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Handbook of Research
on 5G Networks and
Advancements in
Computing, Electronics,
and Electrical Engineering
Augustine O. Nwajana
University of Greenwich, UK
Isibor Kennedy Ihianle
Nottingham Trent University, UK
A volume in the Advances in Computer and
Electrical Engineering (ACEE) Book Series
Published in the United States of America by
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Names: Nwajana, Augustine Onyenwe, 1979- editor. | Ihianle, Isibor, 1976-
editor.
Title: Handbook of research on 5G networks and advancements in computing,
electronics, and electrical engineering / Augustine Nwajana, and Isibor
Ihianle, editors.
Description: Hershey PA : Engineering Science Reference, [2021] | Includes
bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book investigates
the advent of the emerging fifth generation (5G) networks and how they
are changing the paradigm of how computing, electronics and electrical
(CEE) systems are interconnected. and ways to seamlessly link together
to turn the globe into a digital world”-- Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020058411 (print) | LCCN 2020058412 (ebook) | ISBN
9781799869924 (h/c) | ISBN 9781799869948 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: 5G mobile communication systems.
Classification: LCC TK5103.25 .H36 2021 (print) | LCC TK5103.25 (ebook) |
DDC 621.39/81--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020058411
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020058412
This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Computer and Electrical Engineering (ACEE) (ISSN:
2327-039X; eISSN: 2327-0403)
402
Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 16
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6992-4.ch016
ABSTRACT
The opportunities offered by digital technology are enormous. The global social and economic system is
being reconfigured at an incredible rate. Connectivity is increasingly reshaping our world and redefining
the way we interact with our environment. The rise of digital technologies is transforming almost every
aspect of modern life. More and more of our interactions are mediated by machines. Along with the rapid
evolution comes the risks, threats, and vulnerabilities in the system for those who plan to exploit it. In
this chapter, firstly, the authors explore the role of 5G, big data, the internet of things (IoT), artificial
intelligence (AI), autonomous vehicles (AV), and cloud computing play in the context of smart societies;
secondly, they analyse how the synergy between these technologies will be used by governments and
other stakeholders around the world to improve the safety of citizens albeit increasingly relinquishing
privacy rights and encouraging mass surveillance at the expense of liberty.
1. INTRODUCTION
Digital technologies have advanced more rapidly than any other innovative technology in history reach-
ing around 50% of the world’s population in the last twenty years, transforming societies, accessibility
to public services and businesses (UN, 2020a, 2020b). This has led to continual move of people to the
big cities globally. The mandatory legislation to solve related migration problem smartly without deple-
The Changing Global Landscape
With Emerging Technologies
and Their Implications
for Smart Societies
Patrice Seuwou
Northampton University, UK
Vincent F. Adegoke
London South Bank University, UK
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
tion in ecosystem is a major issue that many urban policy makers are currently facing. Several concepts
such as smart city, smart society, smart region, smart home, smart car, etc. are therefore emerging in
an attempt to provide intelligent and environmentally friendly solutions. The components of smart city
among other are smart economy, smart environment, smart governance, smart citizen, smart transporta-
tion, and smart wellbeing of the citizen.
Adequate implementation of these conceptual components will enhance suitable provision of
healthcare, waste management, cyber control and essential social services such as policing, housing and
education to the citizens. Likewise, the advent of digital technologies and connection of technological
devices are suddenly changing our method of communication with our environment and other citizens
(Arts, Wal, & Adams, 2015). As of 2019, almost half of the world population are digitally connected by
social media and internet users are growing by an average of more than one million new users every day
(Kemp, 2019). Review shows that as of October 2020 almost 4.66 billion people were active internet
users encompassing 59 percent of the global population (Clement, 2020). Despite these researches, re-
view further shows that robots and artificial workers could make 800 million real-workers (BBC, 2017;
Manyika, et al., 2017) redundant by 2030.
The internet technology that was originally meant for military has suddenly accelerated the pace of
industrial revolution and a major key player in global unification and citizenship. Advanced develop-
ment of AI technologies, chains of several mathematical programmes, simulations and integration of big
data has made it possible for machines to impersonate human intelligence in several areas: autonomous
vehicles, industrial automated systems and Industrial Internet of Things.
The society is moving toward big brother state; UK has more CCTV cameras per person than any other
country in the western world, the citizen faces surveillance by their own government. USA, China, EU
and other countries are following similar trend. It is becoming more intrusive than the domestic spying
carried out by Big Brother in George Orwell’s ‘1984’ (Adams, 2019). Big brother ideology is no longer
a fiction but few steps from being a reality due to availability of big data and digitization technology.
The emerging technology affects the way people interact with each other on daily basis, it enhance
efficiencies of processes, products, and services. It therefore plays important role in today’s society.
However, it also has negative effects on critical infrastructure and come with threats, risks and other
susceptibilities that are associated with their deployment. Therefore, there is need for robust policies and
regulations to optimize the positive benefits and control the negative impacts on the society.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the emergence of smart-contemporary technologies, their
benefits and consequences to the societies. This will provide an important opportunity to advance our
knowledge and understanding of current development in Industrial Revolution 4.0 (Renjen, 2019) and
how science and technology is digitally realizing one-society-one-world, at the same time progressively
eroding our liberty and changing ways of life.
