Agroforestry: A sustainable land use system for livelihood security and climate change mitigation.

Full text

3
Agroforestry: A Sustainable Land use
System for Livelihood Security and
Climate Change Mitigation
P. Saikia1, Amit Kumar1, M. L. Khan2
1School of Natural Resource Management, Central University of Jharkhand
Brambe-835205, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
2Department of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Central University,
Sagar - 470003, Madhya Pradesh, India
Introduction
Agroforestry is the intentional combination of agriculture and forestry
technologies to create integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, and sustainable
land-use systems (Rietveld, 1995). It creates complex systems with impacts
ranging from the site or practice level up to the landscape and beyond (Ellis,
2004). It is one of the most conspicuous land use systems that consists of
annual and perennial plants, which are often integrated with livestock. It provides
ecosystem services and reduces anthropological impacts on natural forests,
arrests soil degradation, enhance soil fertility in many situations and improve
farm resilience (Thangataa and Hildebrand 2012; Tewari et al., 2013).
Agroforestry is a land management and farming system that are not only capable
of fulfilling household needs but also maintaining and improving environmental
quality. Itplays a vital role in achieving integrated rural and urban development.
The changing climate has potential impacts on ecosystem goods and services
by means of increased variability with greater risk of extreme weather events,
such as prolonged drought, storms and floods (Lindner et al., 2010).
Agroecosystem and forests are the ecosystemswhichare the most
adverselyaffected by climate change by means of prevalence of pests, diseases,
invasive species, species endangerment and high levels of food insecurity. The
adoption of agroforestry reduce the impacts climate change by increasing tree
Climate Change and Agroforestry, pp. 61-70
Editors: C.B. Pandey, Mahesh Kumar Gaur and R.K. Goyal
© 2017, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, India

62 Climate Change and Agroforestry
cover outside forests, enhancing forest carbon stocks, conserving biodiversity,
reducing risks and damage intensity, maintaining health and vitality, and scaling
up multiple benefits (Zoysa and Inoue, 2014). Tree-based farming systems store
carbon in soils and woody biomass, and they may also reduce greenhouse gas
emissions from soils and often considered a cost-effective strategy for climate
change mitigation (Verchot et al., 2007; Smith and Olesen, 2010). Trees have
an important role to play not only in climate change mitigation but also in reducing
vulnerability to climate-related risks. The value, role and contributions of
agroforestry and the protection of endemic habitats, in the light of current global
environmental challenges, cannot be overemphasized (Maathai, 2012).
Agroforestry systems range from subsistence livestock silvo-pastoral systems
to homegardens, on-farm timber production, all types of tree crops integrated
with other crops and biomass plantations within a wide diversity of biophysical
conditions and socio-ecological characteristics (Zomer et al., 2009).
Agroforestry like most other natural resource management science, is
characterized by high complexity of structure and function of which we have
limited understanding (Sanchez 1995; Nair, 1998). Most of the agroforestry
researches are focused on its potential to conservation of crop diversity,
biodiversity, its carbon sequestration potential, soil fertility maintenance, biomass
estimation, food and livelihood security, climate change adaptation and mitigation
and its socio-economic prospects (Jensen 1993; Mercer and Miller 1998; Verchot
et al., 2007; Zomer et al., 2009; Saikia and Khan, 2014). The use of
geoinformatics in regular monitoring, potential site identification, precision
farming is well established and thereby enhance the capability in decision making
to achieve environmental protection and agricultural production goals. Therefore,
this chapter emphasized to summarize the contribution of agroforestry in
conservation of biodiversity, livelihood security, climate change mitigation and
adaptation, soil quality maintenance etc. The role of geoinformatics technology
in monitoring agroforestry system to achieve environmental sustainability and
enhanced agricultural production to achieve livelihood security is also discussed.
