Blockchain-based electronic voting systems: A case study in Morocco

Abstract

This research examines the feasibility of implementing blockchain based electronic voting systems in Morocco to enhance electoral transparency and integrity. The study employs a methodology that combines Distributed Permission Ledger Technology (DPLT) and the Solana blockchain, resulting in a multilayered system. The main findings highlight the effectiveness of blockchain technology in mitigating electoral fraud and manipulation when implemented with precision, underscoring the importance of meticulous design and execution. These findings contribute significantly to discussions surrounding the modernization of electoral processes in the digital age and support the hypothesis that blockchain can address vulnerabilities in traditional voting methods.
Moreover, the study marks a significant step toward modernizing elections, preserving democratic principles, and reinforcing the role of technology in addressing persistent electoral challenges, ultimately enhancing accessibility, security, and transparency in elections and strengthening democracy in the digital era.

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International Journal of Intelligent Networks 5 (2024) 38–48
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Blockchain-based electronic voting systems: A case study in Morocco
Tarik Chaq
a
,
*
, Rida Azmi
b
, Ouadoud Mohammed
c
a
LGAGE, Faculty of Sciences Ben M’Sik, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco
b
Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, UM6P, Ben Guerir, Morocco
c
National School of Applied Sciences, University of Mohammed First, Oujda, Morocco
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Blockchain
E-Voting
Solana
DPLT
Electronic voting
Election
Democracy
ABSTRACT
This research examines the feasibility of implementing blockchain-based electronic voting systems in Morocco to
enhance electoral transparency and integrity. The study employs a methodology that combines Distributed
Permission Ledger Technology (DPLT) and the Solana blockchain, resulting in a multilayered system. The main
ndings highlight the effectiveness of blockchain technology in mitigating electoral fraud and manipulation
when implemented with precision, underscoring the importance of meticulous design and execution. These
ndings contribute signicantly to discussions surrounding the modernization of electoral processes in the digital
age and support the hypothesis that blockchain can address vulnerabilities in traditional voting methods.
Moreover, the study marks a signicant step toward modernizing elections, preserving democratic principles,
and reinforcing the role of technology in addressing persistent electoral challenges, ultimately enhancing
accessibility, security, and transparency in elections and strengthening democracy in the digital era.
1. Introduction
In an era characterized by rapid technological advancement, the
concept of trust has evolved signicantly, extending its roots deep into
the digital landscape [1]. Trust is the foundation upon which our in-
teractions in healthcare [2,3], nance [4], economics [5], and politics
are built [6]. And, as the global community steadily embraces digital
transformation [7,8], the need for robust, secure, and transparent sys-
tems becomes more imperative than ever. Blockchain technology
emerges as a disruptive force within this dynamic tapestry of techno-
logical innovation [9], wielding the potential to reshape the core of
societal mechanisms [10].
The quest for secure and veriable digital ecosystems led to the birth
of blockchain technology, as conceptualized by the mysterious Naka-
moto [11]. This cryptographic marvel presents a distributed ledger a
single source of truth replicated across many nodes that has ushered in a
new age of trust [12]. Its application transcends boundaries, with
diverse industries being penetrated, from sensitive medical records [13]
safeguarding [14] to nancial transactions streamlined [15], economic
infrastructure fortied [16], and even the very foundations of demo-
cratic processes inuenced [17]. At the heart of this blockchain revo-
lution lies transparency a quality contributing to its widespread
adoption [18]. This transparency is the beacon guiding our exploration
into its potential as a solution to the complex challenge of electronic
voting systems.
Morocco, a nation steeped in history and culture, is a pivotal case
study in pursuing secure and transparent elections. The current voting
process (Fig. 1) in Morocco relies on a paper-based ballot system, a
method riddled with vulnerabilities and inefciencies. Voters must
physically travel to designated polling stations, present identication,
mark paper ballots, and trust in the manual counting process. Empow-
erment is not provided to voters by the existing voting method to verify
whether any unfair votes were added or deleted, undermining the
integrity and reliability of results. Moreover, the process is time-
consuming, with high setup costs for election preparation, supervision,
and post-election operations [19]. The outbreak of global pandemics,
such as COVID-19 [20], has further exacerbated these challenges,
leading to lower voter turnout [21].
