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Secure Sensitive Data Sharing Using RSA and ElGamal Cryptographic Algorithms with Hash Functions

Authors:
Emmanuel Adeniyi at Bowen University
Emmanuel Adeniyi
Peace Falola at University of Ibadan
Peace Falola
Mashael Maashi at King Saud University
Mashael Maashi
Mohammed Aljebreen at Rochester Institute of Technology
Mohammed Aljebreen
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With the explosion of connected devices linked to one another, the amount of transmitted data grows day by day, posing new problems in terms of information security, such as unauthorized access to users’ credentials and sensitive information. Therefore, this study employed RSA and ElGamal cryptographic algorithms with the application of SHA-256 for digital signature formulation to enhance security and validate the sharing of sensitive information. Security is increasingly becoming a complex task to achieve. The goal of this study is to be able to authenticate shared data with the application of the SHA-256 function to the cryptographic algorithms. The methodology employed involved the use of C# programming language for the implementation of the RSA and ElGamal cryptographic algorithms using the SHA-256 hash function for digital signature. The experimental result shows that the RSA algorithm performs better than the ElGamal during the encryption and signature verification processes, while ElGamal performs better than RSA during the decryption and signature generation process.
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Information2022,13,442.https://doi.org/10.3390/info13100442www.mdpi.com/journal/information
Article
SecureSensitiveDataSharingUsingRSAandElGamal
CryptographicAlgorithmswithHashFunctions
EmmanuelA.Adeniyi
1
,PeaceBusolaFalola
1,
MashaelS.Maashi
2
,MohammedAljebreen
3
andSalilBharany
4,
*
1
DepartmentofComputerSciences,PreciousCornerstoneUniversity,Ibadan200223,Nigeria
2
SoftwareEngineeringDepartment,CollegeofComputerandInformationSciences,KingSaudUniversity,
Riyadh11451,SaudiArabia
3
DepartmentofComputerScience,CommunityCollege,KingSaudUniversity,P.O.Box28095,
Riyadh11437,SaudiArabia
4
DepartmentofComputerEngineering&Technology,GuruNanakDevUniversity,Punjab143005,India
*Correspondence:salil.bharany@gmail.com
Abstract:Withtheexplosionofconnecteddeviceslinkedtooneanother,theamountoftransmitted
datagrowsdaybyday,posingnewproblemsintermsofinformationsecurity,suchasunauthorized
accesstousers’credentialsandsensitiveinformation.Therefore,thisstudyemployedRSAandEl‐
GamalcryptographicalgorithmswiththeapplicationofSHA‐256fordigitalsignatureformulation
toenhancesecurityandvalidatethesharingofsensitiveinformation.Securityisincreasinglybe‐
comingacomplextasktoachieve.Thegoalofthisstudyistobeabletoauthenticateshareddata
withtheapplicationoftheSHA‐256functiontothecryptographicalgorithms.Themethodology
employedinvolvedtheuseofC#programminglanguagefortheimplementationoftheRSAand
ElGamalcryptographicalgorithmsusingtheSHA‐256hashfunctionfordigitalsignature.Theex‐
perimentalresultshowsthattheRSAalgorithmperformsbetterthantheElGamalduringtheen‐
cryptionandsignatureverificationprocesses,whileElGamalperformsbetterthanRSAduringthe
decryptionandsignaturegenerationprocess.
Keywords:datasharing;cryptographicalgorithm;RSAandElGamal;communication;digital
signature
1.Introduction
Withtherapiddevelopmentofinformationdigitization,securityandprivacycon‐
cernsareamongthemostpressingproblemsconfrontingtheemergingsmartgrid[1].
Theseissuesinclude,amongmanyothers,alackofsharedauthenticationacrosscom‐
municatingparties,thepossibilityofmultiplecyber‐attacks,illegitimateaccesstoser‐
vices,andthedisclosureofcomputerandnetworkconfidentialinformationtotheinter‐
actingparty.Beforegrantinganyindividualaccesstoanetworkanditsassociatedser‐
vices,itisnecessarytovalidatetheindividual,whichmaybeacomputeroraperson,and
thenvalidatethepermissionandcontrolpoliciesbasedontheindividual’sidentification.
Adigitalsignaturevalidatestheuser’sidentity,whereasauthorizationvalidateswhether
thepersonhasthenecessaryauthoritytoaccessthesharedresource[2].
Encryptionisalwaysrequiredfordatatransmissionandcommunication[3].Infor‐
mationsecurityutilizingencryptionanddecryptioniscrucialsincedatatransmissionand
receptionaresusceptibletooutsideassault.Toincreasesecurity,dataaretransformed
intoacodedmessage(encryption)andthenrecoveredintodata(decryption)[4].Tooffer
securetransmissionofdataandinformation,severalcryptographicalgorithmshavebeen
proposed,whichcanbeclassifiedassymmetricandasymmetriccryptographictechniques
[5].Figure1displaystheprocesstheplaintextpassedthroughbeforeturningintocipher‐
textandthenbackintoplaintext.Theplaintextpassesthroughtheencryptionprocessto
Citation:Adeniyi,E.;Falola,P.B.;
Maashi,M.S.;Aljebreen,M.;
Bharany,S.SecureSensitiveData
SharingUsingRSAandElGamal
CryptographicAlgorithmswith
HashFunctions.Information2022,13,
442.https://doi.org/10.3390/
info13100442
AcademicEditor:MaanakGupta
Received:24July2022
Accepted:16September2022
Published:20September2022
Publisher’sNote:MDPIstaysneu‐
tralwithregardtojurisdictional
claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitu‐
tionalaffiliations.