Potential of agroforestry in conservation of biodiversity
Agroforestry systems practiced by rural poor are means for the environmental
services such as biodiversity conservation, watershed protection and carbon
sequestration. Traditional agroforestry systemssignificantly contribute to the
conservation of biodiversity through ex situ conservation of tree species,
reduction of pressure on remnant forests and the provision of suitable habitat
for a number of animal and plant species including various rare endangered
species like Aquilariam alaccensis Lam., Livistona jenkinsiana Griff. Acorus
calamus L. etc. (Atta-Krah et al., 2004; Acharya 2006; McNeely and Schroth
2006; Saikia et al., 2012). The tree component of agroecosystems is particularly

Agroforestry: A Sustainable Land use System 63
valued for specific roles including that of host plant to insects yielding marketable
products such as silk (Singh et al.,1994), lac products (Jaiswal et al. 2002) and
honey (Dwivedi, 2001). It also provides shade, shelter, energy, food, fodder and
many other goods and services that enable the agroecosystems to prosper
(Leakey and Tchoundjeu 2001; McNeely and Schroth, 2006). Agroforestry
systems contribute to biodiversity conservation by providing habitat for pollinators
and seed dispersers that facilitate gene ûow in other tree species (Slocum and
Horvitz, 2000).
The greatest threat to biodiversity is land cover change-induced habitat
destruction (Chapin et al., 2000), reinforcing the need for accurate maps of
forest extent and change. Conservation planning is a complex task in which
there is considerable uncertainty and often-competing objectives (Guikema and
Milke 1999). It is becoming increasingly recognized that most data on biodiversity
relates to small areas, while management and conservation activities typically
operate at coarser, landscape scales and scaling between levels is difficult (Innes
and Koch 1998; Griffiths et al., 2000; Negandra 2001).Farm level management
decisions are mostly determined by the knowledge of the interactions
amongclimatic and edaphic condition of the area, characteristics of crops and
animals, technology, socio-economic factors and the institutional context including
agricultural education, government policy and social customs (Oerke et al. 1994).
Livelihood security in agroforestry systems
Agroforestry systems play an important role in enhancing the productivity of
lands to meet the demand of ever-growing human and livestock population. It
has both productive and protective potential and provide opportunities for
employment generation in rural areas. Dhyani et al. (2003, 2005) have highlighted
the role of agroforestry to meet the subsistence needs of poor families and
providing a platform for greater and sustained livelihood of the society. The
major contributions made by agroforestry to the economy can be seen in terms
of income, and employment generation. It is possible through combining food
crops (fruits, vegetable, legumes, pulses, citrus fruits and edible medicines),
timber crops and other economic crops with diverse products and benefits.
Trees on agroforestry systems are important source of income and contributing
to food security in difûcult time. Multipurpose trees of traditional agroforestry
systems are important for rural food security and income generation, and also
for ensuring social and cultural stability to some extent (Boffa, 1999).
Role of agroforestry systems in climate change mitigation and
adaptation
Vegetationhave ability that can absorb and store CO2, accumulating carbon in
biomass of different parts thus contributes in maintaining the stability of climate.

64 Climate Change and Agroforestry
It is depended on ecological system including wild species, the density of the
vegetation, topography and other environmental factors (Ogawa et al., 1965;
Senpaseuth et al., 2009). It is established that climate change will worsen the
food security situation, with reduced yields, increased pest and disease attacks
and extreme natural phenomena, such as floods and droughts (Kaimowitz, 2003).
Agroforestry has a particular potential role in mitigation of atmospheric
accumulation of greenhouse gases (IPCC 2000). Improving soil nitrogen through
fertilization of crops and pastures increases N2O emissions from soils and
sometimes decreases the soil CH4 sink (Steudler et al., 1989; Mosier and
Delgado, 1997). High input of nitrogen and soil compaction can result in the
reduction of sink strength of soils for CH4 (Hansen et al., 1993; Palm et al.,
2002). In agroforestry systems, where leguminous crops are managed to
contribute nitrogen, there is little information on the amounts of N2O produced
or the effect on CH4 consumption. Improved organic matter and flooding
management in irrigated rice can decrease CH4 emission from paddies (Wassman
et al., 2000; Jain et al., 2000). Agroforestry systems are playing the greatest
role in maintaining the resource base and, thus helping in building climatic resilient
agriculture (Dhyani and Handa, 2014). Swaminathan (1983) has pointed out
that biodiversity is the feed stock for a climate resilient agriculture. Agroforestry
systems can potentially help farmers to adapt climate change mitigation through
carbon sequestration (Luedeling et al., 2011). The destruction of forest resources
by 20 percent results in the loss of carbon storage in xylems (Office of
Environmental Policy and Planning 2000).
