social in-
tegration which contributed to the development of their com-
petence, self-confidence, social and academic connectedness,
and academic identity (Gittens 2014). Early involvement in
research not only confirms college students’interests in pur-
suing graduate school but also magnifies their interests in
acquiring advanced research and organizational skills
(Taraban and Logue 2012). Notably, at the University of
California, Irvine, the Undergraduate Research Opportunities
Program (UROP) provides undergraduate students the chance
to conduct a research or creative project in any discipline.
Through the assistance of this program, students are able to
seek research opportunities on campus with faculty, or off
campus with industrial partners, national labs, and other uni-
versities. Faculty advisors, workshops, and online resources
are provided to undergraduate students who present their pro-
jects at an annual symposium.
Outreach with School Districts
Other strategies for recruiting undergraduate students include
having faculty and students make personal contact with CLD
candidates; obtaining referrals from existing students, alumni,
and field supervisors; and involving students and supervisors
in the recruitment or admissions/interview process (Proctor
et al. 2014). Practitioners might choose to promote the field
through career day or similar events at their school district,
speaking in Advanced Placement (AP) Psychology classes, or
during one-on-one conversations with high school students
(Grapin et al. 2016). Moreover, “non-traditional”students,
such as working professionals and current educators, should
be considered potential applicants. Recruitment campaigns
can be initiated as a way for school psychologists in local
school districts to reach out and inform teachers, counselors,
behavior specialists, or other related professionals whom they
believe would become an excellent applicant and discuss with
them the possibility of becoming a school psychologist.
Efforts among the school district, graduate program, and uni-
versity should be coordinated with the goal of supporting
qualified applicants who are significantly underrepresented.
For example, in Miami-Dade County Public Schools, a
local school district that serves a high percentage of Haitian
American students, there was a need to hire Haitian American
bilingual school psychologists who speak Creole. Regular
collaborations between Florida International University's
School Psychology Program and the school district resulted
in recruiting and providing financial support for training
Haitian American school psychologists through tuition remu-
neration, stipends, and full salaries during their internship
year. The school district advertised the availability of financial
support for Haitian American educators to acquire training
necessary to become school psychologists and screened the
applicants to ensure that they met the criteria of having satis-
factory evaluations by their supervisors for the previous three
years. Those who passed the screening were then referred to
Florida International University for potential admission into
the program and the top six candidates were selected. All six
incoming students graduated, and a smaller cohort of Haitian
American educators was recruited two years later to meet
expanding district needs.
To facilitate collaboration, school districts need to first
determine the gap between the number of K-12 CLD stu-
dents and the current number of school psychologists to
serve this population. In that way, districts can inform
university school psychology programs how many school
psychologists they will need toservespecificCLDstu-
dents. Then partnerships and agreements can be coopera-
tively established between school districts and university
school psychology programs to support the education of
future school psychologists. The district can announce
that they are willing to support a certain number of future
school psychologists and screen their employees. Those
who pass the screening can be recommended to the uni-
versity for admission. Districts may provide tuition sup-
port and salaries to their employees who enter the training
program full time and/or during their year-long internship.
Due to the significant shortage of school psychologists
nationwide, universities may be willing to expand their
entering class of graduate students to include future
Contemp School Psychol
CLD school psychologists and provide tuition waivers.
Districts and universities can collaboratively develop var-
ious types of cooperative and financial agreements. There
isnoonerightwaytodothis—what is required is the
willingness to engage in meaningful conversations to ini-
tiate the process.
Retention Efforts
In school psychology there has been limited research regard-
ing retention of ethnically and racially diverse individuals in
graduate programs. Proctor and Owens (2019)exploredreten-
tion research on this topic and found only two published peer-
review studies over a 23-year time frame from 1994 to 2017.
As might be expected, the authors suggest that due to the
underrepresentation of diverse individuals in the profession,
more research is needed. Nonetheless, they opine that pro-
grams should cultivate an inclusive and welcoming environ-
ment, connect students to diverse professional networks, pro-
vide mentorship, and commit to multicultural education.
Full-Time or Part-Time Enrollment
Limited research has been conducted exploring experiences
and outcomes of graduate students who opt to enroll part-time,
although part-time students have become more commonplace
in both undergraduate and graduate studies (Cohen and
Greenberg 2011;Darolia2014). Many specialist- and
doctoral-level school psychology programs, however, require
full-time enrollment due to rigorous research and clinical
training expectations, practicum and internship requirements
occurring during school hours, and greater likelihood of de-
gree completion. Providing part-time options for graduate
study in school psychology can improve access for those
who are unable to enroll full-time due to limited financial
support, scheduling conflicts, or family responsibilities.