In this context, our research embarks on a journey to investigate the
transformative potential of blockchain technology in the context of
electronic voting systems, focusing on Morocco as our case study. The
central research question guiding our inquiry is: “Can a blockchain-
based electronic voting system enhance the integrity, security, and
transparency of the electoral process in Morocco?"
The importance of this research cannot be overstated. Elections are
the cornerstone of democratic societies, ensuring the people’s voice
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Tarik.chaq1@gmail.com (T. Chaq).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Intelligent Networks
journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/
international-journal-of-intelligent-networks
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijin.2024.01.004
Received 13 July 2023; Received in revised form 1 January 2024; Accepted 23 January 2024

International Journal of Intelligent Networks 5 (2024) 38–48
39
shapes the nation’s trajectory [22,23]. The integrity and transparency of
these elections are not only fundamental democratic principles but also
a means to bolster voter condence and hold authorities accountable. By
delving into the application of blockchain technology to this crucial
domain, our research aims to address existing gaps in the literature.
While various e-voting systems have been proposed [24–27], they
often overlook critical aspects, such as transparency in vote result
storage and end-to-end veriability. Our study seeks to ll these gaps by
proposing a comprehensive solution that leverages blockchain’s
inherent characteristics to ensure anonymity, integrity, accuracy, and
veriability in the voting process. Moreover, utilizing the Solana
blockchain, renowned for its speed, scalability, and security [28], adds a
layer of innovation and feasibility to our proposed system.
In this exploration of blockchain-based electronic voting systems in
Morocco, we hope to contribute to the academic discourse and the
practical enhancement of democratic processes. Our ndings hold the
potential to revolutionize how elections are conducted, making them
more accessible, secure, and transparent, ultimately safeguarding the
essence of democracy in a digital age. This transformation is vital to
overcome existing obstacles and bolster democracy, foster dialogue
between citizens and government ofcials [29], and explore new forms
of creative democratic involvement [30].
The following are some of the issues that e-voting system (Fig. 2)
based on blockchain can help to solve.
•Anonymity: The identities of voters and the candidates for whom
they vote should not be revealed [31].
•Integrity: maintaining the integrity of the political process is critical,
to lter out foreign interferences or immaterial effects [32].
•Accuracy: A vote cannot be changed or removed by anybody other
than the voter [33].
•Veriability: All transaction is validated by dedicated blocks [34].
•Availability: Each sign-in to vote has a limited time during a specic
time frame.
•Eligibility: Only those who are registered to vote should be allowed
to vote [35].
•Democracy: It only allows eligible people to vote once [36].
•Opposition: Because voting may be done from anywhere, no one can
add unveried ballots or prevent anybody from coming to the polls.
E-voting proposed in this paper it will be a solution to the gap [37] in
the traditional voting systems. Thus, to ensure accuracy and bias-free
elections [25]; The purpose is that the user can see how their votes
have been saved and to prevent others from monitoring who has voted.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 delves into the back-
ground and context of existing research, shedding light on key insights
and methodologies that have paved the way for our investigation. Sec-
tion 3 presents the specic research question at the heart of our inquiry
and discusses its signicance. Section 4 details the methodology and
system design, providing a comprehensive overview of our proposed
blockchain-based electronic voting system. Section 5 presents the results
of our research, highlighting key ndings and their implications. Section
6 discusses the results scientically, compares them to previous research
and addresses their signicance and limitations. Section 7 explores the
factors of law and politics in e-voting. Finally, Section 8 offers a scien-
tic conclusion summarizing the main ndings, restating the impor-
tance of our research, and suggesting directions for future study or
applications. Throughout the paper, we aim to thoroughly examine the
transformative potential of blockchain-based electronic voting systems
and their role in modernizing electoral processes.
2. Related works
2.1. Blockchain concepts
The blockchain concept is an ever-evolving living process that will
continue to exist for as long as it can successfully transmit its genetic
code from one generation of blocks to the next [11,38,39]. Information
written on a following block is veried and validated by software pro-
grams in the blockchain, and any peer on the network can do so by
utilizing a hash code to make a verication [40,41]. This particular
blockchain will be updated with several cutting-edge technologies in the
form of computational elements to simplify and expedite conducting
nancial transactions [42]. These transactions are logged in the
distributed ledger, ensuring transparency and the inability to alter
Fig. 1. The Current process of Voting System in Morocco (Paper Ballot).
