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A Review of Diagnostic Nano Stents: Part (I)

February 2024
Journal of Chemical Reviews 6(2):138-180

February 2024
6(2):138-180

DOI:10.48309/JCR.2024.432947.1287

Authors:

Abdul Razak Mohamed Sikkander

Velammal Engineering College

Nitin Wahi

Pathfinder Research and Training institute

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The development of diagnostic nanostents, which blend stent design with nanotechnology to offer multipurpose capabilities, has greatly revolutionized medical diagnostics. Blood vessels can receive structural support and we have real-time diagnosis data from these state-of-art devices. To enhance the precision and efficacy of cardiovascular therapy, diagnostic nanostents are devices that incorporate imaging and diagnostic-oriented nanoparticles. Imaging agents, such as nanoparticles that respond to various imaging modalities, are included in medical imaging procedures to improve the visualization of blood vessels and surrounding tissues. Better diagnostic accuracy and early problem discovery are made possible for greater visibility. This review explores the potential benefits of diagnostic nanostents, including their dual ability to provide structural support and diagnostic skills. The use of nanomaterials that can enhance contrast makes real-time imaging during medical procedures possible and provides immediate feedback to healthcare professionals. Moreover, diagnostic nanostents advance the ideas of personalized medicine. Preclinical research, clinical trials, and more studies are required to verify the safety, efficacy, and utility of these diagnostic nanostents in medicine, despite their many potential advantages. Because of the interdisciplinary nature of research and the dynamic character of nanomedicine, diagnostic nanostents are positioned as a transformative technology that could completely change medical diagnostics in cardiovascular therapy.

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2024, Volume 6, Issue 2

138

Journal of Chemical Reviews

*Corresponding Author: Abdul Razak Mohamed Sikkander (ams240868@gmail.com )

Review Article

A Review of Diagnostic Nano Stents: Part (I)

Abdul Razak Mohamed Sikkander1,*, Hazarathaiah Yadav2, Manoharan Meena3,

Nitin Wahi4, Krishan Kumar5

1Department of Chemistry, Velammal Engineering College, Chennai, India

2Department of Chemistry, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala R&D Institute of science&Technology, Avadi, Chennai, India

3Department of Chemistry, R.M.K. Engineering College,Kavaraipettai, Chennai, India

4Department of Bioinformatics, Pathfinder Research and Training Foundation, Gr. Noida, India

5Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India

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Citation: A.R.M. Sikkander, H. Yadav, M. Meena, N. Wahi, K. Kuma, A Review of Diagnostic Nano Stents:

Part (I). J. Chem. Rev., 2024, 6(2), 138-180.

https://doi.org/10.48309/JCR.2024.432947.1287

Article info:

Received: 29 December 2023

Revised: 10 February 2024

Accepted: 28 February 2024

ID: JCR-2312-1287

Checked for Plagiarism: Yes

Language Editor Checked: Yes

Keywords:

Diagnostic nanostents, Stent design

intherapeutic approaches, Medical

imaging procedures, Long-term

safety, Non-invasive imaging

techniques

A B S T R A C T

The development of diagnostic nanostents, which blend stent design with

nanotechnology to offer multipurpose capabilities, has greatly revolutionized

medical diagnostics. Blood vessels can receive structural support and we have real-

time diagnosis data from these state-of-art devices. To enhance the precision and

efficacy of cardiovascular therapy, diagnostic nanostents are devices that

incorporate imaging and diagnostic-oriented nanoparticles. Imaging agents, such

as nanoparticles that respond to various imaging modalities, are included in

medical imaging procedures to improve the visualization of blood vessels and

surrounding tissues. Better diagnostic accuracy and early problem discovery are

made possible for greater visibility. This review explores the potential benefits of

diagnostic nanostents, including their dual ability to provide structural support

and diagnostic skills. The use of nanomaterials that can enhance contrast makes

real-time imaging during medical procedures possible and provides immediate

feedback to healthcare professionals. Moreover, diagnostic nanostents advance the

ideas of personalized medicine. Preclinical research, clinical trials, and more

studies are required to verify the safety, efficacy, and utility of these diagnostic

nanostents in medicine, despite their many potential advantages. Because of the

interdisciplinary nature of research and the dynamic character of nanomedicine,

diagnostic nanostents are positioned as a transformative technology that could

completely change medical diagnostics in cardiovascular therapy.

Abdul Razak Mohamed Sikkander: He is serving as an Associate

Professor and Head, Department of Chemistry, Velammal Engineering

College, Chennai- 600066 India. He has earned his UG, PG Chemistry

Degrees from Jamal Mohamed College, Trichy, M. Phil from Bharathidasan

University, Trichy and Ph.D. from Periyar University, Salem. He was 20th

Ph.D. scholar of Dr.P. Mani Sankar, Former Vice Chancellor,

Bharathidasan University Tiruchirappalli. He has taught for thirty years and

has written 12 books.

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Journal of Chemical Reviews

Hazarathaiah Yadav: He is serving as a Professor and Head,

Department of chemistry, Veltech Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala R&D

Institute of Science and Technology, Avadi, Chennai India. His research

focused areas are chromatography, Synthesis, Characterization, and

Nano materials.

Manoharan Meena: She works as a Professor in the Department of

Science and Humanities (Chemistry Division), at R.M.K. Engineering

College, Kavaraipettai, Thiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu since 1997. She

obtained her Master’s Degree in Applied Chemistry from Anna

University, Master of Philosophy from J.N.T University, and Doctorate

in Chemistry from Anna University, Chennai. She started her teaching

career in the year 1996 and serving with passion in the same field for the

past 27 years. Her areas of interest are phase transfer catalysis, polymer

chemistry, and environmental science. She has published many research

papers in both national and international journals. She has published 11

patents to her credit and acts as a reviewer in a few national journals.

She also presented papers at many conferences, seminars, and

workshops. In addition, she co-authored books on Engineering

Chemistry and Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development.

Nitin Wahi: He has completed his Ph.D. in the area of Algal Biofuels

(Plant Biotechnology) via UGC-JRF fellowship (Rank 61, 2014). His

specialization is in the area of Cellular Bio-Chemistry and Molecular

Biology. He had qualified a number of entrance exams including ICMR-

JRF; CSIR- NET-JRF; LS; GATE-XL; HSCST-JRF, etc. He has

successfully completed two research projects from DBT, Govt. of India

and Officer of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Govt. of India. He

owns to his credit 19 SCOPUS indexed publications, and 8 SCI papers,

with the highest of 5.5 IF, 3 NCMI sequences to GenBank, and has

published two books. Presently he is working as a Project Scientist at

Pathfinder Research and Training Foundation, Gr. Noida, U.P., India.

Krishan Kumar: He is working as a PhD. graduate MHRD-GATE

scholar at IIT Delhi, double Master’s Degree with an excellent academic

record in M. Tech. Nanotechnology and M.Sc. Biochemistry, data

analysis and interpretation.

2024, Volume 6, Issue 2

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Content

1. Introduction

2. Research and Methodologies

2.1 Nanotechnology integration

2.2 Imaging nanoparticles

2.3 Improved visualization

2.4 Responsive to specific modalities

2.5 Contrast enhancement

2.6 Real-time imaging

2.7 Site-specific imaging

2.8 Early detection

2.9 Monitoring treatment response

2.10 Reducing invasiveness

2.11 Precision medicine

2.12 Ongoing research and development

2.13 Broader trend in nanomedicine

2.14 Precise engineering at the nanoscale

2.15 Multifunctional nanomaterials

2.16 Tailoring properties for medical applications

2.17 Emergence of different types of nanostents

2.18 Potential impact on cardiovascular interventions

2.19 Dynamic nature of research

2.20 Interdisciplinary collaboration

2.21 Potential for personalized medicine

2.22 Continuous monitoring of developments

3. Results and Discussion

4. Conclusion

1. Introduction

ardiovascular diseases remain a global

health challenge, necessitating

continuous advancements in

diagnostic and therapeutic approaches

[1]. Diagnostic nanostents represent a

revolutionary fusion of nanotechnology and

interventional cardiology, offering a paradigm

shift in the way we perceive and manage

vascular conditions [2]. These innovative

devices go beyond traditional stents, seamlessly

integrating diagnostic capabilities into their

structural support functions. The integration of

nanotechnology into diagnostic nanostents

brings unprecedented precision and versatility

to cardiovascular diagnostics [3].

Nanomaterials, engineered at the nanoscale,

not only provide mechanical reinforcement to

blood vessels, but also serve as carriers for

imaging agents and diagnostic functionalities

[4]. This convergence of structural support and

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141

real-time diagnostic capabilities holds the

potential to transform the landscape of

cardiovascular interventions [5].

Diagnostic nanostents leverage nanotechnology

to design stent materials with enhanced

properties, including biocompatibility and

imaging capabilities. Nanoscale engineering

allows for the precise manipulation of material

characteristics, contributing to the

multifunctionality of these advanced medical

devices [6]. Nanoparticles with imaging

properties are seamlessly integrated into the

stent design, serving as contrast agents for

various imaging modalities. These imaging

agents enhance the visibility of blood vessels

and surrounding tissues, providing detailed and

real-time diagnostic information during

medical imaging procedures [7].

Diagnostic nanostents enable real-time imaging

during interventions, offering immediate

feedback to healthcare providers. This real-time

diagnostic capability enhances the accuracy of

procedures and contributes to early detection,

thus, potentially improving patient outcomes

[8]. By combining structural support with

diagnostic functionalities, diagnostic

nanostents offer a multifunctional approach to

cardiovascular interventions. These devices aim

to streamline the diagnostic workflow, reducing

the need for separate diagnostic procedures

and enhancing the efficiency of patient care [9].

The primary objective is to enhance the

visualization of blood vessels and adjacent

tissues during diagnostic procedures. Improved

visibility contributes to accurate assessments of

vascular conditions, enabling timely and

targeted interventions [10]. Diagnostic

nanostents aim to provide real-time diagnostic

feedback to healthcare providers during

interventions. This immediate feedback

enhances decision-making, allowing for

adjustments in real time based on the evolving

diagnostic information [11]. The integration of

nanotechnology allows for the customization of

diagnostic approaches, aligning with the

principles of personalized medicine. Diagnostic

nano stents aim to tailor diagnostic procedures

to individual patient characteristics, optimizing

the diagnostic yield [12].

Despite the promising potential of diagnostic

nanostents, challenges such as biocompatibility,

regulatory approvals, and long-term safety

need to be addressed. Ongoing research,

interdisciplinary collaboration, and rigorous

clinical testing are imperative to validate the

safety, efficacy, and clinical utility of these

innovative devices [13]. The introduction of

diagnostic nanostents marks a significant leap

forward in cardiovascular diagnostics, merging

structural support with real-time imaging

capabilities. As research progresses, the

integration of nanotechnology into stent design

is poised to redefine diagnostic precision and

efficiency in cardiovascular interventions [14].

1.2. Research and methodologies

Research on diagnostic nanostents involves a

multifaceted approach, combining principles

from nanotechnology, materials science,

imaging sciences, and clinical research [15].

The methodologies employed in studying

diagnostic nanostents encompass a range of

techniques, from the engineering of

nanomaterials to preclinical and clinical

evaluations. Material Selection: Researchers

explore biocompatible nanomaterials suitable

for stent construction, considering factors such

as mechanical strength, degradation properties,

and imaging capabilities [16].

Surface Modification: Nanomaterial surfaces

may be engineered to enhance biocompatibility,

reduce thrombogenicity, and improve imaging

agent adherence. Nanoparticles or

nanomaterials with imaging properties (e.g.,

magnetic, fluorescent, or radiopaque) are

chosen as contrast agents. Methods for

effectively loading imaging agents onto or into

nanomaterials are explored, ensuring stability

and sustained release during diagnostic

procedures [17]. Nanotechnology-based

fabrication techniques, such as lithography,

self-assembly, or layer-by-layer assembly, are

employed to create diagnostic nano stents with

precise structural and imaging features [18]

(Figure 1). Cell culture experiments assess the

biocompatibility of diagnostic nanostents,

examining cell adhesion, viability, and

inflammatory responses. Animal Studies:

Implantation of diagnostic nanostents in animal

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models provides insights into their

biocompatibility within a living organism [19].