Copyright:©2022bytheauthors.Li‐
censeeMDPI,Basel,Switzerland.
Thisarticleisanopenaccessarticle
distributedunderthetermsandcon‐
ditionsoftheCreativeCommonsAt‐
tribution(CCBY)license(https://cre‐
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Information2022,13,4422of15
produceaciphertext,whiletheciphertextpassesthroughthedecryptionprocesstopro‐
ducetheplaintext.
Figure1.Abasicillustrationoftheencryptionanddecryptionprocess.
Adigitalsignatureisamessage’sauthenticityandlegalitygeneratedviaacrypto‐
graphicprocess(acontrasttoadigitalcertificate),device,orelectronicrecord[6].Adigital
signatureisadigitalequivalenttoasignedsignatureorengravedseal,butithasmuch
moreessentialprotection.Itismeanttoaddresstheissueofinterferenceandspoofingin
communicationsnetworks.Digitalsignaturescanprovideadditionalguaranteesabout
thesource,presence,andpositionofanelectronicdocument,activity,orcommunication,
aswellasacknowledgethesigner’spermission.Digitalsignaturesareasegmentofdigital
signaturetechnologiesthatsigndocumentsusingkeysandencryptionalgorithms[7].The
digitallysignedalgorithmschemeisoneofthemostwell‐knowndigitalsignaturesys‐
tems,e.g.,theRSAdigitalsigningscheme,theElGamaldigitalsigningscheme,andmany
othersbasedonpublickeycryptosystems.Thisstudy,therefore,aimsatimplementing
theRSAandElGamalcryptographicalgorithmsusingthehashfunctiontoensuredata
securitywithintegrity.Inaddition,thisstudyattemptstoestablishthedataintegrityof
RSAandElGamalcryptographicproceduresthatusethecreationandvalidationofsig‐
natures.Thisstudywillbebeneficialforcontrollingcryptographicoperationsusingthe
sender’sandreceiver’sprivateandpublickeys.
Thisstudyconsistsoffoursections.Wefirstdescribetheliteraturereviews.Thema‐
terialsandmethodsusedaredescribedinSection2.Sections3and4presenttheresults
anddiscussion.Section5concludesthestudy.
ReviewofLiterature
Zhangetal.[8]demonstratedanimprovedschemeusingamodernmainagreement
protocolovertheChangandChang[9]system,whichdoesnotuseaone‐wayhashing
algorithmorreplicationpadding.Digitalsignaturesystemsdependentonpublic‐key
cryptosystemsaresusceptibletoexistentialidentityfraudattacks,whichcanbeavoided
byusingaone‐wayhashfeature.Theauthorsofthispapersuggestafraudulentassault
onthedigitalsignaturesystemproposedbyChangandChangin2004.
Burr[10]studiedthepossibilitiesofcryptographichashfunctionsinhisarticle.He
emphasizedthatthecryptographytoolsincludetheSHA‐1andSHA‐2functions.Apart
fromDobbertin’sworkaftertheMD5near‐breakin1996,hashfunctionassessmentsaw
littledevelopmentuntilthemiddleof2004.Sincethen,someacademicshavefocusedon
almostalloftheoriginalhashfunctions,includingSHA‐1.Theseattacksshookcryptog‐
raphers’long‐termfaithinalmostallhashfunctionsbecauseSHA‐2functionsare,even
untilnow,relatedtotheearlierbrokenfunctionsbuilt.Althoughcryptologistshavedis‐
coveredalotoverthepastfewyearsconcerninghashfunctionsandhowtoattackthem,
cryptanalystswidelyconcludedthatrealisticthreatstoSHA‐2hashfunctionsremainim‐
possibleinthenextdecades.
Acharyaetal.[11],intheirpaper,discussedandanalyzedsomewell‐knowncrypto‐
graphicalgorithmstoshowthefundamentalvariationsbetweencurrentdataencryption
methods.Despitethecomputationalphilosophybehindsuchanalgorithm,theeffective
techniquesarewellknownandwelldocumentedsincetheyhavebeenthoroughlyre‐
viewedandanalyzed.Theynotedthatthepowerofcryptographyisinthekeyselection;
longerkeysresistassaultmoreeasilythanshorterkeys.Nobodycanguaranteecomplete
defense.