Soil quality management in agroforestry systems
Agroforestry systems are playing an important role in optimizing nutrient cycling,
organic matter production and reducing a need for the external input of fertilizers
(Handa et al., 2016). It has importance as a carbon sequestration strategy
because of carbon storage potential in its multiple plant species and soil. A
number of improved farming practices can increase the sustainability of farming
systems and contribute to reducing farmers’ vulnerability to climate variability
while sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. Agroforestry systems can
also have an indirect beneût on carbon sequestration when it help to decrease
pressure on natural forests, which are the largest sinks of terrestrial carbon.
The total carbon storage capacity of an agroforestry system depends on the
growth and nature of the tree species, and varies from region to region (Newaj
and Dhyani 2008). Tree species ameliorate soil by adding both above and below
ground biomass into the soil system. However, variations do exist in the inherent
capacity of different tree species in rehabilitating degraded lands. Tree species
improved moisture retention capacity of soil as compared to the control.
Protection of soils directly against erosive forces of raindrop and surface run

Agroforestry: A Sustainable Land use System 65
off by improving physical and hydrological parameters of soil have been reported
in many studies in India (Grewal and Abrol 1986; Deb et al., 2005).The adverse
influences of widespread soil erosion on soil degradation, agricultural production,
water quality, hydrological systems, and environments, have long been recognized
as severe problems for human sustainability (Lal, 1998). However, estimation
of soil erosion loss is often difficult due to the complex interplay of many factors,
such as climate, land cover, soil, topography, and human activities. In addition to
the biophysical parameters, social, economic, and political components also
influence soil erosion (Ananda and Herath, 2003). Accurate and timely estimation
of soil erosion loss or evaluation of soil erosion risk has become an urgent task
(Lu et al., 2004).
Geoinformatics application in agroforestry research
The ever increasing population pressure has asignificantly influenced land
degradation, ecosystem resilience and sustainable soil and water use, which
have substantial social and economic impacts. This led to the need to consistent
monitoring of land surface dynamics in spatio-temporal framework within the
context of sustainable land use. The satellite remote sensing provides cost-
effective and feasible means of acquiring the necessary information about the
environment condition within the spatial and temporal scales (Foody, 2003) and
plays a major role in the provision of environmental indicators that may inform
sustainable development and associated decision-making (Schultink 1992; Rao
2001; Chen, 2002). Although agroforestry, like most natural-resource
management sciences, is characterized by high complexity of which we have
limited understanding and data (Sanchez 1995; Nair 1998), the science and
application of agroforestry can be greatly enhanced through the use of
geoinformatics technology. The potential of remote sensing provides information
pertaining tospatial extent of agroforestry, tree species diversity in agricultural
land, land cover heterogeneity at the scale of landscape (Gould 2000; Kerr et
al., 2001; Oindo and Skidmore, 2002). A geospatial analysis of remote sensing
derived datasets offer the relationship of tree cover, population density and
climatic conditions within agricultural land. The multi-spectral and multi-spatial
resolution satellite data enables in mapping and monitoring of local to global
scale agroforestry methods and practices (Zomer et al., 2009). Thespatio-
temporal monitoring of agroforestry regions estimates above-ground carbon
capture (Lu et al., 2002; Samaniego et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2011). Soil
erosion estimation is being done with reasonable costs and better accuracy in
larger areas (Millward and Mersey, 1999; Wang et al., 2003). The high resolution
satellite images aid in assessment of trees species, diversity and quantification
at parcel level,whereas the moderate resolution and high temporal resolution
satellite offer near real time crop condition status at regional level and thus

66 Climate Change and Agroforestry
contribute in effective planning and implementations of agroforestry regime
(Jeyaseelan and Kumar 2008; Arockraj et al., 2015). Using various spatial
thematic layers like soil type, slope, land use/ land cover, groundwater potential,
geomorphology in geospatial environment,suitable optimal locations for
agroforestry practices can be identifiedto address community issues, such as
water quality and wildlife habitat (Bentrup and Kellerman, 2003). Theaspects
of precision farming, tree and crop diversity, measures to arrest soil erosion can
easily be determined using geoinformatics techniques and effective ground based
implementation. However, a larger scale perspective and a multi-scale planning
process is often required for community-driven goals to improve agroforestry
practices (Rietveld and Francis, 2000).