Structured, yet flexible, multi-year program plans along with
multiple offerings of evening or online courses should be giv-
en serious considerations for increasing CLD student enroll-
ment (Curtis et al. 2004). Interestingly, Cohen and Greenberg
(2011) interviewed part-time Master’s-level students across
disciplines and found that faculty support, respect/concern,
and mentorship were significant factors (more than faculty
expertise) contributing to part-time graduate students’aca-
demic persistence. Although more research is needed to ex-
amine academic outcomes of part-time students, school psy-
chology programs may need to be innovative in creating prac-
ticum opportunities (e.g., evening hours at a clinic, half-days
in schools) and increasing graduate socialization of CLD stu-
dents who decide to enroll part-time. This is more important
than ever due to the national shortage of school psychologists,
especially CLD school psychologists, and the need to train
thousands of school psychologists during the next decade
(NASP 2020).
Financial Support
One of the most significant factors contemplated by prospec-
tive students when deciding to pursue graduate school is fi-
nancial support. Programs should work with their local school
districts and their State Department of Education to ensure that
all their students have paid internships during their program of
studies. One innovative program was established in Florida
where students who are enrolled in a public state university
school psychology program are provided an internship fee
waiver under state statute. Therefore, they do not need to
pay tuition for their school psychology internship.
Graduate programs should advocate for assistantships,
scholarships, and fellowships to support students in both spe-
cialist and doctoral programs within their institutions. Faculty
should seek training, guidance from experienced faculty, and
institutional resources (e.g., time allotted to grant writing) to
apply for internal and external grant opportunities that will
support graduate students through tuition remuneration, sti-
pends to offset living expenses, and funds for books, confer-
ence travel, or professional development activities. Since ex-
ternal funding supports are very competitive, graduate pro-
grams who submit their initial applications might not be suc-
cessful the first time. However, when obtained, these financial
incentives have been shown to increase program diversity and
retention as they alleviate perceived burdens encountered by
CLD students from attending graduate school (Washington
et al. 2020).
Mentorship
Faculty-student mentorship within graduate programs has
been shown to improve psychosocial adjustment and profes-
sional identity development among CLD graduate students
(Proctor et al. 2014). Graduate students expressed positive
relationships with faculty mentors who are available, aware
of social issues, and provide mentoring support when students
faced adversity (Proctor et al. 2018). One such mentorship
program has been established at San Diego State University
(2016) which has supported more than 300 undergraduate and
graduate students of African American descent since its incep-
tion in 2001. The program aims to enhance students’profes-
sional growth, self-awareness, self-confidence, cultural re-
sponsiveness, and historical presence.
Although recruitment and retention efforts should also fo-
cus on hiring and supporting CLD faculty to mentor students,
this may be challenging given that the current demographics
of full-time faculty in school psychology are majority White
(Walcott et al. 2018). However, cross-racial mentorship can
be just as effective, productive, and satisfying for mentors
Contemp School Psychol
who intentionally engage in cultural awareness and sensitivity
(Chan et al. 2015). Faculty should also demonstrate interest
and/or expertise in determining how culture plays a role in
their research agenda, while involving both undergraduate
and graduate students in these projects. Programs should also
arrange for CLD graduate students to have multiple mentors
across disciplines and beyond their program (e.g., special ed-
ucation faculty, program alumni, adjunct faculty, practicing
school psychologists; Grapin et al. 2015;Maloneetal.2010).
Peer support can aid in CLD graduate students’academic
persistence. In a study examining African American students’
retention, graduate students expressed that having peer sup-
port improved their motivation and retention despite pervasive
school and life stressors (Proctor et al. 2018). This engage-
ment served to establish a sense of belonging, to promote
academic and social integration, to decrease racial isolation,
and to build positive relationships with faculty. Moreover,
student-led organizations or interest groups should organize
social support and diversity networking among CLD graduate
students. Grapin et al. (2016) recommended expanding peer
mentoring programs for CLD students throughout their grad-
uate school experience rather than limiting mentorship to first-
year students.
Field supervisors can also serve as important mentors for
practicum students and interns, as they guide students to apply
advocacy skills into practice. Whenever possible, it is helpful
to match CLD students with mentors of diverse backgrounds
who share similar professional interests as well as commit-
ment to social justice. For example, the third author was paired
with a field supervisor with a similar cultural and linguistic
background during her internship year. Her internship experi-
ence was enriched by specializing in bilingual assessment and
intervention skills, attaining knowledge about culturally re-
sponsive practices, and promoting discussion of specific is-
sues related to CLD students and families, which helped foster
a supportive and lasting mentorship. The similarity in CLD
background as well as professional interests further shaped the
intern’s view of social justice and her identity as a CLD pro-
fessional, while advocating for supports and services for chil-
dren and families who have been underserved and
marginalized.