Information2022,13,4423of15
SalehandMeinel’s[12]HPISecureisasuggestedHTTPclientthatisinchargeof
encryptingordecryptinginformation.Itmustbemountedontheclient’scomputer.Italso
transmitsHTTPrequest/responseitemsandencryptsdatabeforesendingittothenet‐
workordecryptstheinformationsentbackfromthenetwork.Theywereinfavorofusing
public‐keyencryption.Besidesthat,tomakeitharderforunauthorizeduserstouseacol‐
lectionofsecretkeys,eachrecordcanbeencodedwithadifferentkey.Ontheotherhand,
theyrecommendusingacoordinatorforkeymanagement,whichmaybeathird‐party
cloudserviceoraUSBthatstoresthecredentialsandassociatedmaterial[13,14].Con‐
versely,oneofthedrawbacksofthisresearchisthattheclientmustinstalltheprogram
oneachcomputerwhereitwillbeused.Theyalsorestrictedinformationsharingandco‐
ordinationamonggroupsofindividuals.
Hwangetal.[15]suggestedacloudinfrastructurebusinessstrategybuiltontheprin‐
cipleofhavingtwoindependentserviceproviders,oneforcryptographyandanotherfor
processing.Thedatabasesystemretainsencodeduserinformationandkeyswhilethe
cryptographicservicemodelrequirescipheringactivitiesandthenerasestheinformation.
Thekeyideabehindtheirstrategyistodividetheprocedureamongmultipleservicepro‐
viderstoreducetheoperatingcostofrevealinguserinformation.Thereisnocertainty,
though,thatthecryptographicservicesystemfullyerasestheinformationanddoesnot
preserveoruseit.Moreover,Chandraetal.’s[16]Silverlineisatechniquethathasbeen
implementedtofacilitateimproveddataprotectioninthecloud.Unlikethepreceding
methods,theseauthorsconcentratedondataandcomputation‐intensivesoftware.Their
primaryaimwastoencryptasmuchusefulinformationaspossiblewithoutinterfering
withtheapplication’sfeatures.Asaresult,althoughthecloudprogramcannotcompute
anydataitcannotcontrolinplaintext,theyproposeddecodingonlytheinformationthat
isnotusedinthecomputation.
Haqueetal.’s[17]studyprovidedacomprehensiveperformanceanalysisinwhich
commonsymmetricalandasymmetricalkeyencryptionmethodswerecomparedto
choosetheonethatworkedbestforhandheldphonesandresource‐constrainedenviron‐
ments.Variousfactors,includingkeysize,datablocks,datatype,andCPUtime,were
usedtocomparetheAES,RC4,Blowfish,CAST,3DES,Twofish,DSA,andElGamalalgo‐
rithms.Theexperimentsshowtheutilityofseveralcryptographicalgorithmsforusein
practicalapplicationsinwhichquickexecutionandlittlememoryusageareessential.
Dijeshetal.[18]workedonanasymmetrickeyschemeforenhancinge‐commerce
protection.Thestudyexplainsasymmetricaltechniquestomakeuseofelectroniccom‐
mercepaymentsandothersupportivecryptographictechniquesthatarecrucialtothe
operationofelectronicbusiness.Thepaperalsooutlinesthemainsecurityissueswith
onlineshopping.Basedonsecurity,theRSAencryptionalgorithmandtheFernetcipher
encryptionalgorithmwereproposedasmultilayerencryptionalgorithms.Acomprehen‐
siveandintricatetechniqueforencryptionwasbuiltusingamultilayerencryption
method.Thestudyconcludedthattheproposedmultilayerencryptiondiscussedwasthe
mainmethodformakingonlinetransactionssecure.Amoreadvancedencryptiontech‐
niquecanquicklyandefficientlyreducefraudulentoperations.
HamzaandAl‐Alak[19]analyzedseveralasymmetrickeygeneratorsinwirelesssen‐
sornetworks.Althoughtheasymmetrickeyencryptionalgorithmprovidesahigherlevel
ofsecuritythansymmetrickeyencryption,itrequiresmoresensorsthansymmetrickey
encryption.Thetwelvealgorithmtrials’chainkeysweregeneratedusingtheKCMA
method(ECC,RSA,ElGamal).ThesechainswerethencombinedusingtheSHA‐2and
XORhashingalgorithms.Thediehardtestwasusedinallteststoassessthesecretkey’s
unpredictabilityanddemonstrateitsincreasedsecurity.WhencomparedtoXOR,SHA‐2
performedthebest.Table1givesasummaryofalltheliteraturereviewedwiththeresults
theyachieved.
Information2022,13,4424of15
Table1.Summaryofliterature.
S/NAuthorMethodsResultLimitations
1Zhangetal.[8]Digitalsignaturealgorithm
Theauthorsproposed
DSAtomitigatefraudu‐
lentassault.
Onlydigitalsignature
wasused.
2Burr[10]SHA‐1andSHA‐2
Thestudyconcludedthat
realisticthreatstoSHA‐2
hashfunctionsremain
impossibleinthenext
decades.
Thestudyonlyprotects
theintegrityofdatabut
doesnotproperlysecure
thedata.
3Acharyaetal.[11]Analyzedsomewell‐knowncryp‐
tographicalgorithms
Thestudynotedthatthe
powerofcryptographyis
inthekeyselection.
Thestudylacksaproper
waytoensurecomplete
datasecurity.
4SalehandMeinel
[12]
HPISecurewasusedtosecurethe
HTTPclient.
Thestudyrecommends
usingacoordinatorfor
keymanagement.