Conclusion
Agroforestry has a high employment-generation potential in India. It offers
opportunities for the improvement of the livelihood of poor people through
provision of economic and environmental security. Non-timber forest products
have been recognized as important resources for both sustainable livelihood
and ecosystem conservation purposes. Rural communities have promoted
conservation of biodiversity in their subsistence agricultural production systems
and they are not only depend on wild plants as sources of food, medicine and
fodder, but also developed methods of resource management, which may be
important for the conservation of some of the world’s important species.
Agroforestry offers the potential to develop synergies between efforts to mitigate
climate change, conserving rare plant species and to help vulnerable populations
to adapt against the negative consequences of climate change. The
geoinformatics technology offered an efficient opportunity in assessment of
various aspects of agroforestry and contribute in policy making for sustainable
development. We recommend following for future research:
1. Traditionalagroforestry practices support species richnessand provides
evidence as biodiversityreservoirs which merit more research and
development attention.
2. Optimum densities of plants to be maintained on agroforestry systems
according to the farmers’ socioeconomic conditions and the relative
importance of plants in farmer livelihoods.
3. In agroforestry systems, care should be taken to avoid a monoculture in
order to assure additional level of stability and resilience and minimize the
chance of pest and disease outbreak.
4. In agroforestry systems management of more numbers of rare endangered
plants with economic benefits may improve ecological structure of

Agroforestry: A Sustainable Land use System 67
agroforestry systems and ultimately, strengthen the conservation of the
rare endangered species.
5. It is essential that research efforts using geoinformatics technology on
these important cropping systems are intensiûed, so that future scaling-
up of agroforestry can be rooted in robust scientiûc ûndings.
References
Acharya KP (2006). Linking trees on farms with biodiversity conservation in subsistence
farming systems in Nepal. Biodivers Conserv 15:631–646.
Ananda J, Herath G (2003). Soil erosion in developing countries: a socio-economic appraisal.
Journal of Environmental Management 68:343–353.
Arockraj S, Kumar A, Hoda N, Jeyaseelan AT (2015). Quantification and identification of tree
species in open mixed forests using high resolution QuickBird satellite imagery. Journal
ofTropical Forestry and Environment 5(2):40-53.
Atta-Krah K, Kindt R, Skilton JN, Amaral W (2004) Managing biological and genetic diversity
in tropical agroforestry. Agroforest Syst 61:183–194.
Bentrup G, Kellerman T (2003). Agroforestry and GIS: achieving land productivity and
environmental protection. In: Proc. of the 8th North American Agroforestry Conference.
Corvallis, OR. pp. 15-25.
Boffa JM (1999). Agroforestry parklands in sub-Saharan Africa. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
Chapin FE, Zavaleta V, Eviner R, Naylor RL, Vitousek PM, Reynolds HL, Hooper DU, Lavorel
S, Sala OE, Hobbie SE, Mack MC, Díaz S (2000). Consequences of changing
biodiversity. Nature 405(6783):234-242.
Chen XW (2002). Using remote sensing and GIS to analyse land cover change and its impacts on
regional sustainable development. International Journal of Remote Sensing 23:107–124.
Deb S, Tangjang S, Arunachalam A, Arunachalam K (2005). Role of litter, ûne roots and microbial
biomass in soil C and N budget in traditionally managed agroforestry systems. In: Bhatt
BP, Bujarbaruah KM (eds.), Agroforestry in Northeast India: Opportunities and
Challenges. ICAR Research Complex for NEH region, Umiam, pp. 491–506.