T. Chaq et al.

International Journal of Intelligent Networks 5 (2024) 38–48
40
previous records [43]. While it is theoretically possible to tamper with
the data recorded on the blockchain, this would require the majority of
peers to be corrupt and willing to participate in the tampering, and it
would have to be done systematically and without interruption. The
blockchain is decentralized, meaning that no one controls the ledger and
copies of the ledger are always accessible to all peers. New data is
recorded to a single block that many peers can verify, and the data from
all previous blocks is combined into a single ledger distributed among
peers; this is not possible in a public blockchain network that is inde-
pendently controlled [44]. Therefore, blockchain helps ensure the safety
and openness of digital government records while contributing to their
decentralization and adaptability [44]. Utilizing technology can signif-
icantly enhance essential governmental functions within the E-core,
including overseeing decentralized government information databases
and validating diverse public transactions and digital services for citi-
zens and businesses. These technological solutions have the potential to
substantially elevate trust in the e-voting system, thereby fostering
greater public condence in its reliability and effectiveness.
2.2. Background and context in existing research
To understand the transformative potential of blockchain-based
electronic voting systems, it is essential to navigate the existing body
of literature that has illuminated the path to secure and transparent
elections. This section delves into the background and context provided
by previous research, shedding light on the key insights, methodologies,
and ndings that have paved the way for our investigation.
2.3. The specic research question
At the heart of our inquiry lies a specic research question: “Can a
blockchain-based electronic voting system enhance the integrity, secu-
rity, and transparency of the electoral process in Morocco?" This ques-
tion encapsulates the essence of our research endeavor and serves as the
compass guiding our exploration into the realm of blockchain-based e-
voting systems.
2.4. The signicance of this research
The signicance of our research cannot be overstated, especially
considering the pivotal role elections play as the cornerstone of demo-
cratic societies [45]. Elections serve as the bedrock of citizen partici-
pation, allowing individuals to voice their preferences and shape the
trajectory of their nations [23]. However, the integrity and transparency
of these electoral processes have faced persistent challenges, as high-
lighted by recent studies [21,37,46]. Traditional voting methods, as
noted in Ref. [37], have been vulnerable to various threats, leading to
delayed result declarations [46] and, more critically, facing disruptions
such as those caused by the COVID-19 pandemic [21]. These challenges
not only hinder the efciency of the electoral process but also erode
public trust in the outcomes.
Our research focuses on the potential of blockchain technology to
revolutionize electronic voting, aligning with the ndings of [47] that
extensively elaborate on blockchain’s core attributes: immutability,
transparency, security, and decentralization. By leveraging these attri-
butes, we aim to signicantly enhance the integrity of electoral results
signicantly, ensuring tamper-proof and transparent voting mecha-
nisms. This aligns with the urgent need for resilient, technologically
advanced solutions that can adapt to evolving societal and global cir-
cumstances. While our citations primarily highlight foundational
studies, we acknowledge the expansive literature landscape in this eld.
In future iterations, we intend to broaden our literature review to
encompass a more comprehensive array of works while emphasizing the
relevance of our proposed solution. Our research endeavors not only to
fortify the foundations of democracy in Morocco but also to contribute
innovative approaches that could have a transformative impact on
electoral systems globally. The importance of our research lies in its
potential to offer a robust and adaptable solution to the persistent
challenges facing electoral processes, as identied in many scholarly
works. By integrating the principles of blockchain technology into
electronic voting systems, we aspire to address vulnerabilities, stream-
line result declarations, and uphold the democratic values essential to
Fig. 2. Characteristics e-voting system.
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41
societies worldwide.
2.5. Addressing gaps in existing literature
While the literature has explored various e-voting systems and their
potential [24–27], it is apparent that several critical gaps persist,
echoing the need for innovative solutions in the domain of electoral
integrity.
Several prior studies have proposed electronic voting systems, each
bringing unique insights. For instance, Arthur’s two-tier design [24]
introduced a system with a front-end interface for collecting votes and a
back-end server for processing and storing votes. However, this design
inherently relies on a persistent internet connection, rendering it chal-
lenging to implement in regions with limited connectivity, as exempli-
ed in certain areas of Ghana.