In vitro Imaging Studies: Researchers perform

controlled imaging studies in simulated

physiological conditions to evaluate the

visibility and diagnostic efficacy of diagnostic

nano stents. Preclinical Imaging: Animal studies

involving diagnostic procedures (e.g.,

angiography, CT scans, MRI) assess the real-

time diagnostic capabilities of the stents in a

physiological context [20] (Table 1). The

mechanical properties of diagnostic nanostents,

including radial strength, flexibility, and

durability, are evaluated through standardized

testing methods [21]. Computational modeling

helps predict and optimize the mechanical

behavior of diagnostic nanostents under

various physiological conditions [22].

Diagnostic nanostents may incorporate

therapeutic agents for localized treatment.

Methods for loading and releasing these agents

are explored.

In vivo studies assess the release kinetics and

systemic distribution of imaging and

therapeutic agents, contributing to optimized

diagnostic and therapeutic outcomes. Long-

term studies in animal models evaluate the

long-term safety, imaging performance, and

biocompatibility of diagnostic nanostents [23-

33] (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Diagnostic nano stent leverage nanotechnology to design drug loaded stent materials with

enhanced biocompatibility

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Table 1.Nanotechnology-based biosensors to detect biomarkers of CADs

Biomarker

Recognition

Nanomaterials

Methods

Linear

range

LOD

Time

[min]

Samples

Cardiac

troponins(cTns)

Antibody

AuNP-Hep-xGnP

DPV

0.050-

0.35

ng/mL

0.016

ng/mL

Whole

blood

cTns

Antibody

Ag/CoSnanoflowers

ECL

0.1

fg/mL

- 100

pg/mL

0.03 fg/mL

Human

serum

Myoglobin

Antibody

Ag NPT/ITO

SERS

ng/mL

- 5

μg/mL

10 ng/mL

Buffer,

Urine

CK-MB

Antibody

Polypyrrole@Bi2WO6

PEC

0.5-

2000

ng/mL

0.16

ng/mL

Blood

Multitargets

Antibody (cTnI,

CRP)

TiO2 nanofibrous

ELISA

pg/mL

- 100

ng/mL

Multitarget

antibody

[cTnI,

CRP]

TiO2

nano-

fibrous

miRNAs

Complementary

strands

Hollow Ag/Au NS

SERS

with

CHA

1 fM-

10 nM

0.306 fM

Blood

Figure 2. Properties of nano stents includes its mechanical nature (radial strength & flexibility) and its

biochemical properties (antibody coated, anti-microbial action, drug coating, pressure biosensor, biofilm

inhibition, etc.).

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Phase I to III clinical trials involve human

subjects to assess safety, diagnostic efficacy,

and potential therapeutic benefits in real-world

scenarios. Post-Market Surveillance: Continuous

monitoring of patients who have received

diagnostic nanostents provides data on their

long-term safety, imaging performance, and

clinical utility. Collaboration with regulatory

agencies is essential to ensure compliance with

safety and efficacy standards, leading to

regulatory approvals for clinical use. The

research methodologies employed in the

development of diagnostic nanostents involve a

combination of material engineering, imaging

agent integration, biocompatibility

assessments, mechanical testing, and

comprehensive preclinical and clinical

evaluations. These methods collectively

contribute to advancing the understanding and

application of diagnostic nanostents in

cardiovascular interventions [34].

Nanotechnology may be employed to enhance

the diagnostic capabilities of stents. For

example, incorporating nanomaterials with

imaging properties could improve visualization

during medical imaging procedures. It is

important to note that the development of

nanostents is an active area of research, and

specific types may emerge over time as

researchers make advancements in

nanotechnology and its application to medical

devices [35].

The statement succinctly captures the essence

of how nanotechnology can be harnessed to

enhance the diagnostic capabilities of stents. By

incorporating nanomaterials with imaging

properties, such as nanoparticles that respond

to imaging modalities like MRI or ultrasound,

researchers aim to improve the visualization of

blood vessels and surrounding tissues during

medical imaging procedures. Accurately

encapsulates the role of nanotechnology in

enhancing the diagnostic capabilities of stents.

The incorporation of nanomaterials with

imaging properties, such as nanoparticles

responsive to modalities like MRI or

ultrasound, is a strategy aimed at improving the

visualization of blood vessels and surrounding

tissues during medical imaging procedures.

2. Nanotechnology Integration

The integration of nanotechnology into stent

design involves incorporating nanomaterials

with specific properties, such as imaging

capabilities, to augment their functionality. The

statement succinctly captures a key aspect of

the integration of nanotechnology into stent

design. The incorporation of nanomaterials

with specific properties, particularly imaging

capabilities, is a strategic approach to enhance

the overall functionality of stents.

Nanotechnology enables the design and

engineering of materials at the nanoscale with

tailored properties. This customization allows

stent developers to choose materials that serve

specific functions, such as imaging, drug

delivery, or biocompatibility [36-52].

Nanomaterials encompass a wide range of

substances, including nanoparticles, nanotubes,

and nanocomposites. Each type of nanomaterial

offers unique properties that can be harnessed

to enhance various aspects of stent

functionality. The integration of nanomaterials

with imaging capabilities directly contributes to

improved diagnostic capabilities [53]. For

instance, nanoparticles designed for contrast

enhancement can enhance the visibility of

blood vessels and surrounding tissues during

medical imaging procedures. Some

nanomaterials can be engineered to respond to

specific stimuli, such as magnetic fields or

ultrasound waves. This responsiveness can be

utilized to create smart stents that actively

contribute to diagnostics or therapeutic

interventions. Nanotechnology facilitates the

development of multifunctional stents that can

perform several tasks simultaneously [54-70].

For example, a stent may incorporate

nanomaterials for drug delivery, imaging

enhancement, and surface modification to

improve biocompatibility. Nanoscale

engineering allows for precise control over the

properties of the incorporated nanomaterials.

This precision enables stent designers to fine-

tune the functionality of the stent according to

specific medical requirements [71-90]. The

choice of nanomaterials is crucial for ensuring

biocompatibility. While enhancing functionality,

the nanomaterials used in stents mustn't induce

adverse reactions or immune responses within

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the body. Nanotechnology can be applied to

develop advanced coatings for stents. These

coatings may have properties such as

hydrophilicity, anti-thrombogenicity, or anti-

inflammatory effects, contributing to the overall

performance and safety of the stent. Beyond

imaging, nanotechnology plays a significant role

in targeted drug delivery [91].

Stents can be designed to release therapeutic

agents precisely at the site of action, preventing

restenosis or promoting healing after

interventions. The field of nanotechnology in

stent design is dynamic, with ongoing research

focusing on optimizing nanomaterial properties

and exploring new functionalities. This

continuous innovation contributes to the

evolution of stent technology. The integration

of nanotechnology into stent design is a

promising avenue that allows for the

incorporation of nanomaterials with specific

properties, especially imaging capabilities, to

enhance the overall functionality of stents. This

approach holds great potential for advancing

both diagnostics and therapeutic interventions

in the field of interventional medicine [92]

(Figure 3).

2.2. Imaging nanoparticles

Nanoparticles engineered with imaging

properties play a crucial role in enhancing

diagnostic capabilities. These nanoparticles can

respond to various imaging modalities,

including magnetic resonance imaging [MRI],

ultrasound, or other techniques used in medical

imaging. The statement accurately highlights

the critical role that nanoparticles with imaging

properties play in advancing diagnostic

capabilities. Nanoparticles designed for imaging

often serve as contrast agents, enhancing the

contrast between tissues of interest and their

surroundings (Tables 2 and 3).

Figure 3. Integration of nanotechnology in stent design allows the incorporation of nanomaterials with

specific properties, especially imaging capabilities, to enhance the overall functionality of stents.

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Table 2. Nanoparticles designed for imaging often serve as contrast agents, enhancing the contrast between

tissues or structures of interest and their surroundings by Bottom-Up method

No.

Bottom-up

method

Merits

Demerits

General remarks

Atomic layer

deposition

Allows digital thickness

control to the atomic level

precision by depositing one

atomic layer at a time, pin-

hole free nanostructured

films over large areas, good

reproducibility, and

adhesion due to the

formation of chemical

bonds at the first atomic

layer

Usually a slow process,

also an expensive

method due to the

involvement of vacuum

components, difficulty

in depositing certain

metals,

multicomponent

oxides, and certain

technologically

important

semiconductors (Si, Ge,

etc.) in a cost-effective

way

Although a slow process, it

is not detrimental to the

fabrication of future-

generation ultra-thin ICs.

The stringent

requirements for the metal

barriers (pure; dense;

conductive; conformal;

and thin) that are

employed in modern Cu-

based chips can be fulfilled

by atomic layer deposition

Sol gel

nanofabrication

A low-cost chemical

synthesis process-based

method, fabrication of a

wide variety of

nanomaterials including

multicomponent materials

(glass, ceramic, film, fiber,

and composite materials)

Not easily scalable,

usually difficult to

control synthesis and

the subsequent drying

steps

A versatile

nanofabrication method

that can be made scalable

with further advances in

the synthesis steps

Molecular self-

assembly

Allows self-assembly of

deep molecular

nanopatterns of width less

than 20 nm and with the

large pattern stretches,

generates atomically

precise nanosystems

Difficult to design and

fabricate nanosystems

unlike mechanically

directed assembly

Molecular self-assembly of

multiple materials may be

a useful approach in

developing multifunctional

nanosystems and devices

Physical and

chemical vapor-

phase

deposition

Versatile nanofabrication

tools for fabrication of

nanomaterials including

complex multicomponent

nanosystems (e.g.,

nanocomposites),

controlled simultaneous

deposition of several

materials including metal,

ceramics, semiconductors,

insulators and polymers,

high purity nanofilms, a

scalable process, possibility

to deposit porous

nanofilms

Not cost-effective

because of the

expensive vacuum

components, high-

temperature process,

and toxic and corrosive

gases particularly in the

case of chemical vapor

deposition

It provides a unique

opportunity for the

nanofabrication of highly

complex nanostructures

made of distinctly

different materials with

different properties that

are not possible to

accomplish using most of

the other nanofabrication

techniques. New advances

in chemical vapor

deposition such as

‘initiated chemical vapor

deposition’ [i-CVD]

provide unprecedented

opportunities for

depositing polymers

without reduction in the

molecular weights

2024, Volume 6, Issue 2

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147

Table 2. Continued

No.

Bottom-up

method

Merits

Demerits

General remarks

DNA-scaffolding

Allows high-precision assembling of

nanoscale components into

programmable arrangements with

much smaller dimensions (less than

10 nm in half-pitch)

Many issues

need to be

explored, such

as novel unit

and integration

processes,

compatibility

with CMOS

fabrication, line

edge roughness,

throughput, and

cost

Very early stage. Ultimate

success depends on the

willingness of the

semiconductor industry in

terms of need, infrastructural

capital investment, yield, and

manufacturing cost

Atomic layer

deposition

Allows digital thickness control to

the atomic level precision by

depositing one atomic layer at a

time, pin-hole free nanostructured

films over large areas, good

reproducibility, and adhesion due to

the formation of chemical bonds at

the first atomic layer

Usually a slow

process, also an

expensive

method due to

the involvement

of vacuum

components,

difficulty in

depositing

certain metals,

multicomponent

oxides, and

certain

technologically

important

semiconductors

(Si, Ge, etc.) in a

cost-effective

way

Although a slow process, it is

not detrimental to the

fabrication of future-generation

ultra-thin ICs. The stringent

requirements for the metal

barriers (pure; dense;

conductive; conformal; and

thin) that are employed in

modern Cu-based chips can be

fulfilled by atomic layer

deposition

Sol gel

nanofabrication

A low-cost chemical synthesis

process-based method, fabrication of

a wide variety of nanomaterials

including multicomponent materials

(glass, ceramic, film, fiber, composite

materials)

Not easily

scalable, usually

difficult to

control

synthesis and

the subsequent

drying steps

A versatile nanofabrication

method that can be made

scalable with further advances

in the synthesis steps

Molecular self-

assembly

Allows self-assembly of deep

molecular nanopatterns of width

less than 20 nm and with the large

pattern stretches, generates

atomically precise nanosystems

Difficult to

design and

fabricate

nanosystems

unlike

mechanically

directed

assembly

Molecular self-assembly of

multiple materials may be a

useful approach in developing

multifunctional nanosystems

and devices

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148

Table 2. Continued

Physical

and

chemical

vapor-

phase

deposition

Versatile nanofabrication tools

for fabrication of nanomaterials

including complex

multicomponent nanosystems

(e.g., nanocomposites),

controlled simultaneous

deposition of several materials

including metal, ceramics,

semiconductors, insulators and

polymers, high purity nanofilms,

a scalable process, possibility to

deposit porous nanofilms

Not cost-effective

because of the

expensive vacuum

components, high-

temperature

process, and toxic

and corrosive gases

particularly in the

case of chemical

vapor deposition

It provides a unique

opportunity for nanofabrication

of highly complex

nanostructures made of

distinctly different materials

with different properties that

are not possible to accomplish

using most of the other

nanofabrication techniques.