Dhyani SK, Handa AK (2014) Agroforestry in India and its Potential for Ecosystem Services.
In: Dagar JC, Singh AK and Arunachalam A (eds), Agroforestry Systemsin India:
Livelihood Security & Ecosystem Services. Advances in Agroforestry 10:345-365.
Dhyani SK, Sharda V, Sharma AR (2005). Agroforestry for sustainable management of soil,
water and environmental quality: Looking back to think ahead. Range Management and
Agroforestry 26(1):71-83.
Dhyani SK, Sharda VN, Sharma AR (2003). Agroforestry for water resources conservation:
issues, challenges and strategies. In: Pathak PS, Ram N (eds) Agroforestry: Potentials
and Opportunities.Jodhpur, India.
Dwivedi MK (2001). Apiculture in Bihar and Jharkhand: A study of costs and margins.
Agricultural Marketing 44(1):12-14.
Ellis EA, Bentrup G, Schoeneberger MM (2004). Computer-based tools for decision support in
agroforestry: Current state and future needs. Agroforestry Systems 61:401–421.
Foody GM (2003). Remote sensing of tropical forest environments: towards the monitoring of
environmental resources for sustainable development. Int J Remote Sensing 24(20):4035–
4046.
Gould W (2000). Remote sensing of vegetation, plant species richness, and regional biodiversity
hotspots. Ecological Applications 10:1861–1870.

68 Climate Change and Agroforestry
Grewal SS, Aborl IP (1986). Agroforestry on alkali soils: effect of some management practices
on soil initial growth, biomass accumulation and chemical composition of selected tree
species. Agrofor Syst 4:221–232.
Griffiths GH, Lee J, Eversham BC (2000). Landscape pattern and species richness: regional
scale analysis from remote sensing. International Journal of Remote Sensing 21:2685–
2704.
Guikema S, Milke M (1999). Quantitative decision tools for conservation programme planning:
practice, theory and potential. Environmental Conservation 26:179–189.
Handa AK, Toky OP, Dhyani SK, Chavan SB (2016). Innovative agroforestry for livelihood
security in India. World Agriculture 7-16.
Hansen S, Maechlum JE, Bakken LR (1993). N2O and CH4 ûuxes in soils inûuenced by
fertilization andtractor trafûc. Soil Biol Biochem 25:621-630.
Innes JL, Koch B (1998). Forest biodiversity and its assessment by remote sensing. Global
Ecology and Biogeography 7:397–419.
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2000). IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land
Use Change and Forestry. Summary for Policy Makers. Geneva, Switzerland.
Jain MC, Kumar K, Wassmann R, Mitra S, Singh SD, Singh JP, Singh R, Yadav AK, Gupta S
(2000). Methane emissions from irrigated rice ûelds in Northern India (New Delhi).
Nutr Cycl Agroecosys 58:75–83.
Jaiswal AK, Sharma KK, Kumar KK, Bhattacharya A (2002). Household’s survey for assessing
utilisation of conventional lac host trees for lac cultivation. New Agriculturist 13:13-17.
Jensen M (1993) Soil conditions, vegetation structure and biomass of a Javanese homegarden.
Agrofor Syst 24:171-186.
Jeyaseelan AT, Kumar A (2008). Jharkhand Agricultural Information System - Satellite (IRS P6-
AWiFS) based Crop Condition Monitoring during June, July, August, September and
October 2008. Technical Project Report, JSAC-JAIS-2008/1-5, JSAC, Ranchi, Jharkhand,
India.
Kaimowitz D (2003). Forest Law Enforcement and Rural Livelihoods. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.
Kerr JT, Southwood TRE, Cihlar J (2001) Remotely sensed habitat diversity predicts butterfly
species richness and community similarity in Canada. In: Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (USA) 98:11365–11370.
Lal R (1998). Soil erosion impact on agronomic productivity and environment quality: critical
reviews. Plant Sciences 17:319–464.