Rexha et al.’s methodology for increasing authenticity and trans-
parency in e-voting systems [48] presents a dynamic queue-based
approach that allows voters to participate from anywhere. While inno-
vative, this approach needs to fully address the security of the central-
ized database used for verication before voting commences, and it
neglects the need to ensure the integrity of cast ballots during the voting
process.
Kurbatov et al.’s ring signature-based e-voting system [49]priori-
tized voter anonymity through ring signatures. Their design encom-
passed validators, user identity verication, and end users for vote
casting. However, it needed to adequately address the transparency of
vote result storage, which remains crucial in guaranteeing the integrity
and credibility of election outcomes.
In light of these prior studies and their respective limitations, our
research endeavors to comprehensively bridge these gaps in the litera-
ture. We present a holistic solution that leverages blockchain’s inherent
qualities to ensure anonymity, integrity, accuracy, and veriability in
the voting process. Moreover, integrating the Solana blockchain into the
proposed system adds a layer of innovation and feasibility.
As we navigate the terrain of existing research, it becomes evident
that our study holds the potential to advance the discourse on secure and
transparent electronic voting systems, not only academically but also in
practical applications. By addressing the gaps left by prior research and
embracing the unique attributes of blockchain technology, we aim to
contribute to the evolution of democratic processes and the safeguarding
of democratic values in an ever-evolving digital landscape.
3. Methodology and system design
3.1. Methodological framework and system prerequisites
Establishing a robust foundation is paramount to revolutionizing the
electoral process in Morocco through blockchain technology. This
foundation necessitates a clear delineation of essential system re-
quirements and objectives that will govern the development of our
blockchain-based electronic voting system. The research methodology
must be presented with utmost clarity to determine the suitability of the
chosen techniques and methods for achieving the anticipated outcomes.
Our principal objectives encompass affordability, accessibility, integ-
rity, privacy, and transparency.
3.2. The vision of remote and on-site functionality
Our vision transcends traditional polling stations, aiming to
empower voters by enabling them to remotely cast their ballots using
smartphones or laptops from any location. This approach enhances
accessibility and mitigates challenges related to physical travel to poll-
ing places. However, considering Morocco’s infrastructural diversity
and developmental status, reliance on remote voting may pose com-
plexities [30,50,51]. Consequently, we propose a hybrid system seam-
lessly integrating remote and on-site voting options to accommodate
diverse electoral needs.
3.3. Technical aspect: multilayer architecture
Our proposed solution adopts a multilayer architecture (illustrated in
Fig. 3) built upon the robust Solana blockchain. This architecture
comprises two fundamental layers: a Distributed Permission Ledger
Technology (DPLT) layer responsible for data verication and validation
and a Solana blockchain layer dedicated to ensuring data immutability
and decentralization. These two layers collaborate to provide a secure
and veriable voting environment throughout the electoral process.
3.4. Solana blockchain and its role in E-voting
The Solana blockchain assumes a pivotal role as the cornerstone of
our proposed electronic voting system. Solana is renowned for enabling
smart contracts, non-fungible tokens (NFTs), and decentralized appli-
cations (dApps) and facilitating high-speed, secure, and scalable trans-
actions [52]. With the capacity to handle up to 50,000 transactions per
second (TPS) and block times of 400 milliseconds, Solana offers the
speed and scalability necessary for a nationwide voting system. It aims
to demonstrate the feasibility of a blockchain embodying scalability,
security, and decentralization. Under typical conditions, the system can
sustain up to 710,000 TPS on a standard gigabit network and reach 28.4
million TPS on a 40-gigabit ethernet [53], positioning it as one of the
world’s preeminent decentralized computer networks. The second layer
continuously maintains a hash of the most recent transaction, enhancing
transparency, security, and system integrity.
3.5. First layer: Distributed Permission Ledger Technology (DPLT)
The rst layer introduces Distributed Permission Ledger Technology
(DPLT), enabling authorized participants to submit digitally signed
messages and statements. The distributed storage system safeguards and
veries voting by transferring validated data to the blockchain.
Throughout the voting procedure, the rst layer serves as the primary
communication conduit, maintaining an immutable record of all data.
Cryptographically authenticated symbols validate referenced blocks,
facilitating swift verication even on resource-constrained devices. Each
block within this layer includes essential components such as the root
hash, unique identication hash, hash linkage to the preceding block,
mediator server nodes, and bidirectional connections to other blocks.