New advances in chemical

vapor deposition such as

‘initiated chemical vapor

deposition’ (i-CVD) provide

unprecedented opportunities

for depositing polymers without

reduction in the molecular

weights

Table 3. Nanoparticles designed for imaging often serve as contrast agents, enhancing the contrast between

tissues or structures of interest and their surroundings by Top-Down method

S. No.

The top–down

method

Merits

Demerits

General remarks

Optical lithography

Long-standing,

established

micro/nanofabrication

tool especially for chip

production, sufficient

level of resolution at high

throughputs

Tradeoff between

resist process

sensitivity and

resolution involves

state-of-the-art

expensive clean

room-based complex

operations

The 193 nm lithography

infrastructure already

reached a certain level of

maturity and

sophistication, and the

approach could be

extended to extreme

ultraviolet (EUV) sources

to shrink the dimension.

Also, future developments

need to address the

growing cost of a mask set

E-beam

lithography

Popular in research

environments, an

extremely accurate

method and effective

nanofabrication tool for

<20 nm nanostructure

fabrication with desired

shape

Expensive, low

throughput and a

slow process (serial

writing process),

difficult for <5 nm

nanofabrication

E-beam lithography beats

the diffraction limit of

light, capable of making

periodic nanostructure

features. In the future,

multiple electron beam

approaches to lithography

would be required to

increase the throughput

and degree of parallelism

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Table 3. Continued

S. No.

The top–down

method

Merits

Demerits

General remarks

Soft and

nanoimprint

lithography

Pattern transfer-based

simple, effective

nanofabrication tool for

fabricating ultra-small

features (<10 nm)

Difficult for large-

scale production of

densely packed

nanostructures, also

dependent on other

lithography

techniques to

generate the

template, and

usually not cost-

effective

Self-assembled

nanostructures could be a

viable solution to the

problem of complex and

costly template

generation and for

templates of periodic

patterns of <10 nm

Block co-polymer

lithography

A high-throughput, low-

cost method, suitable for

large-scale densely

packed nanostructures,

diverse shapes of

nanostructures, including

spheres, cylinders, and

lamellae possible to

fabricate including

parallel assembly

Difficult to make

self-assembled

nanopatterns with

variable periodicity

required for many

functional

applications, usually

high defect densities

in block copolymer

self-assembled

patterns

The use of triblock

copolymers is promising

to generate more exotic

nanopattern geometries.

Likewise,

functionalization of parts

of the block copolymer

could be done to achieve a

hierarchy of

nanopatterning in a

single-step

nanofabrication process

Scanning probe

lithography

High-resolution chemical,

molecular and

mechanical

nanopatterning

capabilities, accurately

controlled nanopatterns

in resists for transfer to

silicon, ability to

manipulate big molecules

and individual atoms

Limited for high

throughput

applications and

manufacturing, an

expensive process,

particularly in the

case of ultra-high-

vacuum-based

scanning probe

lithography

Scanning probe

lithography can be

leveraged for advanced

bio nanofabrication that

involves the fabrication of

highly periodic

biomolecular

nanostructures

This increased contrast improves the visibility

of specific areas during diagnostic imaging.

Nanoparticles can be tailored to respond to

magnetic fields, making them suitable for

enhancing images in MRI scans. Magnetic

nanoparticles, in particular, exhibit unique

properties that make them effective as contrast

agents in MRI procedures. Ultrasound Imaging:

Nanoparticles can be engineered to enhance

ultrasound imaging, providing improved

resolution and clarity. Contrast agents

composed of microbubbles or nanobubbles, for

example, can enhance the visibility of blood

vessels and tissues during ultrasound

examinations.

Some nanoparticles exhibit fluorescence

properties, allowing them to emit light when

exposed to specific wavelengths. This property

is valuable for fluorescence imaging techniques,

providing a visual indicator for the presence of

certain structures or molecules. Nanoparticles

can be utilized in photoacoustic imaging, a

technique that combines laser-induced

ultrasound and optical imaging. This approach

allows for the visualization of structures with

high resolution and sensitivity. Engineered

nanoparticles can be designed to respond to

external stimuli, such as light, heat, or magnetic

fields.

This responsiveness can be exploited to control

the release of imaging signals or to modulate

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contrast during imaging procedures.

Nanoparticles can be functionalized by

targeting ligands, allowing for targeted imaging

of specific cells or tissues. This targeted

approach improves the accuracy of diagnostics

by focusing on areas of interest. Engineered

nanoparticles are valuable tools in studying the

biodistribution of drugs or contrast agents in

the body. They can be labeled with imaging

moieties, allowing researchers to track their

movement and accumulation in real time. The

integration of therapeutic and diagnostic

functions, known as theragnostic, involves

using nanoparticles for both imaging and drug

delivery.

This approach enables personalized medicine

by tailoring treatments based on real-time

imaging data. Engineered nanoparticles can

contribute to non-invasive imaging methods,

reducing the need for more invasive diagnostic

procedures. This is particularly advantageous

for patient comfort and safety. Nanoparticles

with imaging properties enable real-time

monitoring of biological processes. This

capability is crucial for dynamic studies, such as

tracking the movement of drugs or visualizing

changes in tissues over time. Engineered

nanoparticles for imaging have applications in

both research and clinical settings. In research,

they contribute to understanding disease

mechanisms, while in clinical practice; they

enhance the accuracy of diagnostic procedures.

Nanoparticles with imaging properties

represent a powerful tool in medical imaging,

contributing to enhanced diagnostic capabilities

across various modalities. Their versatility and

ability to respond to specific imaging

techniques make them valuable assets in

advancing the field of diagnostic medicine [93].

2.3. Improved visualization

The primary goal of incorporating imaging

nanomaterials is to enhance the visualization of

blood vessels and surrounding tissues. This

improvement is particularly important for

obtaining detailed and clear images during

diagnostic procedures. Accurately emphasizes

the primary goal of incorporating imaging

nanomaterials in medical applications,

especially in the context of enhancing the

visualization of blood vessels and surrounding

tissues. Improved Resolution: Imaging

nanomaterials contributes to improved

resolution in diagnostic imaging. The smaller

size and specific properties of these

nanomaterials enhance the clarity and

sharpness of images, allowing for a more

detailed view of anatomical structures. The

incorporation of imaging nanomaterials as

contrast agents significantly enhances the

contrast between blood vessels or tissues of

interest and their surroundings. This

heightened contrast is crucial for distinguishing

subtle differences and abnormalities in

diagnostic images. Nanomaterials can be

engineered to accumulate specifically in target

areas, enabling precise localization during

imaging. This targeted approach is valuable for

identifying and assessing specific regions of

interest within the body. The improved

visualization facilitated by imaging

nanomaterials contributes to the early

detection of abnormalities.

Early identification of conditions such as

tumors, lesions, or vascular issues enhances the

potential for timely intervention and improved

patient outcomes. Some imaging nanomaterials

can serve dual roles by providing both

structural and functional information. For

instance, they may highlight not only the

anatomy of blood vessels, but also provide

insights into physiological processes such as

blood flow or cellular activity. The use of

imaging nanomaterials supports non-invasive

evaluation of tissues and organs. This is

particularly advantageous for patients who may

benefit from diagnostic procedures without the

need for invasive interventions. Nanomaterials

enable real-time monitoring during diagnostic

procedures. This capability is essential for

dynamic studies, allowing healthcare

professionals to observe changes in blood flow,

tissue perfusion, or other physiological

parameters in real time. The incorporation of

imaging nanomaterials facilitates quantitative

imaging, allowing for the measurement and

analysis of parameters such as blood flow

velocity, tissue perfusion, or molecular

concentrations. This quantitative information

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adds precision to diagnostic assessments.

Nanomaterials can be designed for multimodal

imaging, where they respond to multiple

imaging modalities. This approach provides

complementary information, improving the

overall diagnostic assessment and reducing the

reliance on a single imaging technique. The

enhanced visualization achieved with imaging

nanomaterials contributes to patient-friendly

imaging experiences.

It may reduce the need for repeated imaging

sessions and enhance the overall efficiency of

diagnostic procedures. Imaging nanomaterials

are designed to seamlessly integrate with

existing imaging technologies, allowing for their

widespread adoption in clinical practice

without significant modifications to current

diagnostic protocols. The incorporation of

imaging nanomaterials aims to enhance the

visualization of blood vessels and surrounding

tissues, thereby improving the quality and

informativeness of diagnostic images. This

advancement is pivotal for achieving more

accurate diagnoses, facilitating early detection,

and contributing to the overall effectiveness of

diagnostic procedures in healthcare [94].

2.4. Responsive to specific modalities

Nanoparticles can be designed to respond

selectively to specific imaging modalities. For

instance, magnetic nanoparticles may enhance

visibility in MRI scans, while other types of

nanoparticles could be tailored for ultrasound

imaging highlighting a key aspect of the

versatility of nanoparticles in medical imaging

namely, their ability to be selectively designed

for specific imaging modalities. Nanoparticles

can be engineered to respond selectively to

distinct imaging modalities, tailoring their

properties for optimal enhancement in specific

diagnostic techniques. Magnetic nanoparticles,

such as superparamagnetic iron oxide

nanoparticles, are particularly effective in

enhancing visibility in magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI). These nanoparticles respond to

the magnetic fields generated during an MRI

scan, producing contrast that aids in visualizing

anatomical structures and detecting

abnormalities.

Other types of nanoparticles can be specifically

designed for ultrasound imaging. Nanoparticles,

including microbubbles or nanobubbles,

respond to ultrasound waves by oscillating or

bursting, creating a contrast that improves the

visibility of tissues and blood vessels during

ultrasound examinations. Fluorescent

nanoparticles emit light when exposed to

specific wavelengths, making them suitable for

optical imaging techniques. These nanoparticles

are valuable in applications such as

fluorescence microscopy or in vivo imaging

where their fluorescence enhances

visualization.

Nanoparticles can be engineered for

photoacoustic imaging, a technique that

involves converting laser-induced energy into

ultrasound signals. Gold nanoparticles, for

example, are often used for their strong

photoacoustic response, aiding in the tissues

visualization with high resolution. Advances in

nanotechnology allow the development of

multimodal nanoparticles that respond to

multiple imaging modalities. These versatile

nanoparticles provide complementary

information, improving diagnostic accuracy by

combining the strengths of different imaging

techniques. Nanoparticles can be designed to

respond to external stimuli beyond traditional

imaging modalities.

This responsiveness might include reactions to

changes in pH, temperature, or specific

biochemical environments, enabling tailored

imaging responses based on the conditions at

the target site. The surface properties of

nanoparticles can be customized to achieve

optimal interaction with imaging devices.

Surface modifications may include the

attachment of targeting ligands or coatings that

enhance the stability and performance of

nanoparticles in specific imaging environments

[95] (Figure4).

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Figure 4. Fluorescent nanoparticles emit light when exposed to specific wavelengths, making them suitable

for intracellular optical imaging

Nanoparticles designed for specific imaging

modalities contribute to real-time monitoring

during the diagnostic procedures. This

capability is essential for capturing dynamic

changes and assessing physiological processes

as they occur. Functionalized nanoparticles can

target specific biomarkers associated with

diseases. This targeted approach enables the

selective imaging of diseased tissues or cells,

offering a higher degree of precision in

diagnostics.

The continual advancements in nanomedicine

contribute to the development of increasingly

sophisticated nanoparticles with enhanced

imaging capabilities. Ongoing research explores

new materials and designs for nanoparticles to

further improve their performance in diverse

imaging applications. The selective design of

nanoparticles for specific imaging modalities

showcases the adaptability of nanotechnology

in tailoring contrast agents to the unique

requirements of each diagnostic technique. This

tailored approach contributes to the

advancement of imaging technologies,

supporting more accurate and detailed

diagnostics in various medical applications

[96].