Leakey RRB, Tchoundjeu Z (2001). Diversiûcation of tree crops: domestication of companion
crops for poverty reduction and environmental services. Exp Agric 37:279–296.
Lindner M, Maroschek M, Netherer S, Kremer A, Barbati A, Garcia-Gonzaloa J, Seidl R,
Delzond S, Corona P, Kolström M, Lexer MJ, Marchetti M (2010). Climate change
impacts, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability of European forest ecosystems. Forest
Ecology and Management, 259(4):698–709.
Lu D, Li G, Valladares GS, Batistella M (2004). Mapping soil erosion risk in rondo nia,
brazilianamazonia: Using RUSLE, remote sensing and GIS. Land degradation &
development 15:499–512.
Lu D, Mausel P, Brondizio E, Moran E (2002). Assessment of atmospheric correction methods
for Landsat TM data applicable to Amazon basin LBA research. Int J Remote Sens
23:2651–2671.
Luedeling E, Sileshi G, Beedy TD, Dietz J (2011). Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry
systems in Africa. In: Kumar BM and Nair PKR (eds) Carbon Sequestration Potential of
Agroforestry Systems: Opportunities and Challenges.Advances in Agroforestry 8:61-
83.

Agroforestry: A Sustainable Land use System 69
Maathai W (2012). Agroforestry, Climate Change and Habitat Protection. Agroforestry - The
Future of Global Land Use. Advances in Agroforestry 9:3-6.
McNeely JA, Schroth G (2006). Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation—traditional
practices, present dynamics, and lessons for the future. Biodivers Conserv 15:549–554.
Mercer DE, Miller RP (1998). Socioeconomic research in agroforestry: progress, prospects,
priorities. Agroforestry Systems 38:177-193.
Millward AA, Mersey JE (1999). Adapting the RUSLE to model soil erosion potential in a
mountainous tropical watershed. Catena 38:109-129.
Mosier AR, Delgado JA (1997). Methane and nitrous oxide ûuxes in grasslands in western
Puerto Rico.Chemosphere 35:2059–2082.
Nair PKR (1998) Directions in tropical agroforestry research: past, present and future. Agroforest
Syst38:223–245.
Negandra H (2001). Using remote sensing to assess biodiversity. International Journal of Remote
Sensing 22:237–240.
Newaj R, Dhyani SK (2008). Agroforestry for carbon sequestration: Scope and present status.
Indian Journal of Agroforestry 10:1-9.
Oerke C, Dehne HW, Schoenbeck F, Weber A (1994). Crop production and crop protection:
estimated losses in major food and cash crops. Elesvier, Amserdam, pp. 830.
Office of Environmental Policy and Planning (OEPP) (2000). Thailand’s national greenhouse
gas inventory 1994. Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Bangkok.
Ogawa H, Yoda K, Ogini K, Kira T (1965). Comparative ecological study on three main type of
forest vegetation in Thailand. Nature and Life in Southeast Asia 4:49-80.
Oindo BO, Skidmore AK (2002). Inter-annual variability of NDVI and species richness in
Kenya. International Journal of Remote Sensing 23:285-298.
Palm CA, Alegre JC, Arevalo L, Mutuo PK, Mosier AR, Coe R (2002). Nitrous oxide and
methane ûuxes insix different land use systems. Global Biogeochem Cycles 16:1073.
Rao DP (2001). A remote sensing-based integrated approach for sustainable development of
land water resources. IEEE Transactions on Systems Man and Cybernetics 31:207-215.
Rietveld WJ (1995). Agroforestry: a maverick science and practice. In: Rietveld WJ (ed)
Proceedings of Agroforestry and Sustainable Systems Symposium. Fort Collins, CO.
General Technical Report RM-GTR-261. USDA, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Rietveld WJ, Francis CA (2000). The future of agroforestry in the USA. In: Garrett HE,
Rietveld WJ and Fisher RF (eds) North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science
and Practice. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, pp. 387-402.