Thedrawbackofthisre‐
searchisthattheclient
mustinstalltheprogram
oneachcomputerwhere
itwillbeused.
5Haqueetal.[17]AES,RC4,Blowfish,CAST,3DES,
Twofish,DSA,andElGamal
Theeffectivenessofanal‐
gorithmdependsonexe‐
cutiontimeandlower
memoryusagerequire‐
ment.
Thestudyonlycompares
thecomputationaltimeof
theselectedalgorithms.
6Dijeshetal.[18]
Multilayerencryptionalgorithm
RSAandFernetcipherencryption
algorithms
Themethodusedtode‐
creasefraudulentactivi‐
tieseasilyandeffectively
overtheinternet.
Thestudyrecommendsa
moreefficientalgorithm
tosecureonlinetransac‐
tions.
7HamzaandAl‐Alak
[19]
KCMAforkeygeneration(ECC,
RSA,ElGamal)withSHA‐1and
SHA‐2
SHA‐2wasthebestas
comparedwithXOR.
Thestudyonlycompares
thekeygenerationofen‐
cryptionalgorithmswith
thehashingfunction.
Fromthesummaryofpiecesofliteratureshowingvariouslimitationsofthereviewed
work,itisexpedienttoprofferasolutionthatwillenhancethesecurityofdataaswellas
increasetheintegrityofthemessage.Therefore,thisstudyembracedtheuseofRSAand
ElGamalalgorithmswithSHA‐256toenhancetheintegrityofdata.
2.MaterialsandMethods
Thisstudyusesasymmetriccryptography(theRSAandElGamal)andtheSHA‐256
hashfunctionforboththeencryptionandsharingofsensitiveinformationandusinga
digitallysignedsystem;securityfeaturesincludingmessageauthentication,datainteg‐
rity,non‐repudiation,andconfidentialityarealsoprovided.Foranyspecifiedciphertext
regardlessoflength,theSHA‐256hashtechniqueisemployedtoproduceafixed,singular
value(referredtoasamessagedigest).Itisthismessagedigestthatissubsequentlyen‐
crypted/signedtoproducethesignaturesforthemessage.Thesystemflowdiagramof
thesystemisdisplayedinFigure2,whichdisplaystheflowofinformationfromuserA
touserB.
Information2022,13,4425of15
Figure2.Systemflowdiagram.
Thesystemisdevelopedinsuchawaythattherecipientalsorecomputesthedigital
signaturetoensureitsintegrityafterthesenderproducesitusingSHA‐256.Theauthen‐
ticityofthecontentisdeterminedifthetwosignaturesfromtheoriginatorandtherecip‐
ientareequal;ifnot,thedatahavebeenchangedduringtransitortransmission.
2.1.TheRSAAlgorithm
TheRSA’sreliabilityisdependentonhowchallengingitistofactorhugeprimenum‐
bers.TheencryptionanddecryptionstagesoftheRSAalgorithminvolvemodularexpo‐
nentiation.
2.1.1.KeyGeneration
i. Randomlychoosetwohuge,uniqueprimespandq.
ii. Computethemodulusn,n=p*qandthephifunctionØ(n)=(p−1)*(q−1).
iii. Choosearandomintegere,suchthat0<e<Ø(n).
iv. Computed=eˉˡmodØ(n).
v. Theprivatekeyisgivenas(d,n)andthepublickeyas(e,n).
2.1.2.EncryptionandDecryption
GiventhemessagetobeMandthecipherC,
i. Encryptioniscarriedoutwiththeaidofthepublickey(e,n).
ii. C=Mᵉmodn.
iii. Thesecretkeyisusedfordecryption(d,n).
iv. M=Cmodn.
2.2.SigningandVerification
Thecommunicatormustcarryoutthefollowingtocreatethesignaturesfordocu‐
mentM:
i. Calculatethehashh=H(M)ofthemessageM.
ii. ThesignatureSisgivenasS=Hmodn.
Toverifythesignature,
i. CalculatethehashHofthemessageM.
ii. ComputeH’=Sᵉmodn.
iii. IfH==H’,thenthesignatureisvalid.
Anymodificationtothedocumentwouldprovideachangedhashcode,which
wouldnotcorrelatewiththesignature.
Information2022,13,4426of15
2.3.TheElGamalAlgorithm
Dr.TaherElgamaldevelopedtheElGamalalgorithm,whichisapublic‐keymethod
ofencryption.Itisbasedontheone‐wayfeature,whichensuresthatencryptionschemes
areperformedseparately[20–24].
2.3.1.KeyGeneration
i. Generatealargerandomprimenumber(p).
ii. Chooseageneratornumber(a).
iii. Chooseaninteger(x)lessthan(p‐2),asthesecretnumber.
iv. Compute(d),whered=axmodp.
v. Theprivatekeyisgivenas(x)andthepublickeyas(p,a,d).
2.3.2.EncryptionandDecryption
Representtheplaintextasanintegerm,where0<m<p‐1.
Encryptionisachievedusingthepublickey(p,a,d).
i. Chooseanintegerksuchthat1<k<p‐2.
ii. Computey,y=akmodp.
iii. Computez,z=(dk*m)modp.
iv. TheciphertextisgivenasC=(y,z).