This chapter is organized as follows. In Section 2, we briefly discuss state of the art: smart cities
and concepts. Their potentials, economic benefits, challenges and global citizenship. In Section 3, we
present summaries of emerging technologies: Internet of Things (IoT), Smart homes, big data, 5G-6G
wireless technologies and cryptocurrency/blockchain technology. Section 4 discuss journey towards a
big brother state, a framework that uses voluntary surveillance technology that is pervasive and invasive
more than ever. Finally, Section 5 provides possible open research issues and concludes this chapter.
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
2. STATE OF THE ART REVIEW
Smart Cities
For much of the 20th century, the idea that a city could be smart was a science fiction that was pictured
in the popular media but quite suddenly with the massive proliferation of computable devices across
many scales and with a modicum of intelligence being embedded into such devices, the prospect that
a city might become smart, is now a reality. Some of the top smart cities’ governments are located in
London, Singapore, Seoul, New York & Helsinki. Making a city “smart” is emerging as a strategy to
mitigate the problems generated by the urban population growth and rapid urbanization.
The convergence of information and communication technologies is producing urban environments
that are quite different from anything that we have experienced previously. More than half of the planet’s
population now lives in urban areas (Dirks S. G., 2010) (Dirks S. &., 2009) (Dirks S. K., 2009). This
shift from a primarily rural to a primarily urban population is projected to continue for the next couple
of decades (see http://www.unfpa.org). It is predicted that more than two-thirds of the world’s popula-
tion will be urbanized by 2050 (Braun, 2018). Such enormous and complex congregations of people
inevitably tend to become/create messy and disordered places.
Cities, megacities, generate new kinds of problems. Difficulty in waste management, scarcity of
resources, air pollution, human health concerns, traffic congestions, and inadequate, deteriorating and
aging infrastructures are among the more basic technical, physical, and material problems (Borja, 2007)
(Marceau, 2008) (Toppeta, 2010) (Washburn, 2010) (Allam & Dhunny, 2019). These cities will feature
countless smart devices, each of which will be communicating with the smart network by sending, copy-
ing, and processing data. This process will generate an immense amount of data, some of which will be
confidential and should be secured. By nature of smart city interconnectivity, data will be transferred and
utilized throughout the smart city processes, with multiple parties communicating and gaining access to
information. From the makers of the smart sensors, to the city’s transportation authority, to individuals
accessing the smart city through their smartphones, each organization contributing to the smart city will
uniquely use and handle data in ways that may endanger personal privacy (Allam & Dhunny, 2019).
Furthermore, since each smart city stakeholder will have different priorities, there will exist gaps between
the different stakeholders’ privacy standards.
THE CONCEPT OF SMART SOCIETIES
There are different possibilities of smart society’s frameworks depending on the conceptual approach
and subjectivity. Therefore, several authors have tried to formulate the definition of smart society with
digital society, wired society, information society and sensing society (Winkowka, Szpilko, & Pejic,
2019). However, smart societies could be viewed as ecosystems which are communities of interacting
organisms and their environment that are typically described as complex networks formed as a result
(Gretzel, Werthner, Koo, & Lamsfus, 2015) of resource interdependencies. British Standards Institute
defines smart city as: the effective integration of physical, digital and human systems in the built envi-
ronment to deliver sustainable, prosperous and inclusive future for its citizens (BIS, 2014). In terms of
data-driven, it is a scalable solution that take advantage of information and communications technology
(ICT) to increase efficiencies, reduce costs, and enhance quality of life (Falconer & Mitchell, 2012).
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
The concept comprises of numerous elements, interconnections, collaborations and functions that are
intelligent, autonomous and adaptive agents that form communities that can adapt to addition or removal
of elements. It is “an interdependent social system of actors, organizations, material infrastructures, and
symbolic resources” (Maheshwari & Janssen, 2014).
Dimensions of Smart Society
Communication, innovation, government, infrastructure, transport, social economy, natural resources,
societal-well-being, emerging technologies, environmental sustainability, etc. are some of the landscapes
that could be used to describe the concept of smart societies. Technically, six dimensions of smartness
have been identified. These are smart economy, smart mobility, smart environment, smart people, smart
living and smart governance (Zanella & et.al., 2014; Caragliu, Del-Bo, & Nijkamp, 2011) and several
sub-layers as illustrated in Figure 1.
Critical Factors and Goals of Smart Society
The need to be smart ready in contemporary society cannot be sidestepped. It is a roadmap that requires
endurance and challenge. Some of the critical factors for the creation of smart societies are smart market-
ing, digital democracy, innovation capacity, knowledge-based workforce and broadband communication
infrastructure (ICF, 2015). It is essential to note that most smart initiatives are rooted in contemporary
emerging technologies. Though, in some cases it might result in disruption or extinction of existing
systems, products, structures or technologies. However, the ultimate goal is the improvement and bet-
ter use of resources to improve the quality of services offered to citizens (Zanella & et.al., 2014) at a
competitive cost. At the same time enhancing societal value creation, innovation and sustainability of
healthier society.
POTENTIALS AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF SMART SOCIETIES
The economic potentials that the concepts of smart society can offer through technological innovations
are enormous. However, it requires constant economic investments to its implementation and constant
advancement in technologies. Investments are thriving, it was $342.4 billion in 2016 and projected to
reach $774.8 billion in 2021. North America alone invested $188.5 billion in 2016 and is expected to
invest $244.5 billion in 2021 (SNG, 2017). This is because smart technology can leverage connected
technologies and help cities to operate more proficiently and improve service provision to citizens and
businesses.
Review shows that different advantages and disadvantages have been reported to support the applica-
tion of smart concept to city, region or country (Angelidou, 2014). In this report we took a holistic view
of some its potentials and economic benefits.