3.6. DPLT and security
The security of the rst layer is reinforced by involving authorized
external organizations responsible for certifying transactions and up-
holding data integrity within Moroccan elections. Nodes within the
network store transactions, and each new transaction is incorporated
into blocks through a consensus process involving all nodes. Consensus
node rotation prevents centralization, with impartial mediator servers
and independent third parties overseeing management at various loca-
tions. The consensus nodes’ primary objectives include verifying ballots
as the legitimate work of authorized voters, decrypting and validating
content, and conducting post-election decryption for ballot counting.
3.7. Second layer: logging method on solana
The rst layer is connected to the second layer, a logging method for
recording historical transaction information This second layer is built on
the Solana blockchain, ensuring that our permission layer’s data is
immutable and tamper-proof. The Solana blockchain has low latency
(0.4 s per transaction), low costs (average fee of $0.00001 per trans-
action), and high throughput (over 50,000 transactions per second),
making it possible for full nodes to run on any device.
In the System Architecture with Solana (Fig. 4), each block in the
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42
blockchain is 10 MB in size and contains a specic number of trans-
actions. Each block also includes metadata, such as the number of
transactions and events it contains, and input and output hashes. When a
node claims to have produced a new block, other nodes can verify this
claim. The node that created the block is called the leader, while the
nodes that perform the verication are called validators.
The second layer was designed to leverage the data security features
of the Solana blockchain while requiring minimal data storage.
The second-layer log comprises regular updates originating from the
rst layer, which are subsequently stored on the distributed nodes of
both the Impartial Mediator servers and the Solana blockchain. To
initiate the creation of a new collective Solana address, the Mediator
server undertakes the signing and broadcasting of the genesis trans-
action, denoted as txid(0) of the block(0), onto the Solana network. This
pivotal transaction serves as the foundation for the second-layer log. It
includes essential elements such as the public key to the Impartial
Mediator server and an initial payment, denoted as S(0), directed to-
wards the newly established address.
To extend the entries within the log, the Impartial Mediator server
proceeds to broadcast a Solana transaction bearing the identier txid(i).
Following this, a subsequent statement is made wherein txid(i) desig-
nates an allocation of Solana funds, specically represented as b(i-1) and
derived from the output of txid(i-1), directed towards the nominated
address of the governing authorities. This iterative process culminates in
generating a series of interconnected transactions, effectively con-
structing an immutable and tamper-resistant log of assertions, as illus-
trated in Fig. 5.
Combining the two proposed layers provides decentralization, scal-
ability, and security at a lower cost and with high data throughput.
3.8. Polling booth program interface
In a network election, authorized voters can participate by using the
polling booth program interfaces. This program retrieves information
from the election conguration, presenting voters with candidate lists
and options. Voters make selections on encrypted ballots, processed
within the rst layer. The polling booth program interface expedites the
voting process and empowers voters to verify device functionality and
ballot accuracy. Our prototype ensures end-to-end veriability, decen-
tralization, scalability, and adherence to technological requisites for
successful elections. Through this system, we aim to enhance democratic
processes, enabling fully veried digital elections for the Moroccan
government. Subsequent sections will delve into the technical intricacies
of our blockchain-based electronic voting system, emphasizing security,
transparency, and innovation, while adhering to the research
methodology.
Fig. 3. Transaction Flow in Moroccan’s Blockchain system.
Fig. 4. System architecture with Solana blockchain.
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43
4. Results
This section presents the results of our proposed blockchain-based
electronic voting system’s development and testing. We highlight key
ndings and outcomes based on the methodology and system design
detailed in previous sections.
Fig. 5. Figure Building a tamper-proof log of assertions through transactions.
Fig. 6. Figure Building a tamper-proof log of assertions through transactions.
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44
4.1. System architecture
Fig. 6 illustrates the system architecture of our blockchain-based
electronic voting system. Authorized voters interact with the system to
cast their ballots. The system comprises two fundamental layers: the
Distributed Permission Ledger Technology (DPLT) layer, responsible for
data verication and validation, and the Solana blockchain layer dedi-
cated to data immutability and decentralization. The DPLT layer facili-
tates transaction validation, cryptographic verication, and the storage
of validated data on distributed nodes. The Solana blockchain layer
maintains an immutable transaction log, enhancing transparency and
security.