2.5. Contrast enhancement

Nanoparticles can serve as contrast agents,

enhancing the contrast between blood vessels

and adjacent tissues. This heightened contrast

improves the clarity of images, aiding

healthcare professionals in making accurate

diagnoses. Succinctly captures the crucial role

that nanoparticles play in medical imaging as

contrast agents.

Nanoparticles enhance the contrast in medical

images by selectively accumulating in specific

tissues or structures. This contrast

enhancement is particularly valuable in

distinguishing between different types of

tissues and highlighting areas of interest. The

heightened contrast provided by nanoparticles

contributes to improved clarity in diagnostic

images. This improved clarity allows healthcare

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Figure 5. Fluorescent nanoparticles are used to enhance the visualization of blood vessels during imaging

procedure

professionals to visualize anatomical

structures, blood vessels, and abnormalities

with greater precision. Nanoparticles are often

utilized to enhance the visualization of blood

vessels during imaging procedures (Figure 5).

This is critical in various medical fields,

including cardiology, radiology, and vascular

surgery where detailed imaging of vascular

structures is essential for diagnosis and

treatment planning. The enhanced clarity and

contrast facilitated by nanoparticle-based

contrast agents’ aid healthcare professionals in

making more accurate and reliable diagnoses.

This is particularly beneficial for detecting

subtle abnormalities or early signs of diseases.

By improving the distinction between different

tissues and structures, nanoparticle contrast

agents help reduce ambiguity in diagnostic

images. This reduction in ambiguity is crucial

for avoiding misinterpretations and ensuring

the accuracy of diagnostic assessments.

Nanoparticles can be tailored to optimize

specific imaging modalities, such as magnetic

resonance imaging [MRI], computed

tomography [CT], ultrasound, and optical

imaging.

This versatility allows for the customization of

contrast agents based on the requirements of

the imaging technique. Functionalized

nanoparticles can be designed for targeted

contrast enhancement, concentrating the

contrast agent specifically in areas of interest.

This targeted approach further improves the

precision of imaging and reduces the

background noise in diagnostic images. The use

of nanoparticles as contrast agents enables

real-time imaging during medical procedures.

This real-time visualization is valuable in

interventions, surgeries, and other dynamic

processes where immediate feedback is

essential for decision-making. The use of

nanoparticle-based contrast agents contributes

to patient-friendly imaging experiences. The

enhanced clarity and reduced ambiguity in

images may decrease the need for additional

imaging sessions, minimizing inconvenience for

patients. Some nanoparticles used as contrast

agents may have theragnostic capabilities,

combining both diagnostic and therapeutic

functions. This approach allows for

simultaneous imaging and targeted therapy,

fostering a personalized medicine approach.

The development of biocompatible

nanoparticle contrast agents is crucial to ensure

their safe use in medical imaging.

Biocompatible materials help minimize adverse

reactions and ensure the overall safety of the

imaging procedure.

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Nanoparticles serving as contrast agents

significantly contribute to the field of medical

imaging by enhancing contrast, improving

clarity, and aiding in accurate diagnoses. Their

versatility and adaptability across various

imaging modalities make them valuable tools

for healthcare professionals seeking detailed

and reliable information during diagnostic

procedures [97].

2.6. Real-time imaging

The use of nanomaterials allows for real-time

imaging during medical procedures. This

capability is valuable for monitoring changes in

blood vessels or tissues dynamically, providing

immediate feedback to healthcare providers.

Accurately highlights a significant advantage of

using nanomaterials in medical imaging the

ability to enable real-time imaging during

medical procedures. Nanomaterials contribute

to real-time imaging by providing continuous

and dynamic monitoring of changes in blood

vessels, tissues, or other relevant biological

structures. This capability allows healthcare

providers to observe and analyze dynamic

processes as they occur. Real-time imaging with

nanomaterials offers healthcare providers

immediate feedback during medical

procedures.

This prompt information is crucial for making

timely decisions, adjusting interventions, or

addressing unexpected changes in real time. In

surgical settings, real-time imaging facilitated

by nanomaterials is particularly valuable.

Surgeons can visualize the targeted area with

enhanced clarity and make precise adjustments

during procedures, potentially improving the

overall surgical outcome. In interventional

radiology procedures, where minimally

invasive interventions are performed under

imaging guidance, real-time imaging allows for

precise navigation of catheters or devices to the

target site. This enhances the accuracy of

interventions such as angioplasty, stent

placement, or embolization. Nanomaterial-

enhanced real-time imaging provides

intraoperative guidance, helping surgeons

navigate through complex anatomical

structures. This is beneficial for procedures that

require a high degree of precision, such as

tumor resections or vascular surgeries. In

cardiac interventions, real-time imaging with

nanomaterials can be vital for visualizing blood

flow, assessing valve function, or guiding the

placement of devices like stents.

This capability contributes to the success and

safety of cardiac procedures. Real-time imaging

becomes critical in emergency situations where

quick decisions and interventions are essential.

Nanomaterial-enhanced imaging allows

healthcare providers to rapidly assess and

respond to dynamic changes in the patient's

condition. The immediate feedback provided by

real-time imaging can help streamline

procedures, potentially reducing the overall

time required for interventions. This is

advantageous for both patients and healthcare

providers. Real-time imaging assists healthcare

providers in optimizing treatment strategies

based on the observed dynamics. It enables

them to adapt interventions in real-time,

tailoring the approach to the specific needs and

conditions of the patient.

Nanomaterials used in real-time imaging

support continuous monitoring throughout the

duration of a medical procedure. This

continuous assessment is particularly valuable

for detecting subtle changes or complications

that may arise during the intervention. The

combination of nanomaterials and real-time

imaging enhances precision in medical

procedures. Healthcare providers can visualize

structures and navigate instruments with a

level of accuracy that may not be achievable

with conventional imaging techniques. Real-

time imaging facilitated by nanomaterials is a

transformative capability in medical

procedures, providing immediate and dynamic

visualization. This advancement is instrumental

in improving the accuracy, efficiency, and

outcomes of a wide range of medical

interventions, from surgeries to interventional

radiology procedures [98].

2.7. Site-specific imaging

Nanotechnology enables the development of

stents with site-specific imaging capabilities.

This means that the imaging properties are

focused on the area surrounding the stent,

providing targeted diagnostic information

accurately captures one of the innovative

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Figure 6. Drug eluting nano stents used in therapeutic interventions focuses on preventing blood clot

formation via NO release, pressure sensor continuous monitoring, antibody tagging, addition of specific

proteins, GAG, etc

applications of nanotechnology in the

development of stents specifically, the

integration of site-specific imaging capabilities.

Nanotechnology allows for the incorporation of

imaging agents directly into the stent material

or coatings that results in localized imaging

capabilities focused on the immediate vicinity

of the stent. Imagining agents can be designed

to target specific tissues, blood vessels, or

cellular activities in the proximity of the stent.

The site-specific imaging capabilities of

nanotechnology-enhanced stents provide

targeted diagnostic information about the

region surrounding the stent. This is

particularly advantageous for assessing the

health and functionality of tissues adjacent to

the stent, including identifying any potential

complications or changes in the local

environment [99] (Figure 6).

Nanomaterials integrated into the stent can

serve as imaging probes to monitor the

integration and healing of the stent within the

surrounding tissues. This is crucial for

assessing the long-term performance of the

stent and detecting any issues, such as

inflammation or tissue response. Site-specific

imaging enables the early detection of issues or

changes in the stented area. By providing

focused diagnostic information, healthcare

providers can identify potential problems at an

early stage, allowing for timely intervention and

management.

Nanotechnology allows for the customization of

imaging agents based on the specific diagnostic

needs of the stented area. This flexibility

enables the development of stents with imaging

capabilities tailored to different medical

conditions, patient profiles, or procedural

requirements. The integration of

nanotechnology in stents facilitates real-time

monitoring of the stented region. This dynamic

imaging capability allows healthcare providers

to observe changes, assess the effectiveness of

the stent, and make informed decisions during

and after the implantation procedure.

Nanotechnology can support the integration of

multiple imaging modalities within a single

stent. This multimodal approach enhances the

diagnostic capabilities, providing a

comprehensive view of the stented area using

different imaging techniques. The combination

of diagnostic imaging and therapeutic functions,

known as theragnostic, is achievable through

nanotechnology. Stents with site-specific

imaging capabilities can potentially deliver

targeted therapies while simultaneously

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providing diagnostic information about the

treatment response. Site-specific imaging can

reduce the need for additional imaging

procedures in cases where focused diagnostic

information around the stent is sufficient. This

contributes to more efficient patient care and

resource utilization. Information obtained

through site-specific imaging can inform the

optimization of future stent designs.

By understanding the performance and

interaction of stents with surrounding tissues,

researchers and engineers can refine stent

materials and structures for enhanced

biocompatibility and efficacy. Nanotechnology-

driven site-specific imaging capabilities in

stents represent an exciting frontier in

interventional cardiology. This technology has

the potential to revolutionize the way

healthcare providers monitor and assess the

performance of stents, leading to more

personalized and effective patient care [100].

2.8. Early detection

Improved visualization facilitated by

nanotechnology can contribute to the early

detection of abnormalities, allowing for timely

interventions and potentially enhancing patient

outcomes. Aptly captures a key benefit of

improved visualization facilitated by

nanotechnology in medical applications.

Nanotechnology-driven enhancements in

imaging contribute to the early detection of

abnormalities, such as tumours, lesions, or

structural anomalies. The improved clarity and

resolution provided by nanomaterials aid

healthcare professionals in identifying subtle

changes at an early stage. Early detection, made

possible by nanotechnology-enabled imaging,

allows for prompt and timely interventions.

Healthcare providers can initiate appropriate

treatments or interventions at the earliest signs

of abnormalities, potentially preventing the

progression of diseases and complications.

Early detection and timely interventions can

lead to a reduction in the progression of

diseases. By identifying and addressing health

issues in their early stages, healthcare

providers can implement strategies to halt or

slow down the progression of conditions,

improving overall patient outcomes. Detecting

abnormalities at an early stage may result in

less complex and more manageable treatment

plans. Early interventions often require less

aggressive treatments, leading to better

tolerability by patients and potentially reducing

the impact on their quality of life. Early

detection is often associated with higher

treatment success rates. When health

conditions are identified in their early phases,

there is a greater likelihood of successful

outcomes, improved prognosis, and a higher

chance of achieving positive responses to

treatments. In many medical conditions, early

detection is linked to improved survival rates.

By identifying diseases at a stage when they are

more treatable, patients have a better chance of

responding positively to therapies, leading to

increased survival rates.

Enhanced visualization allows healthcare

providers to identify risk factors or preclinical

signs of diseases. This knowledge enables the

implementation of preventive measures,

lifestyle changes, or early interventions to

reduce the likelihood of disease development.

Improved visualization through

nanotechnology contributes to the

development of personalized medicine

approaches. Tailored treatments based on early

diagnostic information and patient-specific

factors can lead to more effective and targeted

interventions. Early detection and intervention

can positively impact a patient's overall quality

of life. By addressing health issues before they

become more severe, patients may experience

less discomfort, fewer complications, and better

overall well-being. Early detection and

intervention may result in more cost-efficient

healthcare. By addressing health issues at an

early stage, the need for extensive and costly

treatments, hospitalizations, and long-term

care may be reduced. Nanotechnology-

enhanced imaging can support the

development of effective screening programs

for various diseases. These programs aim to

identify individuals at risk or in the early stages

of specific conditions, allowing for proactive

management. The improved visualization

facilitated by nanotechnology in medical

imaging holds tremendous potential for early

detection of abnormalities. This early detection,

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in turn, can lead to timely interventions,

improved patient outcomes, and a positive

impact on overall healthcare efficiency and

effectiveness [101].

2.9. Monitoring treatment response

In addition to diagnosis, nanotechnology-

enhanced imaging can be valuable for

monitoring how the body responds to

treatment. This is particularly relevant in cases

where stents are used as part of therapeutic

interventions. Accurate monitoring the body's

response to treatment is indeed a crucial

application of nanotechnology-enhanced

imaging. Nanotechnology-enhanced imaging

allows for dynamic and real-time assessment of

how the body responds to treatment. This is

especially valuable in monitoring changes over

time and assessing the effectiveness of

therapeutic interventions. For stents used in

therapeutic interventions, nanotechnology

enables imaging that specifically focuses on the

stented area (Figure 7).