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
1. Reliable data driven decision-The availability of big data, well-designed analysis strategy and
connection to other devices enable policy makers to analysis data, make real-time decisions.
2. Enhanced e-government collaboration–Access to real time government information through digital
services, collaboration tools, KPI boards in communities enhance closer government engagement.
3. Smart and safer policing–Smart community is a safe community, application of emerging technolo-
gies such as: plate number recognition, movement detection, gunshot detectors, security cameras,
etc. can enhance law enforcing agents to be proactive in handling crimes.
4. Smart environmental ecosystems–Air quality control, reduced carbon emission footprints, and
cleaner cities. This increases standard of living and wellbeing of citizens.
5. Smart infrastructure/transportation–Smart buildings, renewable energy sources, modern
transportation systems, etc. that are digitally connected with each other enhance sustainability and
efficient provision of utilities and public services to citizens.
6. Smart digital equity-Accessibility to high speed internets and placement of public Wi-Fi at hot-
spots offer reliable IoT services and affordable communication cost to the citizens and visitors.
7. Economic opportunities–Smart cities attracts global investments, businesses, reduces unemploy-
ment and generates revenues that can be invested in community welfare and social service projects
to control crime.
8. Smart connectivity-It enables connection of people and devices through cloud to each other. It
ensures that citizens stay connected, productive, and informed. It enables city operators and gov-
ernment agents to monitor assets, online-self-service, and traffic- control, remote-working and
respond to real-time emergencies.
9. Smart economic prosperity – Emerging smart city technologies could save enterprises, govern-
ments and citizens worldwide over US$5 trillion annually by 2022 (Ismail, 2017). In 2014 the city
Figure 1. Dimensions and sub-layers of Smart City
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
of Barcelona saved over €75 million by adopting IoT-driven smart initiatives and creating 47,000
new jobs related to smart city developments (Bolos, Tsoros, & Holopainen, 2015).
10. Smart quality life– Smart city initiatives: smart parking, digitized government services, car charg-
ing points, etc. make citizens happier and attracts global inflow of talents, visitors and increase
GDP.
CHALLENGES OF SMART SOCIETIES IN A DIGITAL WORLD
Emerging smart technologies such as artificial intelligence, big data, analytics, and robotics can offer
potential advantages of creating sustainable smart societies (Kitchin R., 2015b) and improve the well-
being of the citizens. Despite the potential benefits (Rana & et.al., 2019; Ghosal & Halder, 2018) of
several smart society projects, there are barriers and challenges (Kitchin R., 2013) that come with their
implementation, deployment and maintenance. This include issues with privacy and impact of legal and
ethical problems of applying the concept. Some of the potentials and challenges of the concept among
others are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1. Challenges and implication of emerging technologies in smart societies
Potential applications Challenges Implications
Governance/
Politics
• Political instability
• Lack of trust between government and contractors that are
implementing the concept.
• Collision with foreign government
agents.
• Exposure and stolen of sensitive
national information and secrets.
Economic • Uncertainty and volatile global economy.
• Cost of implementation and maintenance.
• Delay in addressing government targets
and citizen demands. Rise cost of tools.
• Increased in health issues because of
pollutions.
Social
• The absence of participation and involvement among
citizens.
• Social and geographical exclusion due to political and
unethical reasons.
• Flexibility and scalability of demand
problem.
• Unbalanced geographical development.
• Inequality in social citizenship and
inclusion
Technology • The absence of technological knowledge and constraints.
• Coverage, security, and demand capacity issues
• Citizens privacy are no longer private.
• Hackers and issues of stolen identity as
a result of security and privacy problems.
Environmental • The absence of environmental ecological policy
• Inadequate carbon emission policy and guidelines
• Rise in activists & civil unrests Delay
in making progress decisions.
• Absence of public safety that required
increased policing.
Ethical & Legal
• Absence of regulatory laws
• Lack of policies, standardization and directions
• Personal data protection issues
• Unequal citizen inclusion
• Unbalanced predictive policing and
unfairness.
• Unending legal challenges Lack of
regulatory constraints
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
The contemporary interconnectedness among people, countries and unified worldwide economies through
big data, AI, other evolving and advanced smart technologies have led to increased homogeneity and
unification among diverse societies. That were once unconnected and divided culturally and ethnically
in the past. Global-societal connectivity and recent political developments is making citizens’ identity
to surpass geography or political borders. Present-day digitisations and development in the global arena
which were not achievable few decades ago have led to the emergence of universal oneness and global
citizenship concepts. Review shows that education and tourism play a huge impact in establishing the
concept of global citizenship (UNICEF, 2013; Oxfam, 2020). The theory of globalization has been
demarcated in various ways, however the concept is unquestionably contested among researchers and
government agents. Oxfam define it as ‘a global citizen is someone who is aware of and understands the
wider world - and their place in it. They take an active role in their community, and work with others to
make our planet more equal, fair and sustainable’ (Oxfam, 2020). On the other hand, ‘Global citizen-
ship can be defined as a moral and ethical disposition that can guide the understanding of individuals or
groups of local and global contexts and remind them of their relative responsibilities within the various
communities’ (Haydey, Levy, & Thompson, 2015). In order to address these three theoretical frameworks
have emerged to explain and argue the positions of global citizenship. These theories are: the political
theory of global citizenship, educational theory of global citizenship, and the social theory of global
citizenship (Pittman, 2017). The impact of emerging technologies on global citizenship are enormously
positive however it comes with its undesirable detriments. Though it has changed the institution of citi-
zenship sense of belonging and state membership.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Review shows that in some cases the law enforcement agencies are employing AI, big data and machine
learning technologies to create algorithmic identities that uses online activity to predict “digital citizen-
ship”, to understand ancestry, migration history and form genetic citizenship (EUI, 2020). Such could
have monitoring consequences on citizens that challenges or try to evade the perception of the state.