Decryptionisachievedusingtheprivatekey(x).
i. ThereceiverobtainstheciphertextC=(y,z).
ii. Next,riscomputedasfollows:r=yp−1‐xmodp.
Theplaintextisrecoveredasfollows:m=(r*z)modp.
2.3.3.SignatureGeneration
ThisisaccomplishedfirstbygeneratingthehashmofthemessageM,withthepri‐
vatekeygivenas(x).
Thesignershouldthenperformthefollowing:
i. ChoosearandomintegerKwith1≤K≤(p‐1)andgcd(K,p‐1)=1.
ii. Computethetemporarykey:h=akmodp.
iii. ComputeK‐1theinverseofKmod(p‐1).
iv. Computethevalues=K−1(m‐xh)mod(p‐1).
v. Thesignatureis(h,s).
AnyotheruserwhoreceivesthemessageMandsignature(h,s)cancarryoutverifi‐
cationusingthepublickey(p,a,d)bycomputingthefollowing:
i. ThehashmforthemessageM;
ii. V1=ammodp;
iii. V2=dhhSmodp;
iv. ThesignatureisvalidifV1==V2.
2.4.TheSHA‐256HashFunction
SHA‐256(securehashalgorithm,FIPS182‐2)isacryptographichashfunctionthat
processesinputblocksof512bitswithadigestlengthof256bits.Itisakeylesshashfunc‐
tion.TheSHA‐256followsthesamemodelasSHA‐1andbeginsbydefiningseveralcon‐
stants[25–29].Severaloperatingsystemsfrequentlyusehashmethodstosecurepass‐
words.Figure3illustrateshowhashingassessesafile’sauthenticity.Figure4showsthe
hashingalgorithmsinvolvingroundsofthehashfunctionsuchasablockcipher[30–33].
Information2022,13,4427of15
Figure3.Abasicillustrationofthehashingprocess.
Figure4.Schematicillustrationofhashingalgorithms.
TheSHA‐256Algorithm
ThealgorithmfortheSHA‐256hashfunctionisgivenbelow:
1. Appendasinglebit,whosevalueissetto1,totheinputx.
2. Computethesmallestrsuchthat(b+r)mod512=448.Appendr‐1bits,whosevalues
aresetto0,totheresultofstep1.
3. Computethe64‐bitvaluebmod2^64andappendthisvaluetotheresultofstep2.
4. Thisyieldsastringoflengththatmustbeamultiple,m,of512bitsand,thus,maybe
representedas16*m32‐bitblocks.
3.Results
Theproposedsecuresensitivedatasharingsystempossessesthefollowingfeatures:
1. EncryptionoffilesusingRSAandElGamalalgorithms;
2. Signaturegenerationandverificationfortextfiles;
3. DecryptionofinformationusingtheRSAandElGamalalgorithms;
4. Generationofmessagedigestforinformation/data;
5. GUIinterfaceforeasyinteractionwiththesystem;
6. Auto‐generationofprivateandpublickeysforencryption,signing,anddecryption;
7. Provisionofinterfacefortheselectionoffilesordocumentstobesignedorencrypted.
SeeFigure5.
Figure5.Applicationhomepage.
Information2022,13,4428of15
Figure5displaystheinterfacethatprovidestheuserwithvariousfunctionalitiesto
encryptandsign,decryptandverify,orgenerateorverifythesignatureofafileafter
generatingorloadingtheappropriatekeysneeded.SeeFigure6.
Figure6.Encryptionandsignaturegenerationtosecuresensitiveinformation.
InFigure6,theuserinputstheirtexttobeencryptedandthenclicksonthe‘Encrypt
andsign’buttontogeneratetheciphertextanddigitalsignatureforthattextinput.Fig‐
ure7;Figure8illustratethedecryptionandsignatureverificationofthefileencrypted
withtheinstanceofFigure7returningavalidsignature,whilethatofFigure8returnsa
messagedialogforaninvalidsignature,whichprovesthateitherthesignaturedoesnot
correspondtothatfileorthefilehasbeenalteredinsomeway[34,35].
Figure7.Decryptionandsignatureverificationreturningavalidsignature.
Information2022,13,4429of15
Figure8.Decryptionandsignatureverificationreturninganinvalidsignature.
3.1.ResultAnalysis
TheRSAandtheElGamalalgorithmsweretestedusing2048‐bitkeys.Thetimetaken
fortheencryption,decryption,signaturegeneration,andverificationmodulesisgivenin
milliseconds.
3.1.1.Encryption
VariousfilesofdifferentsizeswereencryptedusingRSAandElGamalcryptographic
algorithms.Theencryptiontimeofbothalgorithmswasobtainedandplacedinatabular
form.SeeTable2.
Table2.DataanalysisforencryptionprocessforRSAandElGamalalgorithms.
S/NFileSize(Kb)RSAElGamal
EncryptionTime(ms)EncryptionTime(ms)
110953520
2152564340
3203126689
4254767311
5304997834
6355618372
7406069161
850109413
,
215
9100213619,359
10200422944,689
Figure9displaystheencryptiontimeoftheRSAandElGamalprocess,anditsshows
thattheElGamalalgorithmconsumesmoretimeduringdecryptionforvariousfilesizes.