This monitoring capability allows healthcare

providers to observe the integration of the stent

into the surrounding tissues, assess healing

processes, and identify any potential

complications. Nanotechnology facilitates the

early detection of signs that might indicate

complications or issues related to the stent or

the treated area. This early identification is

crucial for prompt intervention and

management, potentially preventing the

escalation of problems. Monitoring treatment

responses with nanotechnology provides

valuable data that can be used to optimize and

tailor treatment plans. By understanding how

the body is responding at a microscopic level,

healthcare providers can adjust therapeutic

strategies for better outcomes. The detailed

information obtained through nanotechnology-

enhanced imaging enables healthcare providers

to customize follow-up care plans. This

personalized approach ensures that patients

receive the appropriate level of monitoring and

intervention based on their responses to

treatment. Nanotechnology allows for the

assessment of tissue perfusion and viability in

the treated area.

Figure 7. Stents used in therapeutic interventions; nano stent enables imaging that specifically focuses on the

stented area using specifically coated antibodies

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This is crucial for evaluating the health of

tissues surrounding the stent, ensuring that

they receive adequate blood supply and

maintaining their functionality. Continuous

monitoring with nanotechnology can reduce

the need for invasive follow-up procedures.

Non-invasive imaging techniques provide

detailed information without subjecting

patients to additional discomfort or risks

associated with invasive interventions. In the

context of stent-based interventions,

nanotechnology-enhanced imaging can help in

the early identification of restenosis-a potential

complication where the treated blood vessel

becomes narrowed again. Early detection

allows for timely intervention to address

restenosis and prevent further complications.

Nanotechnology allows for the integration of

therapeutic agents or responsive elements into

stent material. This theragnostic approach

combines diagnostic imaging with therapeutic

functions, enabling simultaneous monitoring

and treatment. By closely monitoring treatment

responses, healthcare providers can make

informed decisions to optimize care, potentially

improving long-term outcomes for patients

who have undergone stent-based interventions.

The ability to monitor treatment responses

through nanotechnology contributes to

enhanced patient safety. Early detection of

issues, coupled with timely interventions,

reduces the risk of complications and improves

overall patient well-being. Nanotechnology-

enhanced imaging plays a pivotal role in

monitoring treatment responses, especially in

therapeutic interventions involving stents. The

detailed insights provided by nanotechnology

contribute to better-informed clinical decisions,

personalized care, and improved patient

outcomes [102].

2.10. Reducing invasiveness

Enhanced imaging capabilities can reduce the

need for invasive procedures, as healthcare

providers can gather more information non-

invasively through advanced imaging

techniques. Accurately highlights a significant

advantage of enhanced imaging capabilities,

particularly in the context of reducing the need

for invasive procedures. Enhanced imaging

capabilities allow healthcare providers to

conduct comprehensive diagnostic assessments

without the need for invasive procedures. This

is particularly valuable in situations where the

gathering of detailed information about internal

structures or abnormalities is essential. On-

invasive imaging procedures typically involve

minimal or no discomfort for patients. This

contrasts with invasive procedures that may

cause pain, require anesthesia, or involve a

longer recovery period.

Enhanced imaging techniques contribute to a

more comfortable and patient-friendly

diagnostic experience. Invasive procedures

inherently carry a risk of complications, such as

infections, bleeding, or adverse reactions to

anesthesia. By relying on advanced imaging,

healthcare providers can minimize these risks,

enhancing patient safety and reducing the

likelihood of procedural complications.

Advanced imaging techniques often provide

rapid and efficient diagnostic results. This can

lead to quicker identification of medical

conditions, allowing healthcare providers to

initiate timely interventions without the delays

associated with invasive procedures. Non-

invasive imaging is generally more cost-

effective compared to invasive procedures.

Advanced imaging techniques can contribute to

more efficient resource utilization, reducing

overall healthcare costs and making diagnostic

services more accessible. Enhanced imaging

allows for serial monitoring of medical

conditions over time without the need for

repeated invasive procedures. This longitudinal

approach facilitates the tracking of disease

progression, treatment effectiveness, and the

overall health status of the patient. Non-

invasive imaging is often more readily accepted

by patients, leading to higher compliance with

diagnostic recommendations. Patients are more

likely to undergo less invasive imaging

procedures, contributing to better overall

healthcare management. Advanced imaging

techniques can be applied to a wide range of

medical conditions and anatomical regions.

This versatility makes non-invasive imaging a

valuable tool in various specialties, providing

detailed information without the need for

specialized invasive procedures for each

condition. Many non-invasive imaging

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procedures can be performed in outpatient

settings, avoiding the need for hospitalization

or prolonged stays.

This outpatient approach enhances

convenience for patients and reduces the

burden on healthcare facilities. Non-invasive

imaging is integral to preventive medicine and

screening programs. Techniques such as MRI,

CT scans, and ultrasound enable the detection

of abnormalities at early stages, allowing for

preventive measures and interventions without

resorting to invasive procedures. Continuous

advancements in imaging technologies,

including those enabled by nanotechnology,

provide increasingly detailed and informative

non-invasive images. This progress expands the

scope of what can be achieved without

resorting to invasive interventions. The use of

advanced imaging techniques, characterized by

their non-invasiveness, contributes significantly

to patient-centric and cost-effective healthcare.

By minimizing the need for invasive

procedures, healthcare providers can prioritize

patient comfort, safety, and efficient

diagnostics, ultimately leading to improved

overall healthcare outcomes [103].

2.11. Precision medicine

The integration of nanotechnology into stents

aligns with the principles of precision medicine.

By providing detailed and specific diagnostic

information, healthcare providers can tailor

treatments to individual patients’ needs. It

reflects the alignment of nanotechnology in

stents with the principles of precision medicine.

Nanotechnology-enhanced stents provide

detailed diagnostic information about the

stented area, allowing healthcare providers to

tailor treatment approaches based on

individual patient needs [104].

This personalized or customized approach is a

core principle of precision medicine.

Nanotechnology allows for the incorporation of

imaging agents or sensors that can detect

specific biomarkers relevant to an individual

patient's condition. This information assists in

understanding the unique characteristics of the

patient's disease or response to treatment. In

drug-eluting stents, nanotechnology enables

precise control over drug release kinetics. This

level of control allows for the customization of

drug delivery based on the specific

requirements of individual patients, optimizing

therapeutic outcomes while minimizing side

effects. Nanotechnology-enhanced imaging

provides insights into how the body responds

to stent implantation. This information can

guide the development of tailored follow-up

care plans, ensuring that patients receive the

appropriate level of monitoring and

intervention based on their unique responses.

Nanotechnology allows for the early

identification of individual risk factors or

potential complications.

This early detection enables proactive

measures to address specific risks, contributing

to more effective and personalized care.

Nanotechnology supports the integration of

multiple diagnostic modalities into stents. This

multimodal approach provides a

comprehensive view of the stented area,

allowing healthcare providers to consider

various aspects of a patient's condition and

tailor interventions accordingly. The

integration of therapeutic and diagnostic

functions, known as theragnostic, is achievable

through nanotechnology. Stents with

theragnostic capabilities can simultaneously

diagnose and treat, aligning with the integrative

and patient-focused principles of precision

medicine. Detailed diagnostic information

provided by nanotechnology can help reduce

the need for trial-and-error approaches in

treatment. By understanding the specific

characteristics of a patient's condition,

healthcare providers can make more informed

decisions about the most effective

interventions. Nanotechnology-driven data

from stents can contribute to enhance

predictive modelling. This allows healthcare

providers to anticipate individual patient

responses to treatments, optimizing decision-

making for better outcomes. Precision medicine

involves a careful assessment of the risks and

benefits of treatment for each patient.

Nanotechnology enables a more nuanced

understanding of individual responses,

facilitating a more accurate risk-benefit

assessment for stent-based interventions.

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Precision medicine often involves the

integration of genomic and molecular data.

Nanotechnology-enhanced stents can

complement genomic information, providing a

comprehensive understanding of both genetic

and environmental factors influencing a

patient's response to treatment. The integration

of nanotechnology into stents aligns seamlessly

with the principles of precision medicine,

offering opportunities for personalized

diagnostics and treatments tailored to

individual patient needs. This approach has the

potential to revolutionize the field of

interventional cardiology, leading to more

effective and patient-centric care [105].

2.12. Ongoing research and development

The field of nanotechnology in stent design is

dynamic, with ongoing research aiming to

optimize imaging properties and techniques.

Continued advancements contribute to the

evolution of diagnostic capabilities in

interventional cardiology and other medical

specialties. The incorporation of nanomaterials

with imaging properties into stents represents

a promising avenue for improving diagnostic

capabilities. This approach has the potential to

transform how medical professionals visualize

and assess blood vessels and surrounding

tissues, ultimately leading to more accurate

diagnoses and better patient care.

The use of nanotechnology in stents aligns with

the broader trend of employing nanomaterials

for targeted drug delivery, imaging, and

diagnostics in the field of medicine. The ability

to manipulate materials at the nanoscale allows

for precise engineering of properties to meet

specific medical needs. As research progresses,

different types of nanostents with various

functionalities and applications will likely

emerge. These innovations hold the potential to

improve both the diagnostic and therapeutic

aspects of cardiovascular interventions.

Keeping an eye on scientific literature and

developments in the field will provide insights

into the specific types of nanostents and their

potential impact on medical practice. The

analysis provides a comprehensive overview of

the broader trend of employing nanomaterials

in medicine, specifically in the context of stents.

The ability to leverage nanotechnology for

targeted drug delivery, imaging, and diagnostics

aligns with the increasing recognition of the

benefits of manipulating materials at the

nanoscale [106].

2.13. Broader trend in nanomedicine

The use of nanotechnology in stents is part of

the broader trend of applying nanomaterials in

various medical applications, encompassing

targeted drug delivery, imaging, diagnostics,

and therapeutic interventions. Accurately

captures the broader trend of employing

nanomaterials in diverse medical applications,

showcasing the versatility and potential impact

of nanotechnology across the medical field.

Nanomaterials are inherently versatile and can

be designed to serve multiple functions

simultaneously. This multifunctionality is

particularly valuable in medical applications

where a single nanomaterial can be used for

targeted drug delivery, imaging enhancement,

and therapeutic interventions. Nanotechnology

aligns with the principles of precision medicine

by allowing for personalized and patient-

specific approaches. From tailored drug release

in stents to site-specific imaging, nanomaterials

contribute to a more individualized and precise

model of medical care.

The convergence of therapy and diagnostics,

known as theragnostic, is a hallmark of

nanotechnology applications. Nanomaterials

can be engineered to combine diagnostic

imaging capabilities with therapeutic functions,

providing a holistic approach to patient care.

Nanotechnology-enhanced imaging techniques

go beyond traditional imaging modalities,

offering improved resolution, sensitivity, and

specificity. This advancement is crucial for early

detection, accurate diagnosis, and monitoring of

treatment responses. The ability of

nanomaterials to deliver drugs in a targeted

and controlled manner is a cornerstone of

nanomedicine.

This targeted drug delivery minimizes side

effects, maximizes therapeutic efficacy, and

contributes to more efficient and patient-

friendly treatments. Nanotechnology enables in

vivo imaging, allowing healthcare providers to

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visualize and monitor biological processes

within the body. This real-time imaging

capability is instrumental in understanding

disease mechanisms, tracking treatment

responses, and guiding interventions.

Nanomaterials can be customized based on

specific medical needs. This customization

extends to the size, shape, surface properties,

and functionalities of nanoparticles, providing a

tailored approach for different applications in

medicine. Advances in nanotechnology

prioritize the development of biocompatible

materials, ensuring the safety and compatibility

of nanomaterials within the human body.

This focus on biocompatibility is essential for

minimizing adverse reactions and ensuring the

overall well-being of patients. Nanotechnology

plays a role in regenerative medicine by

contributing to the development of

nanomaterial-based scaffolds, drug delivery

systems, and imaging techniques that support

tissue regeneration and repair. Nanotechnology

facilitates the creation of diagnostic

nanosensors that can detect specific

biomarkers or signals associated with diseases.