A classic example is the use of R-app to monitor and control the spread of COVID-19 and movement
of UK citizens, people in the England could face fines up to £10,000 for refusing to self-isolate when
asked to do so (Page & et.al., 2020), however some saw it as an invasion of privacy. On the other hand,
it encourages people to develop the knowledge, skills and values they need to engage with the world.
Therefore, global citizenship helps people to: build their own understanding of world events, think about
their values and what’s important to them. It takes learning into the real world, challenge ignorance
and intolerance, get involved in their local, national and global communities, develop an argument and
voice their opinions, see that they have power to act and influence the world around them (Oxfam, 2020;
Stoner & et.al., 2013).
THE SOCIAL CREDIT SYSTEM (CHINA)
The Social Credit System (SCS) is a national reputation system being developed by the Chinese Com-
munist Party (CCP), under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping’s administration (Shahin, 2018)The pro-
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
gram initiated regional trials in 2009, before launching a national pilot with eight credit scoring firms in
2014. Under the SCS, the Chinese government proposes to assign a social credit rating to every citizen
representing their “trustworthiness” based on their everyday social and economic activities. The idea
started being discussed in official and non-official circles in the early 2000s and draft planning outlines
were proposed. The State Council of China’s planning outline for the construction of an SCS (2014–
2020), issued in 2014, states that the SCS will focus on four major areas: honesty in government affairs,
commercial integrity, societal integrity, and judicial credibility. The goal is to “raise the awareness for
integrity and the level of credibility within society” (China Copyright and Media, 2014). To implement
it, the government will track and evaluate what you buy at the shops and online; where you are at any
given time; who your friends are and how you interact with them; how many hours you spend watching
content or playing video games; and what bills and taxes you pay (or not). (Wired, 2017). In essence, SCS
will allow the Chinese government, and the technology companies that work with it, to monitor every
social, economic, and political action taken by every citizen as well as most of their private activities.
The proposal stems from a lack of social and economic trust that has engulfed Chinese society since its
turn to market economics in the 1980s. Among other things, it prevents individuals and small businesses
from getting loans from banks. But “rather than promoting the organic return of traditional morality to
reduce the gulf of distrust, the Chinese government has preferred to invest its energy in technological
fixes” (Hawkins, 2017). The idea has also raised the hackles of data protection and privacy advocates,
who have called it “an excuse to implement surveillance and control” (para. 17).
AADHAAR IN INDIA
Aadhaar (foundation or base) is a 12-digit unique identity number that can be obtained voluntarily by
residents or passport holders of India, generated after recording their demographic as well as biometric
data such as fingerprints and iris scans. The data is collected by the Unique Identification Authority of
India (UIDAI), a statutory authority established in January 2009 by the government of India, under the
jurisdiction of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology. Aadhaar is the world’s largest
biometric ID system. World Bank Chief Economist Paul Romer described Aadhaar as “the most sophis-
ticated ID programme in the world”. The Indian authorities started registering residents for Aadhaar
in 2010 and it is reported that 99% of the residents were registered by the end of 2017. This Big Data
project was referred to by the government as a strategic policy tool for social and financial inclusion,
public sector delivery reforms with the ability to manage fiscal budget, increase convenience and promote
hassle-free people-centric governance (Unique Identification Authority of India, n.d.)(UIDAI.gov, n.d.,
para. 4). Officially, the main aims of the project were to limit corruption in the transfer of benefits to
the public by removing the middlemen and providing the opportunity to the population, particularly the
poorer people to have direct access to a variety of welfare schemes.
Although it was claimed that participation was entirely voluntary, it was mandatory for Indians if they
wished to access a range of social and financial services. Limited legislative systems were implemented
for the protection of citizen’s data being collected by technology companies working on the government
behalf or the authorities (Dixon, 2017). This ambitious Biometric system promise to consolidate 12 bil-
lion of its citizens’ fingerprints, 2.4 billion iris scans, and 1.2 billion photographs (Sarkar, 2014). While
the West already has existing biometric identity systems, it is nowhere near India’s scale and scope. This
project is the brainchild of the technology entrepreneur Nandan Nilekani, who cofounded and built the
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
multibillion-dollar outsourcing company Infosys prior his appointment by the government to head this
project. It has received much media attention, with discourse leaning toward the empowerment of the
marginalized. R. S. Sharma, secretary of the Department of Electronics & Information Technology in
India, declared that “digital India is not for rich people . . . it is for poor people” (Toness, 2014). The
project has raised fears of privacy violations and mass surveillance. Soon after it was launched, Indian
intelligence officials said its purpose was to flush out illegal immigrants in the country—the reason why
residents and not just citizens were asked to register for Aadhaar—and the claim that Aadhaar would
help deliver welfare schemes was just a ruse.
3. EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
IN THE CONTEXT OF SMART SOCIETIES
Artificial Intelligence and Evolving Smart Solutions
Currently, about 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas this proportion will increase to 68%
by 2050 and add another 2.5 billion people to the already densely populated area by the same period
(United, 2018). This development requires solution to several related problems and service provisions
such as: population, infrastructures, housing, pollution, transportation/congestion, crime, security, so-
cial poverty, etc. Artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, Internet of Things, and other emerging
technologies concept offers holistic and smart interconnected solutions to address some of these chal-
lenges. It also boosts economic performance, environmental sustainability and improve the wellbeing
of the people. Even though there is no generally accepted definition for AI. However, AI is a chain of
mathematical programmes and simulations that try to impersonate human intelligence, behaviour and
action. In many areas of science and technology and AI has been applied such that it smartly and ef-
ficiently predicts events (Adegoke, Chen, Banissi, & Barsikzai, 2020) that outperform man in learning
and handling difficult tasks.
Emerging AI Solutions
The emerging of AI technologies could offer endless solutions to smart society challenges in several
ways: improve performance efficiency of systems, processes, management, etc. However, AI must
be adequately integrated to enhance economic and environmental sustainability that benefits societal
transformation. Some of the smart city areas and related contemporary AI-technologies solutions are
illustrated in Table 2.
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INTERNET OF THINGS AND SMART HOMES
Sustainability and economic survival of smart society requires the integration of essential, contemporary
ICT tools and connections of billions of sensors and emerging smart devices. The concept of Internet
of Things (IoT) enables the connection of several physical and remote devises using integrated sensors
over the internet network. This enable seamless communication, exchange of data and the ability to
carry out automated tasks. Report shows that by the end of 2020, over 50 billion devices that worth $19
trillion opportunity will be connected (Forbes, 2020) by IoT and related technology. IoT is tremendously
changing the way we live, move and work. It has got to a point that many people cannot do without es-
sential IoT devices like smart-phones, speakers, light-bulbs, thermostats, wearables, payment/cashless
devices, virtual assistants and essential smart devices. In major cities and modern homes, IoT is making
the use of technology smarter to control other devices and proactively react to events. City leaders are
taking advantage of available real-time data to understand traffic and weather patterns, heating/cooling
systems, landscaping and move of citizens from one part of the city to other part of city (Boulos & Al-
Shorbaji, 2014; Fork & Hines, 2015) therefore able to control various aspects citizen’s life. Development
in the Industrial sector reveals that Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is the next generation of IoT. The
technology will enable companies to use IIoT to capture growth and performance. Therefore, boost rev-
enues by increasing production/creating new hybrid business models, exploit intelligent technologies to
fuel innovation, and transform their workforce. Thus, enabling different industries leveraging a network
Table 2. AI-technology and possible solutions for smart societies
Smart City Area AI-technology Possible solution
Smart Economy E-business, e-commerce,
e-tourists.
Urban development, sustainability and investment attractiveness (Hattingh
& et.al., 2020). Attract investors and tourists.
Smart Agriculture Agricultural robots Innovative solution - Crop, soil and weather monitoring: predictive
analytics (Malapela, 2017)
Smart Governance AI for planning and
administration
AI technologies work patterns, policy designs, tax collections, social
credits, etc.
Smart ecosystem AI for smart home and
buildings
Smart cyber ecosystem, smart home/office ecosystem and other smart
devices.
Smart Healthcare AI in healthcare and
pharmaceutical services
Delivery of predictive services, remote consolations/ robotic assisted
surgery, automated disease/image analysis and smart IoT devices for
monitoring patient health (OECD, 2015).
Smart Mobility /
Transportation AI-autonomous vehicles Self-driving, autonomous vehicles and delivery services (Ohnsman, 2018).
Smart Energy
Intelligent energy
management software, IoT
devices
Smart metering, automated energy storage and diversion, smart grid
(Rathor & Saxena, 2020)
Smart Security/Justice e-security and CCTV;
Intelligence justice
Fraud detection and prevention, biometric/image surveillance and detection
(Giles, 2018; Kleinberg & al., 2017). Predictive algorithms in the legal
system (Wyllie, 2013)
Smart Education e-education, virtual meeting Virtual advanced training, universities, virtual meetings and facilitators,
remote working/office (Williamson, 2015)
Smart Citizen Smart state
Engagement of citizens: communities, developers, researchers, etc. to
collaborate and address environmental issues in cities (Noveck, 2015;
Hemment & Townsend, 2013).
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
of embedded sensors and devices connected to many appliances, vehicles, equipment, warehouses and
logistics, operations. It will enable industries to benefit from real-time process monitors and control
that are connected via IoT (Daugherty & et.al., 2015). Some of the potential benefits and barriers of
implementing and deploying IoT technology are summarised in Table 3
BIG DATA
In the past few decades, businesses, governments, and individuals have continued to generate vast amounts
of data than they have been able to cope with and utilize. According to IBM, we create around 2.5 quin-
tillion bytes of data on a daily basis, and it is estimated that the size of data will double in every 2 years
(IBM, 2016). In today digital society, data is now the world’s most valuable commodity, the citizen as
user are now digital human interacting massively with the technology and generating tremendous amount
of data. Indeed, our data is the new oil, the new gold, the new currency. Big data is the term commonly
applied to massive data sets that are generated through a variety of sources, including environmental and
body sensors, mobile devices, electronic medical records, imaging and laboratory studies, and admin-
istrative claims data. Although big data is considered a new form of capital along with the traditional
financial and intellectual capitals for businesses, many firms fail to fully utilize this kind of capital due
to their limited capabilities of dealing with the technologies (e.g., advanced big data analytics tools) and
their limited understanding of the fit and the governance of these new technologies with respect to their
specific business goals. For the retail business, big data is utilized for getting a prominent understanding
of customer shopping propensities and how to draw in new customers. Organizations are being enabled
and empowered by big data analytics to create customer proposals dependent on their buying history,
resulting in customized shopping experiences. These big data analytics solutions additionally help in
anticipating patterns and taking strategic decisions that are based on an analysis of the market. Big data
offers the potential for vastly enhanced data analytics. Used properly, organizations can employ big data
to spot entirely new trends, to segment customers to an astonishing degree of accuracy, and to allow
unprecedented levels of innovation in technology and product design. While it’s easy to get caught up
in the opportunities big data offers, it’s not necessarily a cornucopia of progress. If gathered, stored, or
Table 3. Benefits and Barriers of implementing and deploying IoT
Applications/Benefits Barriers/Threats
• Remote working options
• Business opportunities/expansion
• Efficient services and products development
• Predictive analytics and Market understanding
• Customer self-service and personalisation
• Environmental sustainability
• Smart management /Ease parking & transportation
• Healthier citizens
• Data Sharing and Decision Making
• Inventory Tracking and Management
• Reduce operating costs
• Ability to track and monitor things
• Industrial IoT: Smart manufacturing, maintenance, power grids,
logistics/supply chains.