Information2022,13,44210of15
Figure9.GraphicalrepresentationofRSAandElGamalencryptiontime.
3.1.2.Decryption
ThesamefilesizesencryptedinTable2weredecrypted,andtheirvariousdecryption
timesduringthedecryptionprocesswereobtainedandplacedinatabularform.SeeTable
3.
Table3.DataanalysisforthedecryptionprocessforRSAandElGamalalgorithms.
Size(Kb)RSAElGamal
DecryptionTime(ms)DecryptionTime(ms)
1103428637
2155207975
32078091233
42598321807
53012,6922645
63516
,
3253293
74018,5933990
85023
,
9864525
910035,4796829
1020042
,
7089968
Figure10displaysthegraphicalanalysisoftheRSAandElGamaldecryptionprocess
fordifferentfilesizes,andtheanalysisshowsthattheElGamalalgorithmconsumeslesser
timeduringthedecryptionoffilesizescomparedtotheRSAalgorithm.
Information2022,13,44211of15
Figure10.GraphicalanalysisofRSAandElGamaldecryptiontime(ms)
3.1.3.SignatureGeneration
ThetimetakenforbothRSAandElGamaltogenerateasignaturewascapturedand
recorded.Moreover,thetimetakenforRSAandElGamalwithoutSHA‐256wasobtained
andrecordedinatabularform.SeeTable4.
Table4.DataanalysisofsignaturegenerationprocessforRSAandElGamalalgorithms.
FileSize(Kb)
RSASignature
Generation
RSAwithout
SHA‐256
ElGamalSigna‐
tureGeneration
ElGamalwith‐
outSHA‐256
TimeTaken(ms)TimeTaken
(ms)TimeTaken(ms)TimeTaken
(ms)
1104852223136381
2154693405139602
3204844448145823
42549356831381057
53046469441471346
63547380731341871
74048692991362018
85049310,6011462667
910049618
,
8861313243
1020048123,9811364036
Figure11displaysthegraphicalanalysisofthesignaturegeneration.Itshowsthat
ElGamaloutperformsRSAinsignaturegeneration.
Information2022,13,44212of15
Figure11.GraphicalanalysisofRSAandElGamalsignaturegenerationprocess(ms).
3.1.4.SignatureVerification
RSA’sandElGamal’stimetakenforthesignatureverificationprocesswasobtained
andrecorded.ThetimetakenforbothalgorithmswithoutSHA‐256wasobtainedaswell
inmillisecondsanddisplayedintabularform.SeeTable5.
Table5.DataanalysisforsignatureverificationprocessforRSAandElGamalalgorithms.
FileSize
(KB)
RSASignature
Verification
TimeTaken
(ms)
RSAwithout
SHA‐256(ms)
ElGamalSignature
Verification(ms)
ElGamalwith‐
outSHA‐256
(ms)
1101563177827
21515661891281
32012691891630
42514761942057
53015771652718
63515821673152
74019871883770
85015981904234
9100211031795141
10200251221996089
Figure12displaysthegraphicalanalysisofRSAandElGamalsignatureverification.
TheanalysisshowsthatRSAperformsbetterthanElGamalinthesignatureverification
process.
Information2022,13,44213of15
Figure12.GraphicalanalysisofthesignatureverificationprocessofRSAandElGamalalgorithms.
4.Discussion
ThisstudyexaminedtheRSAandElGamalcryptographicalgorithmstoimprovein‐
formationsecurity.TheapplicationoftheSHA‐256hashfunctiontothedigitalsignatures
oftheRSAandElGamalasymmetriccryptographicalgorithmswasimplemented.From
thevariousexperimentalresultsdisplayedintablesandfigures,itcanbeseenthatthe
RSAalgorithmperformsbetterthantheElGamalduringtheencryptionandsignature
verificationprocesses,whileElGamalperformsbetterthanRSAduringthedecryption
andsignaturegenerationprocess.Therefore,itcanbededucedthateachofthealgorithms
performsbetterthantheotherinsomeprocesses;however,thereisnoobvioussuperiority
ofonecryptosystemovertheotherinalltheprocessesofencryption,decryption,signa‐
turegeneration,andsignatureverification.
FindingsandComparisonwithExistingWork
Theuseofcryptographichashfunctionsindigitalsignaturegenerationprovidesa
mechanismsuchthattheintegritycheckfeatureofthehashvalueguaranteesapartyof
theintegrityandoriginalityofadocumentordata;thefindinginthisstudycorroborates
thatofHamzaandAl‐Alak[19].Signingthehashvalueofdatawiththeuseofhashfunc‐
tions,insteadofsigningthedatadirectlyprovidesamoreefficientschemeforadigital
signaturebecausethehashofthedataisarelativelysmallervaluecomparedtotheorigi‐
naldata,inaccordancewithBurr[10].ThisfindinginthisstudymatchesthatofHaqueet
al.’s[17]study.However,Haqueetal.’s[17]studywasoutperformedbyimplementing
SHA‐256toachievedataintegrity.