These nanosensors offer rapid and sensitive

diagnostic capabilities for a range of medical

conditions. Nanotechnology enables remote

sensing and monitoring of physiological

parameters.

This capability is particularly relevant for

continuous monitoring of health conditions,

providing valuable data for both patients and

healthcare providers. Ongoing research and

advancements in nanomedicine continue to

expand the applications of nanotechnology in

medicine. This dynamic field holds the promise

of innovative solutions for challenging medical

issues. The use of nanotechnology in stents is

part of a larger narrative where nanomaterials

contribute significantly to diverse aspects of

medical science and practice. This trend

underscores the transformative potential of

nanotechnology in shaping the future of

healthcare [107].

2.14. Precise engineering at the nanoscale

The unique properties of nanomaterials and the

ability to manipulate them at the nanoscale

allow for precise engineering to meet specific

medical needs. This level of precision is

particularly advantageous in the development

of medical devices like stents. The essence of

the advantages offered by nanomaterials in the

field of medicine, especially in the development

of medical devices such as stents.

Nanomaterials can be engineered with precise

physical and chemical properties, including

size, shape, surface charge, and composition.

This tailoring enables the creation of materials

with characteristics optimized for specific

medical applications. The high surface-to-

volume ratio of nanomaterials allows for

intricate surface modifications. These

modifications can be designed to enhance

biocompatibility, reduce immune responses,

and facilitate targeted interactions with

biological tissues. Nanotechnology enables the

customization of drug release kinetics in

medical devices like stents. The controlled

release of therapeutic agents from

nanomaterials can be finely tuned to match the

specific requirements of individual patients and

medical conditions. Nanomaterials can be

designed for enhanced biocompatibility,

ensuring compatibility with biological systems.

Additionally, bioactive properties can be

incorporated into nanomaterials to promote

beneficial interactions with cells and tissues.

Despite their small size, nanomaterials can

exhibit impressive mechanical strength. This

property is advantageous for the development

of robust and durable medical devices, such as

stents, that can withstand physiological forces

within the body. Nanomaterials allow for the

creation of targeted drug delivery systems. In

the context of stents, this enables the delivery

of therapeutic agents precisely to the stented

area, minimizing systemic exposure and

reducing the risk of side effects. Some

nanomaterials can be engineered to respond to

specific stimuli, such as changes in pH,

temperature, or the presence of certain

biomolecules. This responsiveness can be

harnessed to create smart and adaptive medical

devices. Nanomaterials can serve multiple

functions within a single device. For example, a

nanomaterial-based stent may incorporate both

imaging agents for diagnostics and drug

delivery components for therapeutic purposes,

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showcasing the multifunctional capabilities of

nanotechnology. At the nanoscale, materials

exhibit unique interactions with biological

molecules and structures. This enables precise

and targeted interactions with cellular

components, allowing for controlled responses

in therapeutic applications. The precise

engineering of nanomaterials allows for

targeted drug delivery, reducing the risk of

systemic side effects. This is particularly

relevant in medical devices like drug-eluting

stents, where minimizing side effects is crucial

for patient safety. Nanomaterials can be

incorporated into composite structures to

combine the desirable properties of different

materials. This flexibility allows for the creation

of hybrid materials with optimized

characteristics for specific medical device

applications. Ongoing advancements in

nanofabrication techniques contribute to the

scalability and reproducibility of nanomaterial-

based medical devices. This progress is

essential for translating nanotechnology from

research to practical clinical applications. The

unique properties of nanomaterials, coupled

with the ability to precisely engineer them at

the nanoscale, offer a transformative platform

for the development of highly customized and

effective medical devices, including stents. This

precision contributes to improved

performance, reduced side effects, and

enhanced therapeutic outcomes in various

medical applications [108].

2.15. Multifunctional nanomaterials

Nanomaterials used in stents can serve multiple

functions, such as drug delivery, imaging

enhancement, and diagnostic capabilities. This

multifunctionality contributes to the versatility

of nano stents in addressing different aspects of

cardiovascular interventions. Accurately

highlights the multifunctional nature of

nanomaterials in stents and how this versatility

enhances their capabilities in cardiovascular

interventions. Nanomaterials in stents can be

designed to serve as carriers for therapeutic

agents, allowing controlled and targeted drug

delivery. This is particularly beneficial in

preventing restenosis and promoting healing

after stent placement. Incorporating

nanomaterials with imaging properties into

stents enhances their visibility under various

imaging modalities. This contributes to improve

monitoring of stent placement, tissue

integration, and potential complications [109]

(Figure 8).

Figure 8. Nanomaterials used in stents can serve multiple functions, such as drug delivery, imaging

enhancement, and diagnostic capabilities

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Nanomaterials can be engineered to act as

diagnostic sensors, detecting specific

biomarkers or physiological changes. This

diagnostic capability provides real-time

information about the stented area, aiding in

the early detection of issues or monitoring

treatment responses. The combination of

therapeutic and diagnostic functions, known as

theragnostic, is achievable through

nanotechnology. Nano stents can integrate both

drug delivery systems and imaging agents,

providing a comprehensive approach to

cardiovascular interventions. Nanomaterials

can be used to modify the surface of stents,

improving biocompatibility and reducing the

risk of adverse reactions.

This is essential for ensuring the compatibility

of the stent with the surrounding biological

environment. Some nanomaterials exhibit

responsiveness to specific stimuli, allowing

them to adapt to changes in the local

environment. Responsive nanostents can, for

example, release drugs in response to

biochemical cues, enhancing the precision of

therapeutic interventions. Nanomaterials can

be engineered to have antimicrobial properties,

helping to reduce the risk of infections

associated with stent implantation. This is

crucial for improving the overall safety of

cardiovascular interventions. The mechanical

properties of nanostents can be tailored to

match the specific requirements of different

arterial conditions. This customization ensures

optimal performance and durability in diverse

clinical scenarios. For bioresorbable nano

stents, nanomaterials can be designed to

degrade gradually over time. This aligns with

the natural healing process of the body,

eliminating the long-term presence of the stent

and reducing the risk of complications.

Nanomaterials enable precise interactions with

cellular and molecular components at the

nanoscale. This targeted interaction is valuable

for influencing cellular responses, such as

inhibiting smooth muscle cell proliferation to

prevent restenosis. Surface modifications using

nanotechnology can improve the interaction

between the stent surface and blood

components, reducing the risk of clot formation

[thrombosis] and enhancing the

hemocompatibility of the stent. In

bioresorbable nano stents, nanomaterials allow

for the customization of degradation kinetics.

This flexibility ensures that the stent degrades

at an appropriate rate, aligning with the healing

process and minimizing potential

complications. The multifunctionality of

nanomaterials in stents contributes to the

versatility of nanostents in addressing various

aspects of cardiovascular interventions. This

adaptability allows for a more comprehensive

and tailored approach to patient care,

leveraging the unique properties of

nanotechnology for improved outcomes in

cardiovascular medicine [110].

2.16. Tailoring properties for medical

applications

The ability to tailor the properties of

nanomaterials to meet the requirements of

specific medical applications is a key advantage.

This customization allows for the development

of nanostents with properties optimized for

both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

Precisely captures a key advantage of

nanomaterials in medical applications,

particularly in the development of nanostents.

Customizing the properties of nanomaterials

allows for precise control over drug release

kinetics in nanostents. This optimization is

crucial for tailoring drug delivery to match the

therapeutic requirements of individual patients

and medical conditions. The mechanical

properties of nanomaterials can be tailored to

match the specific mechanical requirements of

stents in different arterial locations. This

ensures that nanostents provide the necessary

structural support while maintaining flexibility

and compatibility with various anatomical

conditions. Nanomaterials offer the ability to

modify stent surfaces to enhance

biocompatibility. Tailoring surface properties

helps reduce the risk of adverse reactions,

inflammation, or immune responses, ensuring

the compatibility of nanostents with the

biological environment. In the case of

bioresorbable nanostents, the degradation

profiles of nanomaterials can be customized.

This allows for the development of stents that

degrade at a rate aligned with the natural

healing process, minimizing the risk of

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complications associated with prolonged

presence in the body. Nanomaterials can be

engineered in various sizes and shapes. This

customization is advantageous for designing

nanostents that fit specific anatomical features

and accommodate variations in vessel size and

geometry.

Customizing nanomaterials to be responsive to

specific stimuli enhances the adaptability of

nanostents. For instance, responsiveness to

changes in the local environment can be

harnessed to create smart stents that release

therapeutic agents in a targeted and controlled

manner. Tailoring nanomaterials allows for the

integration of imaging agents into nanostents.

This customization enhances the diagnostic

capabilities of the stent, providing real-time

imaging information for monitoring stent

placement, tissue integration, and potential

complications. Nanomaterials enable the

creation of multifunctional nanostents that can

simultaneously deliver drugs, enhance imaging,

and provide structural support. This

multifunctionality contributes to a

comprehensive approach to cardiovascular

interventions. The customization of

nanomaterials facilitates the incorporation of

various therapeutic agents, such as anti-

proliferative drugs, anti-inflammatory agents,

or antimicrobial substances. This allows for

tailored treatment approaches based on the

specific needs of patients. Tailoring the

biodegradability of nanomaterials is essential

for bioresorbable nano stents. This

customization ensures that the stent degrades

gradually, aligning with the healing process and

minimizing potential long-term complications.

Customizing nanomaterial properties can

improve the hemocompatibility of stents by

reducing the risk of blood clot formation

[thrombosis]. This is crucial for preventing

complications associated with blood vessel

blockages. The ability to tailor nanomaterial

properties allows for consideration of

individual patient characteristics, ensuring that

nanostents are optimized for specific clinical

scenarios and patient needs. The ability to

customize the properties of nanomaterials is a

pivotal advantage that empowers the

development of nanostents with properties

optimized for both diagnostic and therapeutic

purposes. This tailoring enhances the efficacy,

safety, and patient-specific applicability of

nanostents in cardiovascular interventions

[111].

2.17. Emergence of different types of nanostents

As research progresses, different types of

nanostents with diverse functionalities and

applications will likely emerge. These

innovations may range from stents designed for

targeted drug delivery to those optimized for

advanced imaging and diagnostics. Accurately

anticipates the ongoing evolution and

diversification of nanostent technologies as

research progresses. Advances in nanostent

technology may lead to the development of

stents that incorporate multiple therapeutic

agents. These could include combinations of

anti-proliferative drugs, anti-inflammatory

agents, and other medications tailored to

address specific patient conditions. Future

nanostents might be designed as personalized

treatment platforms, allowing for the

customization of drug release profiles based on

individual patient characteristics, genetic

factors, and response to therapy. Nanomaterials

enable the creation of smart stents that respond

to dynamic physiological conditions. These

stents could release drugs in response to

changes in the local environment or adapt their

properties to optimize therapeutic outcomes.

Bioresorbable nanostents could be enhanced

with traceable markers for improved visibility

during imaging. These markers might enable

precise tracking of the stent degradation

process and tissue healing over time. Future

innovations may involve the integration of both

therapeutic and diagnostic functionalities into a

single device, aligning with the concept of

theragnostic. These nanostents could provide

real-time diagnostic information while

delivering targeted therapies. Stents with

advanced imaging capabilities, facilitated by

nanomaterials, may emerge. These imaging

stents could provide detailed information about

vascular structures, tissue integration, and

potential complications, enhancing the

precision of diagnostics. Nanostents may

encapsulate therapeutic nanoparticles, allowing

for more efficient drug delivery. These

nanoparticles could have specific properties,

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such as sustained release or targeted cellular

interactions, optimizing their therapeutic

impact. Future nanostents might integrate with

external sensors or monitoring devices to

provide real-time data on factors like blood

flow, pressure, or temperature. This

information could be valuable for adjusting

treatment strategies and improving patient

outcomes. Stents engineered with

nanomaterials may have immunomodulatory

properties to regulate the immune response at

the implantation site.

This could contribute to minimizing

inflammation and improving the long-term

success of stent interventions. Stents made

from nanocomposite materials may combine

the advantages of different nanomaterials, such

as enhanced mechanical strength, improved

biocompatibility, and tailored drug release

capabilities. Nano stents could be designed to

offer dual-mode capabilities, simultaneously

providing therapeutic benefits and serving as

imaging agents. This integration could

streamline treatment monitoring and enhance

overall patient care. Advancements in

nanotechnology may enable personalized

surface modifications of nanostents,

considering patient-specific factors to enhance

biocompatibility, reduce the risk of

complications, and promote successful

integration with the vascular system. Nano

stents could feature multifunctional coatings at

the nanoscale, offering a combination of drug-

eluting properties, enhanced biocompatibility,

and imaging capabilities within a single device.