A positive and supportive mentorship can help protect
CLD students from internalizing subtle or apparent racism,
prejudice, or discrimination that may impede learning during
internship. In one study examining frequency of racial
microaggressions among school psychology students,
African-American/Black students reported experiencing sig-
nificantly more racial microaggressions in both university and
practicum/internship sites than other racial groups (Proctor
et al. 2016). Because of the inherent power differential be-
tween students and faculty supervisors, it may be difficult
for interns to determine how to initiate conversations with
supervisors when encountering or experiencing
microaggressions. The supervisor should take great care in
creating a safe and supportive environment for interns to ex-
press concerns, and to contemplate and discuss ethical or pro-
fessional issues. To encourage social justice advocacy during
internship, supervisors should (1) become knowledgeable and
mindful about microaggression research, (2) become aware of
implicit biases through self-reflection, and (3) attend or lead
bystander workshops with other professionals (e.g., social
workers, counselors) to accrue or disseminate knowledge on
intervening when encountering racial microaggressions
(Fisher et al. 2017; Proctor et al. 2016).
Conclusion
School psychology training programs can actively engage in
transformative practices that incorporate social justice advo-
cacy and interdisciplinary collaborative training to support
recruitment and retention of CLD students. These goals often
start with a critical self-reflection of past and current recruit-
ment and retention efforts that have contributed to potential
educational inequitiesexperienced by students and in commu-
nities. When these transformative practices are collaboratively
developed by all stakeholders, they are more likely to endure
and to become integrated within the fabric of the program.
Engaging in social justice advocacy allows understanding of
the socio-cultural-political contexts of students’unique strug-
gles and adversities, along with opportunities to serve as
change agents through collaboration. Future areas of research
should focus on evaluating outcomes of specific recruitment
and retention strategies for CLD graduate students and faculty
in school psychology programs and for CLD practitioners
entering the profession (e.g., school districts). Since diversity,
collaborative relationships, advocacy, and continuous im-
provement are all part of NASP’scorevalues(NASP2017),
trainers and stakeholders should demonstrate intentional com-
mitment and action to promoting social justice and diversifi-
cation of school psychology.
Funding This project was supported bygrant # (H325K190116) awarded
by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education
Programs.
Available of Data and Material Not applicable.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflicts of Interest/Competing Interests The authors declare that they
have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval This article does not contain any studies with human
participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Code Availability Not applicable.
Contemp School Psychol
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tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Dr. Andy V. Pham is an Associate Professor of School Psychology at
Florida International University. Dr. Pham’s research interests include
examining neurocognitive factors (e.g., executive functioning) and cul-
turally responsive school-based practices that affect academic and mental
health outcomes of children, adolescents, and diverse populations. He
aims to reduce racial disparities in mental health and education by deter-
mining risk and protective factors in minority youth and families.
Dr. Philip J. Lazarus has been the Director of the School Psychology
Program at Florida International University for the past four decades. He
is a Worlds Ahead faculty, Past President of the National Association of
School Psychologists, and Past Chairperson of the National Emergency
Assistance Team. He is the editor and/or author of four books including
the upcoming text, Fostering the Emotional Well-Being of our Youth: A
School-Based Approach. His research interests include crisis interven-
tion, developing safe and supportive schools, and fostering youth mental
health.
Dr. Annela Costa is a licensed school psychologist. She presently works
with elementary and secondary students conducting psychoeducational
evaluations and providing school-based mental health services. She also
serves as an adjunct professor at Florida International University. Her
research interests include multiculturalism, school-based mental health,
and the promotion of diversity, equity, and inclusion in educational
practices.
Quennie Dong is a graduate student in the School Psychology program
at Florida International University, and is currently an intern at Broward
County Public Schools. Her research interests include examining cultur-
ally responsive school-based practices and social emotional learning as it
relates to youths’mental health and well-being. She aims to address the
mental health disparities among culturally and linguistically diverse stu-
dent populations and advocate for equitable practices through a social
justice lens.
Renee Bastian is a graduate student in the School Psychology program at
Florida International University. Her research interests include addressing
multicultural issues and ethnic disparities in mental health and education,
culturally and linguistically diverse students and bilingualism, Attention-
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and social justice advocacy in school
psychology.
Contemp School Psychol