• Lack privacy and protection of sensitive data
• Low acceptance, trust and security
• Initial cost and maintenance
• Standardisation issues
• Unexpected failure of IoT
• Upgrade and compatibly issues
• Yielding unemployment
• Technology dependability/overreliance
• Fear of major failure
• Complexity and specialist requirement
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The Changing Global Landscape With Emerging Technologies and Their Implications for Smart Societies
used wrongly, big data poses some serious dangers. Big data comes with security issues; Bad players
can abuse big data—if data falls into the wrong hands, big data can be used for phishing, scams, and to
spread disinformation. Insights are only as good as the quality of the data they come from—bad, noisy,
or ‘dirty’ data (or applying poor best practice) can lead to poor insights, which can be risky in the wrong
situations. There are ethical issues—as a new field, the ethics of big data is still evolving. The battle
between big data’s potential and its dangers remains ongoing. However, identifying and acknowledging
its potential risks goes a long way to resolving them (Hillier, 2020).
5G AND 6G WIRELESS GENERATIONS TECHNOLOGY
The 5G and 6G cellular technology refer to the fifth and sixth generations of mobile wireless networks
respectively. The 5G technology is known to have data transmission frequency at least 10 times greater
than 4G. On the other hand, 6G is the successor to the 5G technology that is set to have data transmission
speed as 100 times faster than 5G. According to Ericsson, an expert in the field of cellular technology “5G
evolution will move us into an era of ubiquitous, high-capacity radio. Taking us to ever lower levels of
latency and extensive Gbps capacity. The evolution of 5G technology will pave the way for highly intel-
ligent haptic IoT technologies at hyper scale, leveraging new forms of vehicle-to-infrastructure, vehicle-
to-vehicle, vehicle-to-pedestrian, and person-to-person connectivity (Ericsson, 2020). Among the notable
features of the 5G technology are the IIoT, ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC), intelligent
transportation systems (ITS) and vehicle-to-anything (V2X) communications and positioning (Peisa &
et.al., 2020). Firstly, the IIoT bring together network of a multitude of industrial devices connected by
communications technologies that can monitor, exchange, collect, analyse and deliver valuable insights.
Such insights can enable industrial productivity (GE, 2020) and profitability through enhancements of
smarter and faster business decision making. Secondly, ITS technology will transform application of
transportation systems and infrastructures concept. Therefore, ITS technology will revolutionize traffic
management and make road safer, enabling buses, autonomous vehicles, trains and transportation to
be more reliable, run efficiently and economically than ever before. However, despite the tremendous
benefits the technology offers it also come with a number, disadvantages and controversial issues some
are illustrated in Table 4.
Table 4. Advantages and controversial threats of 5G/6G technologies
Applications/Enablers Threats and disadvantages
• Device cost mobility & lower latency
• Massive density /Increased bandwidth
• Reduced signalling overhead & energy consumption
• Integrate public infrastructure network within network slices
• Support for pub/sub message-oriented communication
• Adaptation of big-data and input interfaces
• Enhanced capacity/game technology
• Greater transmission speed and coverage
• Autonomous car-technology
• Robotic medical advancements
• IoT and IIoT evolution
• Security and privacy issue
• Development, deployment and maintenance cost
• Standardization and legislation of cyber law
• Lack of trust in 5G
• Issues surrounding conspiracy theories about Radiofrequency
(RF) radiation and health concerns.
• Threats to citizens job security
• Overdependence on machines and technology
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AUTONOMOUS VEHICLE (AV)
As transportation technology evolves, more and more car manufacturers are announcing their will to
introduce new kinds of vehicles into the automobile market. Such vehicles include Autonomous (AV) and
Connected Vehicles (CV) as well as Electric Vehicles. According to the Centre for Advanced Automo-
tive Technology (Seuwou, Banissi, & Ubakanma, 2019)(Centre for Advanced Automotive Technology,
2018) Connected Vehicles are considered ‘‘vehicles that use any of a number of different communication
technologies to communicate with the driver, other cars on the road (vehicle-to-vehicle [V2V]), roadside
infrastructure (vehicle-to-infrastructure [V2I]), and the ‘‘Cloud” [V2C]” (Seuwou, Patel, & Ubakanma,
2014). The implementation of Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs) as well as the use of alter-
native fuel as gas or electric power to empower vehicles, are supposed to have an impact on the amount
of the GHG emissions originating from traffic. Autonomous vehicle technology may be able to provide
certain advantages compared to human-driven vehicles (CAAT, 2018) . One such potential advantage
is that they could provide increased safety on the road – vehicle crashes cause many deaths every year,
and automated vehicles could potentially decrease the number of casualties as the software used in them
is likely to make fewer errors in comparison to humans. A decrease in the number of accidents could
also reduce traffic congestion, which is a further potential advantage posed by autonomous vehicles.