The future landscape of nano stents is likely to

be characterized by a diverse array of

functionalities and applications. These

innovations have the potential to revolutionize

cardiovascular interventions by providing more

personalized, effective, and patient-centric

treatment options. Ongoing research and

development efforts will play a crucial role in

bringing these advancements from the

laboratory to clinical practice [112].

2.18. Potential impact on cCardiovascular

interventions

Nanostents hold the potential to significantly

impact cardiovascular interventions by

improving both diagnostic and therapeutic

aspects. The integration of nanotechnology may

lead to more effective treatments with reduced

side effects and enhanced patient outcomes.

The statement succinctly captures the

transformative potential of nanostents in

cardiovascular interventions. Nano stents align

with the principles of precision medicine by

offering personalized and targeted

interventions. The ability to tailor properties,

such as drug release kinetics and surface

modifications, contributes to treatments that

are finely tuned to individual patient needs. The

controlled drug delivery facilitated by

nanomaterials in stents can significantly reduce

systemic exposure to therapeutic agents. This

targeted approach minimizes the risk of side

effects in healthy tissues, improving the overall

safety profile of cardiovascular interventions.

Nano stents enable a more controlled and

sustained release of therapeutic agents,

enhancing drug efficacy.

This precise drug delivery mechanism ensures

that therapeutic concentrations are maintained

at the target site, optimizing the treatment's

impact on vascular health. By inhibiting smooth

muscle cell proliferation, a common cause of

restenosis, nanostents have the potential to

significantly reduce the recurrence of narrowed

blood vessels. This may lead to improved long-

term outcomes for patients undergoing stent

placements. Nanostents equipped with imaging

enhancements provide clearer and more

detailed information during diagnostic

procedures. This improved visualization aids

healthcare professionals in accurate stent

placement, monitoring tissue integration, and

detecting potential complications. The ability to

engineer nanomaterials for enhanced

biocompatibility reduces the likelihood of

adverse reactions or immune responses.

Customizable biocompatibility is crucial for

ensuring the seamless integration of the stent

within the biological environment.

Nanotechnology allows for the development of

smart stents that respond to changes in the

local environment. These responsive devices

can adapt to physiological conditions, providing

dynamic and tailored therapeutic interventions.

The versatility of nanostents enables more

patient-centric approaches to cardiovascular

care. Tailoring treatment strategies based on

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individual patient characteristics and needs

contributes to personalized and effective

medical interventions. Nanostents can serve

multiple functions within a single device,

combining drug delivery, imaging, and

structural support. This multifunctionality

enhances the efficiency and comprehensiveness

of cardiovascular interventions. Bioresorbable

nanostents, designed to gradually degrade,

offer a temporary solution without the long-

term presence of foreign materials. This can

reduce the risk of late complications associated

with permanent stents and promote natural

vessel function. Nano stents, integrated with

monitoring capabilities, allow for continuous

assessment of physiological parameters. This

real-time feedback can guide healthcare

providers in adjusting treatment plans and

optimizing patient care. The integration of

nanotechnology contributes to the

advancement of interventional cardiology,

offering novel solutions to longstanding

challenges and pushing the boundaries of what

is possible in cardiovascular medicine. The

integration of nanotechnology into stent design

holds tremendous promise for transforming

cardiovascular interventions. The potential

improvements in diagnostic accuracy,

treatment efficacy, and patient outcomes

underscore the significance of ongoing research

and development in this innovative field [114].

2.19. Dynamic nature of research

The field of nanomedicine is dynamic, and

ongoing research is likely to unveil new

possibilities and applications for nanostents.

Monitoring scientific literature and staying

informed about developments in the field will

provide valuable insights into the evolving

landscape of nanostent technology. Clinical

Translation: While advancements in research

are promising, the clinical translation of

nanostents requires careful validation through

preclinical studies and clinical trials. This

process is crucial for ensuring the safety,

efficacy, and regulatory approval of these

innovative medical devices. The assessment

accurately reflects the dynamic nature of

nanomedicine, especially concerning

nanostents. Ongoing research may lead to the

discovery and exploration of new

nanomaterials with unique properties and

applications for nanostents. Keeping abreast of

developments in nanomaterial science is

essential to harness the full potential of these

innovations. Continued research is likely to

uncover innovative functionalities and

capabilities for nanostents beyond the current

applications. These could include

advancements in targeted drug delivery,

imaging enhancements, and the integration of

novel technologies for improved patient

outcomes. Nanomedicine research may reveal

new therapeutic modalities that can be

integrated into nanostents. This could include

advancements in gene therapy,

immunotherapy, or other cutting-edge

approaches for addressing cardiovascular

conditions at the molecular level. The

interdisciplinary nature of nanomedicine

encourages collaborations between researchers

in fields such as materials science, biology,

engineering, and medicine. These

collaborations can foster novel ideas and

accelerate the development of innovative

nanostent technologies. Advances in

nanofabrication techniques are fundamental to

the development of nano stents. Monitoring

progress in manufacturing methods at the

nanoscale can contribute to more efficient and

scalable production processes for these medical

devices. As nanostents progress toward clinical

translation, long-term safety and efficacy

studies become increasingly critical.

Continuous monitoring and evaluation of

patients receiving nanostents in clinical settings

provide valuable data for assessing their real-

world performance. The development and

deployment of nanostents in clinical practice

necessitate adherence to regulatory standards.

Staying informed about evolving regulatory

guidelines and ensuring compliance with

established standards are crucial for the

successful translation of nanostents from the

laboratory to the clinic. Research efforts should

prioritize a patient-centric approach,

considering not only the efficacy of nanostents

but also factors such as patient comfort, quality

of life, and long-term outcomes. Patient

feedback and experiences contribute valuable

insights to refine and optimize nanostent

technologies. Addressing Potential Challenges:

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Ongoing research and clinical studies should

address potential challenges associated with

nanostents, including biocompatibility, long-

term durability, and the potential for

unexpected interactions with biological

systems.

Identifying and mitigating these challenges are

integral to the success of nanostent

technologies. The global nature of scientific

research in nanomedicine emphasizes the

importance of collaboration and knowledge

sharing. Engaging with the broader scientific

community facilitates the exchange of ideas,

accelerates progress, and enhances the

collective understanding of nanostent

technologies. The dynamic and evolving nature

of nanomedicine, particularly in the context of

nanostents, underscores the need for

continuous vigilance, collaboration, and

adherence to rigorous scientific and regulatory

standards. Staying informed about

developments in the field and actively

participating in the scientific discourse

contribute to the advancement of nanostent

technology and its successful translation into

clinical practice [115-119].

2.20. Interdisciplinary collaboration

The development and optimization of

nanostents often involve interdisciplinary

collaboration, bringing together expertise from

materials science, engineering, medicine, and

other fields. This collaborative approach

enhances the potential for breakthrough

innovations. Interdisciplinary collaboration is a

cornerstone in the development and

optimization of nanostents, fostering a

synergistic integration of knowledge and

expertise from diverse fields. Experts in

materials science play a crucial role in

developing novel nanomaterials with specific

properties suitable for nanostents. This

includes considerations of biocompatibility,

mechanical strength, and controlled drug

release, among other material characteristics.

Collaboration with biomedical engineers

ensures that nanostents are designed with a

deep understanding of physiological conditions

and anatomical considerations. Biomedical

engineers contribute to the optimization of

stent design for effective integration with the

human body. Involving medical practitioners

and clinicians in the development process

provides essential insights into the clinical

needs and challenges associated with

cardiovascular interventions. Their input helps

align nanostent technologies with practical

clinical requirements.

Collaboration with pharmacologists is crucial

for optimizing drug delivery aspects of

nanostents. Pharmacological expertise ensures

the selection of appropriate therapeutic agents,

consideration of drug interactions, and the

development of formulations with optimal

efficacy and safety profiles. Experts in biology

contribute valuable insights into the biological

responses to nanostents at the cellular and

molecular levels. This interdisciplinary

perspective aids in understanding how

nanostents interact with living tissues and

guides the development of biocompatible and

effective devices. Collaborating with experts in

nanofabrication techniques ensures that

nanostents can be manufactured at the

nanoscale with precision and consistency.

Nanofabrication specialists contribute to the

development of scalable and reproducible

processes for mass production. Integration of

advanced imaging technologies into nanostents

requires collaboration with imaging experts.

These professionals contribute to enhancing

the diagnostic capabilities of nanostents,

allowing for real-time monitoring and precise

placement during interventions. Collaboration

with regulatory affairs specialists ensures that

nanostents comply with relevant regulations

and standards. This interdisciplinary

cooperation is crucial for navigating the

complex landscape of regulatory approvals and

bringing nanostents to market. Involving

patient advocates in the development process

ensures that nanostents are designed with a

focus on patient-centered care. Patient

feedback and perspectives contribute to the

refinement of nanostent technologies to better

meet the needs and preferences of those

receiving the interventions. Collaboration with

data scientists and statisticians is essential for

analyzing complex datasets generated during

preclinical and clinical studies. Their expertise

helps in drawing meaningful conclusions,

assessing the efficacy of nanostents, and

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identifying trends or potential areas for

improvement. Ethical considerations in the

development and deployment of nanostents are

paramount. Collaboration with ethicists

ensures that ethical standards are upheld

throughout the research and clinical translation

process, safeguarding the well-being and rights

of patients. Engaging in global collaboration

expands the pool of expertise and diverse

perspectives. Collaborating with researchers,

institutions, and professionals from around the

world contributes to a more comprehensive

understanding of nanostent technologies and

accelerates progress. The interdisciplinary

collaboration is the driving force behind

breakthrough innovations in nanostent

development. By bringing together experts

from various fields, researchers can leverage a

collective understanding to address complex

challenges, optimize device performance, and

ultimately improve patient outcomes in

cardiovascular interventions [120].

2.21. Potential for personalized medicine

The customization capabilities of

nanotechnology align with the principles of

personalized medicine. Nano stents have the

potential to be tailored to individual patient

needs, optimizing treatment outcomes and

minimizing adverse effects [Table 4].

Table 4.The ability to be customized to each patient's needs, nanostents might maximize therapeutic results

and reduce side effects

S. No.

Nanoparticles

Targets

AuNPs

AuNPs are used as fluorescence quenchers

Detection of SNP

AuNP

Detect TP53 point mutations

AuNP

Detection of SNPs in BRCA1

AuNP

Detection of SNPs in CF genes

AuNPs probes

Detect the expression of heparin in cancer

cells.

AuNPs electrochemical chip-based method

Detection of cancer cells with KRAS and BRAF

mutations in lung cancer

AuNPs fabricated as nanobeads with a

fluorophore in a microarray system

For the detection of C677T polymorphism of

the MTHFR gene

AgNPs

AgNP/Pt hybrid fabricated as nanocluster

probe

Detect variant gene alleles in β-Thalassemia

AgNP combined with carbon nanotubes

Detect the SNP related to mitochondrial DNA

mutation

AgNPs probes

Detection of single variation presence in the

breast cancer BRCA1 gene

DNA-AgNPs probes coating polystyrene

microwells

Detection of the presence of the specific

sequence DNA targets

QDs

QDs Qbead system

Multiplexed SNP genotyping systems of 200

SNP genotypes of the CYPP450 family

QDs labelling in a microarray detection system

10,000 SNPs from the unamplified DNA in a

single reaction

QDs-mediated fluorescent method

Detection of hepatitis B M204I mutation, which

is associated with drug resistance.