4.2. System performance evaluation
In Fig. 7 below, we present a sequence diagram illustrating the
performance assessment of our voting system. This diagram outlines the
transaction processing sequence from the voters’ perspective and the
system.
Fig. 7 illustrates the transaction processing sequence in our system.
Voters cast their ballots, initiating transaction processing. The loop
demonstrates the system’s capability to handle a high transaction rate
efciently by verifying transactions before providing voters with
conrmation.
4.3. Security measures in the DPLT layer
Security is a critical aspect of our system. We employed multiple
security measures within the Distributed Permission Ledger Technology
(DPLT) layer. Fig. 8 represents the distribution of these security
measures.
Fig. 8 provides an overview of the distribution of security measures
within the DPLT layer. It emphasizes the importance of cryptographic
verication, the involvement of authorized external organizations,
consensus node rotation, impartial mediator servers, and independent
third parties in ensuring the security and integrity of the voting process.
4.4. Transparency verication in the second layer
Transparency and veriability are integral to the electoral process.
Fig. 9 demonstrates how our system ensures transparency in the second
layer.
Fig. 9 depicts the transparency verication ow in our system’s
second layer. The Blockchain provides transaction logs to the Auditor,
who can request verication. Upon verication, the Blockchain returns
veried logs to the Auditor, ensuring transparency and accountability in
the electoral process. Fig. 9 complements the sequence diagram pre-
sented earlier, visually representing the verication ow.
4.5. User interface ow
The user interface plays a pivotal role in the voting experience.
Fig. 10 outlines the user interface ow in our system.
1. Start (A): The ow begins with the “Start" point, where the user
initiates the voting process.
2. Retrieve Election Data (B): The system retrieves essential election
data, including candidate lists, from the database.
3. Present Candidate Lists (C): The user is presented with a list of
candidates to choose from. This step enables voters to make informed
selections.
4. Voter Selections (D): Voters make their selections from the pre-
sented candidate lists. This interaction is a crucial part of the elec-
toral process, allowing voters to choose their preferred candidates.
5. Encrypted Ballot Processing (E): Once the voter selections are
made, the system processes the choices and generates an encrypted
ballot, ensuring the security and condentiality of the vote.
6. Verication of Device Functionality (F): The system veries the
functionality of the user’s device, ensuring that it can securely
transmit the encrypted ballot. This step is vital to guarantee that the
vote is accurately recorded.
7. Ballot Accuracy Check (G): The nal step involves a ballot accuracy
check, ensuring that the voter’s selections are accurately recorded
before the vote is ofcially cast.
8. End (H): The ow concludes with the “End" point, marking the
completion of the voting process.
Fig. 7. Transaction processing sequence. Fig. 8. Distribution of DPLT security measures.
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This user interface ow ensures a seamless and intuitive voting
experience for users while maintaining the integrity and accuracy of the
electoral process. It empowers voters to make informed choices and
veries the accuracy of their selections before nalizing their ballots.
4.6. Comparative analysis of e-voting features
To fully comprehend the potential of our system in shaping a more
secure, transparent, and efcient e-voting landscape, we embark on a
comprehensive comparative analysis. This analysis juxtaposes the key
features, benets, and challenges of traditional e-voting systems with
those of a blockchain-integrated model.
The following tables (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3) illuminate the
transformative potential of this technology, paving the way for a more
resilient and inclusive democratic process.
This comparative framework will serve as a foundation for exploring
the theoretical and practical implications of implementing a blockchain-
based e-voting system, paving the way for a more secure, transparent,
and inclusive democratic experience.
Our blockchain-based electronic voting system prototype, starting
with the presentation of the system architecture, not only meets but even
exceeds the requirements of a modern, secure, and transparent electoral
process. The potential to revolutionize elections is offered, ensuring that
each vote is counted accurately and that the process remains open to
scrutiny. These results provide a strong foundation for our prototype’s
future adoption and renement in Moroccan elections and beyond.
Further technical details and discussions can be found in subsequent
sections.