Autonomous driving can also achieve this by the removal of human behaviours that cause blockages on
the road, specifically stop-and-go traffic (Seuwou, Chrysoulas, Banissi, & Ubakanma, 2020). Another
possible advantage of automated driving is that people who are not able to drive – due to factors like age
and disabilities – could be able to use automated cars as more convenient transport systems. Additional
advantages that come with an autonomous car are elimination of driving fatigue and being able to sleep
during overnight journeys. Like other producers, developers of autonomous vehicles are legally liable for
damages that stem from the defective design, manufacture and marketing of their products. The potential
liability risk is great for driverless cars because complex systems interact in ways that are unexpected.
Manufacturers want to minimize the number of liability claims made against them. One way is to reduce
the chance of their product being misused by educating consumers about how it works and alerting them
to safety concerns. The safety and efficiency benefits of autonomous cars rely on computers making
better, quicker decisions than people. Users input their desired destination and thereafter cede control to
the computer. Full autonomy has — deliberately — not yet been adopted in transportation. People are
still perceived as being more flexible, adaptable and creative than machines, and better able to respond to
changing or unforeseen conditions. Pilots are able, therefore, to wrest control from flyby-wire technology
when key computers fail. The public is right to remain cautious about full automation. Manufacturers
need to explain how a car would protect passengers should crucial systems fail. A driverless car must be
able to stop safely if its hazard-avoidance algorithms malfunction, its cameras break, or its internal maps
die. But this is hard to engineer: for example, without cameras, such a car cannot see where it is going.
CRYPTOCURRENCY AND BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY:
A NEW GLOBAL DIGITAL CURRENCY
A cryptocurrency is a digital currency form of virtual payment that can be used as a medium of exchange
in business transactions like the US dollar or the European euro. The currency is securely created and
stored electronically by cryptography concept using blockchain technology to verify transaction and to
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avoid counterfeit or double-spend (WallSteet, 2018). Consequently, cryptocurrency is a new financial
paradigm of the global society with the purpose of providing peer-to-peer network and universal trans-
action that ensures financial security and privacy. Bitcoin (BTC) on the other hand is the best known
category that was invented cryptocurrency using blockchain technology, other crypto currencies among
other are Ethereum (ETH), Litecoin (LTC) and Ripple (XRP). Cryptocurrency is another contemporary
technology that is shaping the financial markets (Giudici, Milne, & Vinogradov, 2020) and therefore
affecting the future of global currency and financial transactions.
Currently, Bitcoin is the most widely used cryptocurrency with a total value at around US$63 billion
and has topped US$300 billion. Additionally, over 300,000 transactions in bitcoin take place and around
2000 new bitcoin are created every day (Tredinnick, 2019). Review shows that whether it is independent
of government control or underwritten by central banks or major financial organizations cryptocurrency
has the potential of becoming the way of transaction in the future (Tredinnick, 2019; Houben, 2018). The
currency is gaining global attention and the EU policy makers has proposed a regulatory framework.
They are concerned about its phenomenon from a legal perspective, therefore focusing on the use of
cryptocurrencies to avoid financial crime, money laundering and tax evasion (Houben, 2018) and misuse
of virtual currencies that is currently estimated to exceed EUR 7 billion worldwide.
Blockchain Technology
A blockchain technology is a decentralized ledger technology (DLT) that is based on a peer-to-peer (P2P)
topology, it securely records information that is impossible to alter or hack. The technology enables users
to confirm transactions without a need for a central clearing authority as required in the traditional non-
virtual banking system. It also has a wide spectrum of potential applications such as financial services,
settling trades, automotive, voting and healthcare (PWC, 2020), asset registries, supply chain management,
DRM and intellectual property, document and records management, and smart contracts (Tredinnick,
2019). Blockchain possesses a great potential in empowering the citizens of the developing countries
if widely adopted by e-governance applications for identity management, asset ownership transfer of
precious commodities such as gold, silver and diamond, healthcare and other commercial uses as well
as in financial inclusion. However, like any other emerging technologies there are numerous limitations
and disadvantages some of these are summarized in Table 3.