Saikia P, Choudhury BI, Khan ML (2012). Floristic composition and plant utilization pattern
in homegardens of Upper Assam, India. Tropical Ecology 53(1):105-118.
Saikia P, Khan ML (2014). Homegardens of upper Assam, northeast India: a typical example of
on farm conservation of Agarwood (Aquilariamalaccensis Lam.). International Journal
of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services and Management10(4):262-269.
Samaniego L, Schulz K (2009). Supervised classification of agricultural land cover using a
modified k-NN technique (MNN) and Landsat remote sensing imagery. Remote Sens1:
875–895.
Sanchez PA (1995). Science in agroforestry. Agroforest Syst 30:5–55.
Schultink G (1992). Integrated remote-sensing, spatial information-systems, and applied models
in resource assessment, economic-development, and policy analysis. Photogrammetric
Engineering and Remote Sensing 58:1229–1237.
Senpaseuth P, Navanugraha C, Pattanakiat S (2009). The Estimation of carbon storage in dry
evergreen and dry dipterocarp forests in Sang Khom District, Nong Khai Province,
Thailand. Environment and Natural Resources Journal 7(2):1-11.

70 Climate Change and Agroforestry
Singh MP, Dayal N, Singh BS (1994). Importance of genetic conservation of tasar host plants
in agroforestry programme in Chhotanagpur region of Bihar. Journal of Palynology
30:157-163.
Slocum MG, Horvitz CC (2000). Seed arrival under different genera of trees in a neotropical
pasture. Plant Ecol 149:51–62.
Smith P, Olesen JE (2010). Synergies between the mitigation of, and adaptation to, climate
change in agriculture. J Agric Sci 148:543-552.
Steudler PA, Bowden RD, Mellilo JM, Aber JD (1989). Influence of nitrogen fertilization on
methane uptakein temperate forest soils. Nature 341:314–316.
Swaminathan MS (1983). Genetic conservation: microbesto man. Presidential address to the
15thInternational Congress on Genetics. In: Genetics: new frontiers,Vol. 1. Oxford &
IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi,India.
Tewari JC, Ram M, Roy MM, Dagar JC (2013). Livelihood improvements and climate change
adaptations through agroforestry in hot arid environments. In: Dagar JC, Singh AK,
Arunachalam A (eds) Agroforestry Systems in India: Livelihood Security and Ecosystem
Services, Advances in Agroforestry. Springer New Delhi, India, Volume 10, pp.155-183.
Thangataa PH, Hildebrand PE (2012). Carbon stock and sequestration potential of agroforestry
systems in smallholder agroecosystems of sub-Saharan Africa: mechanisms for ‘reducing
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation’ (REDD+). Agric Ecosyst Environ
158: 172-183.
Verchot LV, Noordwijk MV, Kandji S, Tomich T, Ong C, Albrecht A, Mackensen J, Bantilan C,
Anupama KV, Palm C (2007). Climate change: linking adaptation and mitigation through
agroforestry. Mitigation Adaptation Strategies Global Change 12:901-918.
Wang G, Gertner G, Fang S, Anderson AB (2003). Mapping multiple variables for predicting
soil loss by geostatistical methods with TM images and a slope map. Photogrammetric
Engineering and Remote Sensing 69:889–898.
Wang G, Zhang M, Gertner GZ, Oyana T, McRoberts RE, Ge H (2011). Uncertainties of
mapping aboveground forest carbon due to plot locations using national forest inventory
plot and remotely sensed data. Scand J For Res 26:360–373.
Wassmann R, Lantin RS, Neue HU (2000). Methane emissions from major rice ecosystems in
Asia. Nutr Cycl Agroecosys 58:1–398.
Zomer RJ, Trabucco A, Coe R, Place F (2009). Trees on farm: analysis of global extent and
geographical patterns of agroforestry. ICRAF Working Paper - World Agroforestry
Centre No. 89, pp. 63.
Zoysa MD, Inoue M (2014). Climate Change Impacts, Agroforestry Adaptation and Policy
Environment in Sri Lanka. Open Journal of Forestry 4(5): 439-456.