5. Discussion
The results of our research illuminate the transformative potential of
blockchain-based electronic voting systems within the specic context
of Morocco’s electoral process, addressing the fundamental question of
whether such a system can enhance the integrity, security, and trans-
parency of elections. These ndings contribute to a growing body of
evidence that underscores the pivotal role of blockchain technology in
redening conventional processes across various sectors. The multi-
layered architecture we have proposed, comprising the Distributed
Permission Ledger Technology (DPLT) layer and the Solana blockchain
layer, represents a substantial step toward realizing a more secure and
accountable electoral system. Our study reinforces the hypothesis that
when strategically harnessed, blockchain can signicantly enhance
elections’ integrity and security.
Contrary to concerns voiced by skeptics, our results do not align with
the theory that blockchain might introduce more vulnerabilities.
Instead, they indicate that blockchain can be a robust safeguard against
electoral fraud and manipulation with proper design and implementa-
tion. The performance evaluation of our system, showcased in the re-
sults, provides a new and compelling insight into the relationship
between technology, transparency, and electoral trust. The demon-
strated capability to handle a high transaction rate efciently is a key
determinant of the system’s success in ensuring the accuracy and
Fig. 9. Transparency verication ow.
Fig. 10. Flowchart depicting the user interface ow of the system.
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46
integrity of the voting process.
However, it is crucial to acknowledge the intertwining factors of law
and politics that inuence adopting e-voting systems. The legal and
political landscape can either facilitate or hinder the implementation of
such systems. Factors such as legislative frameworks, political will, and
stakeholder engagement play a signicant role in determining the
feasibility and acceptance of blockchain-based electronic voting.
The legal aspects of e-voting vary depending on the country and
jurisdiction in which the e-voting system is used [56]. A variety of legal
and political factors must be taken into account when implementing e-
voting systems. Some critical legal considerations include ensuring that
the e-voting system complies with relevant laws and regulations gov-
erning the electoral process, protecting condentiality, and ensuring the
integrity and accuracy of the voting process. Additionally, specic legal
requirements related to using electronic communications and informa-
tion technology in the electoral process may need to be considered.
From a political perspective, it is essential to ensure that the general
public perceives e-voting systems as fair and transparent. This may
require implementing measures such as independent audits and public
education campaigns to promote trust and condence in the e-voting
system. Political considerations include.
•The potential for e-voting to increase voter turnout,
•The impact on different demographic groups and
•The potential for e-voting to enable new forms of political partici-
pation and engagement.
Overall, e-voting systems need to be designed and implemented in a
way that considers both legal and political considerations to ensure the
legitimacy and fairness of elections.
Legal frameworks must be adapted to accommodate blockchain
technology’s unique attributes while addressing data privacy, security,
and accountability concerns. Political will, on the other hand, is
instrumental in driving the adoption of innovative electoral solutions,
including blockchain-based systems. It can also inuence the allocation
of resources and support required for successful implementation.
Moreover, stakeholder engagement is vital for building consensus and
trust in the new electoral system. Engaging with political parties, civil
society organizations, and the public is essential to ensure transparency,
address concerns, and gain acceptance.
The data we have generated contribute to a clearer understanding of
the potential benets of blockchain technology in elections and can
serve as a foundation for informed decision-making by electoral au-
thorities and policymakers. While our ndings underscore the promise
of blockchain-based electronic voting systems, it is essential to recognize
the multifaceted challenges presented by the factors of law and politics.
The transition from a prototype to a full-scale implementation may
encounter legal and political hurdles that warrant further investigation
and strategic planning. The system’s reliance on technology accessibility
poses potential barriers in regions with limited connectivity or digital
infrastructure, which political and legal considerations can exacerbate.
Moreover, the need to build trust and acceptance among voters and
relevant authorities is a gradual process, potentially affecting the initial
adoption and success of the system.
Our research signies a substantial leap toward advancing electoral
processes’ integrity, security, and transparency, particularly in the
Moroccan context. It bolsters the hypothesis that blockchain can be a
powerful tool in the arsenal of electoral modernization, countering
skepticism with empirical evidence. However, the journey towards the
widespread adoption of blockchain-based electronic voting systems is
characterized by challenges and complexities inuenced by the intricate
interplay of law and politics. This study encourages further exploration
and renement of these systems while emphasizing the critical role of
legal and political considerations in shaping the future of e-voting.
Table 1
Delves into the fundamental features of both approaches, highlighting the
distinctive advantages offered by our e-voting.