Table 5. Advantages and Limitation/Disadvantages of Cryptocurrency/Blockchain technology
Advantages/benefits Disadvantages/Limitations
• Lower transactions cost
• Faster processing of transaction
• Worldwide acceptance/Cost reduction
• Mitigation of fraudulent transactions
• Secure and private
• Decentralization/Increased transparency
• Unparalleled transparency
• Instant accessibility
• Absolute anonymity
• Permanent ledger
• Accurate tracking
• Supply is central bank independent
• Rising costs of mining
• Power consumption/environmental consequences
• Market manipulation: pump/dump trading
• Regulatory concerns/implications
• Scalability and cybersecurity issues
• No protection in case of loss
• Challenges of market fluctuations
• Difficulty to understand
• Complex technology
• Competing platforms
• Implementation challenges
• Has no physical form or intrinsic value
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4. TOWARDS A BIG BROTHER STATE
Before September 11, 2001, the United States wasn’t officially engaged in any wars. Few of us had ever
heard of al-Qaeda or Osama bin Laden, and ISIS didn’t even exist. In US like in the UK, our surveil-
lance state was a fraction of its current size. And perhaps hardest to believe, we didn’t have to take off
our shoes to go through airport security. America’s involvement in the War on Terror — prompted by
the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Two of the planes were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Centre
in New York City, a third plane hit the Pentagon just outside Washington, D.C., and the fourth plane
crashed in a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Almost 3,000 people were killed during the 9/11 ter-
rorist attacks. In the UK, the 7 July 2005 London bombings, often referred to as 7/7, were a series of
coordinated Islamist suicide attacks in London, England, that targeted commuters travelling on the city’s
public transport system during the morning rush hour — resulting in a dramatic change in our nation’s
attitudes and concerns about safety, vigilance and privacy. It ushered in a new generation of policies like
the counter terrorism laws in the UK, USA Patriot Act, prioritising national security and defence, often
at the expense of civil liberties (Richard C. Leone and Jr. Greg, 2003). These changes continue to have
ripple effects across the globe, particularly in the Middle East, where American-led military operations
helped foment rebellions and ongoing warfare throughout the region. In the wake of revelations that
the United States and the United Kingdom had conducted mass surveillance programs of their own and
others’ citizens, and shared much of the data with select allies and cooperating intelligence agencies
(‘the Snowden revelations’), (1) it was reported that sales of George Orwell’s classic examination of the
surveillance state, 1984, had surged. This novel was published in 1949, but after more than 70 years its
accuracy with today digital society has been recognised as astonishing. (2) The Big Brother of science
fiction had taken contemporary form and significance.
In the future ubiquitous-computing environment, RFID tags will be attached to all kinds of products
and other physical objects, even to people, and could become a fundamental technology for ubiquitous
services where the tags are used to identify things and people automatically. However, despite this prom-
ise, the possible abuse (or just excessive use) by retailers and government agencies of RFID’s tracking
capability raises questions about potential violations of personal privacy. Companies and governments
have plans to launch approximately 50,000 satellites to provide 5G and Wi-Fi services everywhere on
Earth. Elon Musk’s SpaceX is leading these efforts with its planned deployment of 42,000 Starlink
satellites and its goal of establishing a global network (Tachover, 2020). The most powerful forces in
our rapidly digitizing world are technologies that most of us don’t know much about yet. Alone and in
combination, new innovations in artificial intelligence, blockchain, natural language processing and
5G telecommunications will usher a decade of change that will make the last 10 years look pretty laid
back. Many believe that the government is at least 40 years ahead of the public in technology (West,
2014). 5G brings a range of benefits to the IoT, which are not available with 4G or other technologies.
These include 5G’s ability to support a massive number of static and mobile IoT devices, which have a
diverse range of speed, bandwidth and quality of service requirements (Opiah, 2020). Along with this
literary revival, the response to the National Security Agency (‘NSA’) surveillance scandal has been
accompanied by a renewal of interest in privacy as a human right. This prompts the question whether
a right to privacy can help us analyse and regulate against the incursions on liberty which have been
increasingly routinized in our daily ritual usage of information and communications technologies and in
the harvesting, accumulation and analysis of big data by our governments, communities, corporate actors
and employers. We used to think that Big Brother would always take the form of the state in Orwellian
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terms. Then slowly commentators pointed to the dangers posed by transnational actors and companies:
why were we worried about our governments when our local supermarket or our internet service or
phone provider held incredibly sensitive personal information about us? The Snowden revelations point
to yet another variation on this theme: that public and private actors now both act in ways which are
potentially invasive and detrimental to our liberty, and often do so together.
5. CONCLUSION
The world is changing massively due to new communications facilities and technological development.
With the rise of terrorist attacks in major cities around the globe, most governments in the developed
world are setting measures to control their citizen following an exponential population growth and the
need to expand their influences. It appears from this paper that privacy is a myth, it doesn’t exist anymore,
and this concept is reinforced through literature exploring how the Chinese government has developed
its Social Credit System (SCS) and the Indian government has also introduced their Aadhaar system to
have a better control of their respective populations. It is just a question of time before major countries
in the west develop similar systems. According to Edward Snowden revelations in 2013, it appears that
secret services both in the UK and in the US have given themselves powers to make the global surveil-
lance a reality. The social and policy implications of our study are wide-ranging. Both bottom-up and
top-down efforts are needed to alter the nature of structural relations that normalize surveillance and
violations of privacy although such efforts will have to be aligned with the political, economic, and
cultural particularities of each nation. First, data protection and digital rights activists need to recognize
the importance of educating citizens about why privacy matters and how Big Data projects undermine
it. This article frames the privacy concerns of the SCS and the Aadhaar users through a contextual and
networked privacy lens that considers power differentials and user agency, the rise of emerging technolo-
gies such as AI, RFID, 5G, 6G network, the smart grid, big data, blockchain, AV and others changing
the nature of our cities and normal day to day activities. It also provides a wide range of perspectives
drawing on data and opinions from citizens as well as insights that will inform future debates about the
collection, use, interpretation, and linking of 5G/6G networks, big data by businesses, governments, and
other institutions. It is also evident that privacy can only be understood in the context of the relations
within which it operates; in the case described in this article, the most important component of this
context, perhaps, is the population’s relationship with the state.
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