5.Conclusions
Theneedforinformationsecurityinthispresenttimehasbecomenon‐negligiblein
oursocietyduetothedailyincreasingemergenceofcybercrimes,piracy,scam,andfraud
cases.Asithasbeennoticedthatsecurityandsafetyconcernsareamongthemostpressing
problemsconfrontingpotentialdistributeddata,thesendingandreceptionofdataare
consideredvulnerabletoexternalattacks.Therefore,dataprotectionthroughencryp‐
tion/decryptionisessential.Thisstudyexaminedtwoasymmetricalgorithms(RSAand
ElGamal)developedinimprovinginformationsecurityservices.Inaddition,theapplica‐
tionoftheSHA‐256hashfunctiontothedigitalsignaturesoftheRSAandElGamalcryp‐
tosystemswasimplementedtoestablishinformationintegrity.Thetechniqueensuresthe
protectionofthesecurityofusers’sensitivedataandatthesametimeprovidesuserswith
Information2022,13,44214of15
fullcontroloftheirdata.Variousbenefitsassociatedwiththisstudyandthecorrectness
oftheimplementedsystemsmakeitsuitableforanysecuresensitivedatasharingsystem.
Therefore,itisrecommendedthatfurtherimplementationsuchassecuresubmission,
storage,andextractionoperationsofthesensitivedatasharingsystemshouldbeimple‐
mentedforfullandmaximumprotectionofsensitivedata.
AuthorContributions:Conceptualization,E.A.A.,P.B.F.andS.B.;methodology,E.A.A.,P.B.F.and
S.B.;software,E.A.A.,P.B.F.andS.B.;validation,E.A.A.,P.B.F.andS.B.;formalanalysis,M.S.M.,
M.A.andS.B.;investigation,E.A.A.andP.B.F.;resources,M.S.M.,M.A.andS.B.,datacuration,S.B.;
writing—originaldraftpreparation,E.A.A.andS.B.;writing—reviewandediting,E.A.A.andS.B.;
visualization,E.A.A.andS.B.;supervision,M.S.M.,M.A.andS.B.;projectadministration,M.S.M.,
M.A.andS.B.Allauthorshavereadandagreedtothepublishedversionofthemanuscript.
Funding:ThisresearchwasfundedbytheResearchSupportingProject(numberRSP2022R459),
KingSaudUniversity,Riyadh,SaudiArabia.
InstitutionalReviewBoardStatement:Notapplicable.
InformedConsentStatement:Notapplicable.
DataAvailabilityStatement:Notapplicable.
Acknowledgments:ResearchSupportingProject(numberRSP2022R459),KingSaudUniversity,Ri‐
yadh,SaudiArabia.
ConflictsofInterest:Theauthorsdeclarenoconflictofinterest.
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Global warming is one of the most compelling environmental threats today, as the rise in energy consumption and CO2 emission caused a dreadful impact on our environment. The data centers, computing devices, network equipment, etc., consume vast amounts of energy that the thermal power plants mainly generate. Primarily fossil fuels like coal and oils are used for energy generation in these power plants that induce various environmental problems such as global warming ozone layer depletion, which can even become the cause of premature deaths of living beings. The recent research trend has shifted towards optimizing energy consumption and green fields since the world recognized the importance of these concepts. This paper aims to conduct a complete systematic mapping analysis on the impact of high energy consumption in cloud data centers and its effect on the environment. To answer the research questions identified in this paper, one hundred nineteen primary studies published until February 2022 were considered and further categorized. Some new developments in green cloud computing and the taxonomy of various energy efficiency techniques used in data centers have also been discussed. It includes techniques like VM Virtualization and Consolidation, Power-aware, Bio-inspired methods, Thermal-management techniques, and an effort to evaluate the cloud data center’s role in reducing energy consumption and CO2 footprints. Most of the researchers proposed software level techniques as with these techniques, massive infrastructures are not required as compared with hardware techniques, and it is less prone to failure and faults. Also, we disclose some dominant problems and provide suggestions for future enhancements in green computing.
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Energy Efficient Clustering Protocol for FANETS Using Moth Flame Optimization
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2022
FANET (flying ad-hoc networks) is currently a trending research topic. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have two significant challenges: short flight times and inefficient routing due to low battery power and high mobility. Due to these topological restrictions, FANETS routing is considered more complicated than MANETs or VANETs. Clustering approaches based on artificial intelligence (AI) approaches can be used to solve complex routing issues when static and dynamic routings fail. Evolutionary algorithm-based clustering techniques, such as moth flame optimization, and ant colony optimization, can be used to solve these kinds of problems with routes. Moth flame optimization gives excellent coverage while consuming little energy and requiring a minimum number of cluster heads (CHs) for routing. This paper employs a moth flame optimization algorithm for network building and node deployment. Then, we employ a variation of the K-Means Density clustering approach to choosing the cluster head. Choosing the right cluster heads increases the cluster’s lifespan and reduces routing traffic. Moreover, it lowers the number of routing overheads. This step is followed by MRCQ image-based compression techniques to reduce the amount of data that must be transmitted. Finally, the reference point group mobility model is used to send data by the most optimal path. Particle swarm optimization (PSO), ant colony optimization (ACO), and grey wolf optimization (GWO) were put to the test against our proposed EECP-MFO. Several metrics are used to gauge the efficiency of our proposed method, including the number of clusters, cluster construction time, cluster lifespan, consistency of cluster heads, and energy consumption. This paper demonstrates that our proposed algorithm performance is superior to the current state-of-the-art approaches using experimental results.