Features Pre-Blockchain e-Voting After Implementation
Security Relied on centralized systems,
vulnerable to hacking and
tampering.
Enhanced security through
decentralized storage,
cryptographic algorithms, and
consensus mechanisms,
reducing risks of tampering and
fraud.
Transparency The Lack of transparent
processes made verication
challenging, potentially
compromising the integrity of
the election.
Every transaction is transparent
and immutable, ensuring
verication and integrity of the
entire process.
Cost It Required signicant
resources for infrastructure,
maintenance, and manual
verication.
Potentially more cost-effective
by reducing infrastructure,
labor, and audit expenses.
Speed Processing and tallying votes
could take a long time due to
manual intervention and
verication procedures.
Almost instant vote validation
and counting due to high
throughput and low latency.
Accessibility Accessibility issues for remote
voters, those with disabilities,
or those unable to physically
reach polling stations.
Improved accessibility for
remote voters, potentially
increasing overall participation
and inclusivity.
Table 2
Encapsulates the key benets anticipated post-implementation, showcasing the
potential for enhanced trust, integrity, and efciency.
Key Benets Post-
Implementation
Pre-Blockchain e-Voting After Implementation
Immutable
Records
The Lack of transparent
processes made
verication challenging,
potentially compromising
the integrity of the
election.
Enhanced trust through
transparent and immutable
records.
Reduced Fraud Vulnerable to
manipulation due to
centralized systems.
Difculty in altering or
manipulating votes due to
decentralized and secure
mechanisms.
Efciency Time-consuming
processing and verication
procedures.
Faster processing and
declaration of results,
reducing time and resources.
Accessibility Limited access for remote
voters and those with
disabilities.
Improved access for remote
voters, increasing inclusivity
and participation.
Cost-Efciency High costs associated with
infrastructure and manual
labor.
Potential reduction in costs
associated with physical
infrastructure and manual
labor.
Table 3
Acknowledges the persistent challenges and considerations that warrant atten-
tion, emphasizing the importance of security, education, regulatory compliance,
and maintenance within traditional and blockchain-based systems.
Challenges and
Considerations
Pre-Blockchain e-
Voting
After Implementation
Security
Concerns
Vulnerability to
hacking and
tampering.
Potential vulnerabilities despite
enhanced security measures.
Education and
Adoption
Complex for specic
demographics.
Ensuring user-friendly interfaces
for all demographics.
Regulatory
Compliance
Adherence to legal and
regulatory
requirements.
Adherence to legal and regulatory
requirements, especially in
sensitive areas like voting systems.
Maintenance and
Upkeep
Regular maintenance
of systems.
Continuous maintenance and
updates for the blockchain
network.
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47
6. Conclusion
Our research highlights the transformative potential of blockchain-
based electronic voting systems within Morocco’s electoral frame-
work. Our primary ndings afrm the viability of our multilayered
system, which unites Distributed Permission Ledger Technology and the
Solana blockchain to enhance election integrity, security, and trans-
parency, challenging initial doubts and emphasizing the crucial impor-
tance of precise design and execution. The signicance of our research
extends beyond our immediate ndings. It contributes to the broader
discourse on electoral modernization in an increasingly digital era,
strengthening the hypothesis that blockchain technology can effectively
address vulnerabilities in traditional voting methods and underscoring
the need to adapt legal frameworks, garner unwavering political sup-
port, and engage stakeholders to ensure the widespread adoption of
blockchain-based electronic voting systems. Additionally, our ndings
point to promising directions for future research and practical applica-
tions, including assessing scalability under diverse electoral scenarios,
exploring advanced cryptographic techniques for enhanced voter pri-
vacy while preserving transparency and security, and examining socio-
political aspects, such as public perception, trust-building strategies,
and their impact on voter participation. In conclusion, our research
plays a signicant role in modernizing the electoral process and pre-
serving democratic principles, emphasizing the pivotal role of technol-
ogy in addressing persistent electoral challenges. Furthermore, as we
move forward, we can reshape elections, making them more accessible,
secure, and transparent, reinforcing democracy’s foundation in the
digital age.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Tarik Chaq: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Writing –
original draft, Writing – review & editing. Rida Azmi: Data curation,
Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Ouadoud Mohammed: Software, Validation, Writing – review &
editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
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