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Energy-Efficient Clustering Scheme for Flying Ad-Hoc Networks Using an Optimized LEACH Protocol
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2021
A Flying Ad-hoc network constitutes many sensor nodes with limited processing speed and storage capacity as they institute a minor battery-driven device with a limited quantity of energy. One of the primary roles of the sensor node is to store and transmit the collected information to the base station (BS). Thus, the life span of the network is the main criterion for the efficient design of the FANETS Network, as sensor nodes always have limited resources. In this paper, we present a methodology of an energy-efficient clustering algorithm for collecting and transmitting data based on the Optimized Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) protocol. The selection of CH is grounded on the new optimized threshold function. In contrast, LEACH is a hierarchical routing protocol that randomly selects cluster head nodes in a loop and results in an increased cluster headcount, but also causes more rapid power consumption. Thus, we have to circumvent these limitations by improving the LEACH Protocol. Our proposed algorithm diminishes the energy usage for data transmission in the routing protocol, and the network’s lifetime is enhanced as it also maximizes the residual energy of nodes. The experimental results performed on MATLAB yield better performance than the existing LEACH and Centralized Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy Protocol in terms of energy efficiency per unit node and the packet delivery ratio with less energy utilization. In addition, the First Node Death (FND) is also meliorated when compared to the LEACH and LEACH-C protocols.
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Evaluation key generator of Multiple Asymmetric methods in Wireless Sensor Network (WSNs)
Article
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  • Feb 2021
Abstract The wireless sensor network (WSNs) is constructed with a combination of the sensor nodes and the sink nodes. WSNs applied in many applications. The Security in WSNs is necessary because of limitations of storage, computing capacity, power use. Encryption is one of the most important tools utilized to supply the security services for WSNs. Asymmetric and symmetric encryption algorithm can be utilized in the WSNs structure to supply the security. The asymmetric key encryption algorithm gives a higher level of the security, but compared to symmetric key encryption, that causes extra sensor overhead. In this research KCMA method used to generate chains key of twelve experiments of the algorithms (ECC, RSA, ELGamal). These chains merged with hash function SHA2 and XOR. Diehard test was utilized in all experiments to evaluate the randomness of the secret key generated, and show it's more security system. SHA2 was the best as compared with XOR. Also, the work evaluated the performance (time) for the system and throughput network.
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Cloud and Big Data: A Mutual Benefit for Organization Development
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Full-text available
  • Feb 2021
The emergence of big data as a novel model gives unparalleled composition and value for an organization. The growth of big data is posing challenges in areas such as processing, analytics, sharing, and visualization. Interestingly, the cloud computing technology also emanated to specify important required infrastructure to tackle these disputes. Cloud computing is an effective interface that’s used to manipulate enormous-scale and complicated calculations. It eliminated the requirement to sustain lavish computing hardware, dedicated infrastructure, and software. Big data and cloud computing (BDCC) are considered to become the source of productivity that drives today's electronic business transformations. Nonetheless, the ratio of the companies that adopt and use BDCC isn't significant. There are also obstacles to facilitating BDCC's market proliferation. Hence, this paper aims to recognize and emphasize the factors that affect the adoption and use of BDCC in technology-organization-environment (TOE) viewpoints in enterprises. Data were obtained from a sample of 100 companies to scientifically check our system. The understanding of BDCC's potential advantages and technical capabilities are defined as the BDCC's important elements. Consistency with current infrastructure, data reliability and functionality, and protection and privacy are highly rated within the sense of technologies. Managerial expertise and financial expenditure capacity for the application and use of BDCC and governmental assistance and regulation are defined as organizational and environmental considerations for acceptance and use, simultaneously.
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Energy efficient fault tolerance techniques in green cloud computing: A systematic survey and taxonomy
Article
  • Oct 2022
Cloud computing has brought the accessibility of several software platforms under a single roof. It has transformed resources into scalable services on demand and provides the only solution to the high resource requirements. All cloud service providers usually offer all types of services in the cloud computing environment, even though they also handle security-related challenges like reliability, availability, and throughput. One of the most decisive challenges in the cloud is handling faults. High fault tolerance in the cloud is a must to attain high performance, and the defects must be investigated and examined for future guidance. The principal target of this paper is to gain insight into the fault tolerance techniques that are available to us and the challenges that are required to be overcome. We concluded that there is always a relation between faults and energy consumption during our survey. If there is a high potential to tolerate a fault, there will be a need for more infrastructure and devices to fix those faults, which further leads to more power consumption. In this paper, 129 Research papers published through February 2022 were considered and further classified. This paper critically reviews techniques to tolerate faults in cloud computing systems and discusses the taxonomy of errors, faults, and failures. Furthermore, this paper aims to investigate several critical research topics and advanced techniques, such as artificial intelligence, deep learning, the Internet of Things, and machine learning, that may be employed as an intelligent fault tolerance strategy in the cloud environment.
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