Polymer

NPs

poly [α, l-glutamic acid] polymer/selumetinib

and dabrafenib

BRAF, MEK-melanoma

SMA/Crizotinib and dasatinib

Met, ROS1, KIT, and ABL-glioblastoma

multiforme

SMA/Sorafenib and nilotinib

VEGFR, PDGFR, FLT3, ALK, FGFR, c-KIT, JAK,

CSF1R, RET, and Bcr-Abl-prostate cancer

Chitosan-based polymeric

nanoparticles/Imatinib

Bcr-Abl-colorectal cancer

PLGA polymer/Tamoxifen

Estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer cells

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Highlighting a key strength of nanotechnology

in the context of personalized medicine,

nanotechnology allows for precise control over

drug release kinetics, enabling the

customization of drug delivery profiles. This

tailoring of drug release is crucial for matching

the specific therapeutic needs of individual

patients, considering factors such as the

severity of the condition, patient response, and

potential side effects. Nanostents can be

designed with patient-specific formulations,

considering variations in drug sensitivity,

allergies, and other individual factors. This level

of customization ensures that the therapeutic

agents delivered by the stent are well-suited to

the unique characteristics of each patient. The

ability to engineer nanomaterials allows for the

customization of stent designs to adapt to

individual patient anatomies. This is

particularly relevant in cardiovascular

interventions where variations in vessel size,

shape, and location may require personalized

stent solutions for optimal efficacy.

Nanotechnology facilitates the precise targeting

of therapeutic agents to specific cellular or

molecular sites.

This precision is advantageous in tailoring

treatment approaches for individual patients,

ensuring that the therapeutic impact is

concentrated at the intended site of action. The

targeted drug delivery enabled by nanostents

minimizes systemic exposure to therapeutic

agents. This is a critical aspect of personalized

medicine, as it helps reduce the risk of systemic

side effects, allowing for more focused and

well-tolerated treatments. Personalized

medicine emphasizes patient-centric

approaches to healthcare. Nano stents, with

their customization capabilities, enable the

development of treatment strategies that

prioritize individual patient needs, preferences,

and overall well-being. The customization of

nanomaterials used in nanostents extends to

biocompatibility considerations. Stents can be

engineered to enhance compatibility with the

patient's biological environment, reducing the

risk of adverse reactions and improving overall

safety. Nanostents with integrated imaging

functionalities can be tailored to provide

personalized diagnostic information. This

enables healthcare providers to monitor

treatment responses on an individual level,

allowing for timely adjustments and

optimization of patient care. The adaptability of

nanostents allows for flexible and dynamic

treatment plans. If a patient's response to

therapy changes over time, nanostents can be

customized or adjusted accordingly to ensure

continued effectiveness and address evolving

medical needs.

Nanostents tailored to individual patient

characteristics, there is the potential to enhance

treatment efficacy. This personalized approach

considers the specific factors influencing

disease progression, optimizing the chances of

successful outcomes. Personalized medicine

involves considering patient feedback and

preferences. Engaging patients in the

customization process of nanostents can lead to

more patient-centered solutions, promoting

shared decision-making and improving

treatment adherence. The customization

capabilities of nanotechnology in the

development of nanostents align seamlessly

with the principles of personalized medicine.

This alignment holds great promise for

advancing cardiovascular interventions by

providing treatments that are tailored to the

unique characteristics and needs of individual

patients [121].

2.22. Continuous monitoring of developments

Given the rapid pace of advancements in

nanomedicine, continuous monitoring of

scientific developments, clinical trials, and

regulatory approvals is essential for healthcare

professionals, researchers, and industry

stakeholders. The use of nanotechnology in

stents represents a significant advancement

with the potential to reshape cardiovascular

interventions. The precision and versatility

offered by nanomaterials open new possibilities

for improving both diagnostic and therapeutic

aspects, contributing to the ongoing evolution

of medical practice in the field of interventional

cardiology. The assessment captures the

dynamic nature of nanomedicine and

underscores the importance of continuous

monitoring for healthcare professionals,

researchers, and industry stakeholders.

2024, Volume 6, Issue 2

Journal of Chemical Reviews

170

Continuous monitoring enables timely

integration of groundbreaking innovations into

clinical practice. Healthcare professionals can

stay informed about emerging technologies and

novel applications of nanomaterials in stents,

ensuring that patients benefit from the latest

advancements. Access to up-to-date

information on nanomedicine allows healthcare

professionals to make informed decisions in

clinical practice. This includes selecting the

most appropriate interventions, staying

informed about potential risks and benefits,

and tailoring treatments based on the latest

evidence. Researchers and scientists benefit

from continuous monitoring as it fosters

collaboration and knowledge exchange. Staying

informed about ongoing research initiatives

and findings enables collaborative efforts that

can accelerate the development of new

nanostent technologies and treatment

approaches. Continuous monitoring helps

identify emerging trends and areas of focus in

nanomedicine. This awareness enables

healthcare professionals and researchers to

anticipate future developments, align research

priorities, and proactively address challenges in

the evolving landscape of nanotechnology in

stents. Access to the latest advancements in

nanomedicine supports healthcare

professionals in optimizing patient outcomes.

Continuous monitoring ensures that patients

receive state-of-the-art treatments, benefiting

from the precision, versatility, and safety

enhancements offered by nanotechnology in

stents. Staying informed about the latest

research findings and clinical outcomes aids in

the ongoing assessment and management of

potential risks associated with nanostents. This

proactive approach enhances patient safety and

contributes to the refinement of treatment

strategies. Continuous monitoring provides

opportunities for ongoing education and

training. Healthcare professionals can engage in

professional development activities to enhance

their understanding of nanomedicine, ensuring

competence in the application of cutting-edge

technologies in clinical settings. Industry

stakeholders, including manufacturers and

regulatory bodies, benefit from continuous

monitoring to inform strategic planning.

Awareness of emerging trends and regulatory

updates helps ensure compliance, guide

research and development efforts, and promote

the responsible introduction of new nanostent

technologies to the market. Staying informed

about advancements in nanomedicine

empowers patients to actively participate in

their healthcare decisions. Patients who are

knowledgeable about the benefits and potential

risks of nanostent technologies can engage in

informed discussions with their healthcare

providers, contributing to shared decision-

making. Continuous monitoring is essential for

ensuring regulatory compliance, particularly in

the rapidly evolving field of nanomedicine.

Regulatory bodies can stay informed about

developments in nanostent technologies,

update guidelines as needed, and facilitate the

safe and responsible integration of these

innovations into clinical practice. The use of

nanotechnology in stents represents a

transformative advancement in cardiovascular

interventions. Continuous monitoring of

scientific developments, clinical trials, and

regulatory approvals is a cornerstone for

unlocking the full potential of nanomedicine,

fostering collaboration, and shaping the future

of interventional cardiology [122].

3. Results and Discussion

Diagnostic nanostents and their applications in

cardiovascular therapy would typically

encompass findings from research studies,

clinical trials, or theoretical analyses regarding

the use of nanostents in diagnosing and treating

cardiovascular diseases. Introduction of Nano-

stents: Briefly introduce what nanostents are,

emphasizing their unique properties such as

size, surface characteristics, and potential for

targeted delivery. Imaging Modalities: The

discussion about how nanostents can be

engineered to incorporate diagnostic agents

such as contrast agents or nanoparticles for

imaging purposes. This could include

techniques like magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI), computed tomography (CT), or

ultrasound. Bio-sensing Capabilities: Highlight

the ability of nanostents to detect biomarkers

or changes in physiological parameters

indicative of cardiovascular diseases. This may

involve discussing the incorporation of

2024, Volume 6, Issue 2

Journal of Chemical Reviews

171

biosensors or functionalized nanoparticles for

real-time monitoring.

Drug Delivery: Describe how nanostents can

serve as platforms for targeted drug delivery to

treat cardiovascular conditions. Discuss the

advantages of localized drug release, reduced

systemic side effects, and improved therapeutic

efficacy. Cellular Interaction: Explore how

nanostents can interact with cells in the

cardiovascular system, such as endothelial cells

or smooth muscle cells, to promote tissue

regeneration or inhibit pathological processes.

Restenosis Prevention: Address the role of

nanostents in preventing restenosis, a common

complication of traditional stent placement,

through mechanisms such as anti-proliferative

coatings or bioactive surface modifications.

The findings of preclinical studies and clinical

trials are summarized investigating the safety

and efficacy of diagnostic nanostents in animal

models or human patients.Highlight any

notable outcomes, including improvements in

diagnostic accuracy, therapeutic outcomes, or

patient survival rates. The challenges and

limitations associated with the use of diagnostic

nanostents, such as biocompatibility issues,

regulatory hurdles, or technical barriers are

discussed. The future research directions aimed

at addressing these challenges and advancing

the field, such as the development of

multifunctional nanostent platforms or the

optimization of fabrication techniques. The key

findings and implications of the research were

summarized as discussed in the results and

discussion section. Emphasize the potential of

diagnostic nanostents to revolutionize

cardiovascular therapy by enabling early

disease detection, personalized treatment

strategies, and improved patient outcomes. The

specifics of the results and discussion section

would depend on the particular research

findings or clinical data available on diagnostic

nanostents in cardiovascular therapy [123].

4. Conclusion

A revolutionary advancement in cardiovascular

therapies, diagnostic nanostents combine real-

time diagnostic capabilities with structural

support. These novel gadgets have a lot of

potential, and their multifunctionality and

findings from intensive research and clinical

investigations are highlighted in talks and

outcomes. As we end, several important ideas

surface that will influence how cardiovascular

care is provided in the future. When performing

diagnostic operations, professionals can view

vivid, detailed images in real-time thanks to the

unmatched capabilities of diagnostic

nanostents. The successful integration of

diagnostic nanostents within the physiological

milieu is indicated by positive results from

biocompatibility testing, which paves the way

for their safe and efficient usage in clinical

settings.

Diagnostic nanostents' mechanical robustness,

which has been shown by in vitro testing and

computational modeling, gives rise to

confidence regarding their capacity to offer

solid and long-lasting structural support.

Combining therapeutic and diagnostic features

into one device has great potential to simplify

cardiovascular therapies and provide patients

with a holistic approach to care. Clinical trials

offer proof of the safety, viability, and possible

advantages of diagnostic nanostents in practical

situations. These trials range in size from early-

phase research to large-scale trials. The

therapeutic effect that has been observed, as

evidenced by the controlled release of the drug,

provides opportunities for additional

optimization in terms of addressing

cardiovascular conditions and customizing

treatment plans for each patient. To monitor

the function of diagnostic nanostents over

extended periods and provide clinicians with

information regarding their durability and

sustained diagnostic efficacy, post-market

surveillance and long-term follow-up studies

are essential.

To help doctors select the best diagnostic

strategy for various clinical circumstances,

comparisons with conventional diagnostic

techniques highlight the benefits and possible

superiority of diagnostic nanostents. Challenges

that are identified- whether they have to do

with mechanical behaviour, biocompatibility, or

long-term performance- become useful

benchmarks for subsequent research

endeavors, encouraging iterative improvements

 
 
2024, Volume 6, Issue 2 
 
Journal of Chemical Reviews 
 
 
172 
 
and  breakthroughs.  To  sum  up,  diagnostic 
nanostents  provide  a  revolutionary 
advancement  in  cardiovascular  medicine  by 
combining  state-of-the-art  diagnostics  with 
structural  support.  The  integration  of 
nanotechnology with  interventional  cardiology 
has opened new avenues for targeted, accurate, 
and  effective  therapeutic  and  diagnostic 
approaches.  Researchers,  physicians,  and 
regulatory  agencies  working  together  in  the 
future  will  be  crucial  to  realizing  the  full 
potential  of  diagnostic  nanostents  and 
guaranteeing a smooth transition into standard 
cardiovascular care. Diagnostic nanostents have 
the  potential  to  redefine  the  standard  of 
treatment and enhance patient outcomes in the 
field  of  cardiovascular  therapies  as  they  go 
from research to clinical implementation. 
Authorship contribution statement 
ARMS, HY, and MM conceptualized the idea and 
designed  the  draft.  All  the  authors  wrote  the 
paper.  NW  made  high-resolution  images.  KK 
performed  the  final  check,  analysis,  and 
interpretation. All authors proofread and finally 
approved  this  version of  the  manuscript to  be 
submitted for publication. 
Acknowledgment  
I  would  like  to  acknowledge  and  give  my 
warmest  thanks to  Dr.  P.  Manisankar,  Former 
Vice  Chancellor,  Bharathidasan  University, 
Trichy,  and  Tamil  Nadu,  India who  made  this 
work  possible  by  his  guidance  and  advice 
carried us through all the stages of writing this 
paper. I would also like  to  thank  coauthors  for 
letting  our  defense  be  an  enjoyable  moment, 
and for our brilliant comments and suggestions. 
Finally, i would like to thank God, for letting us 
through all the difficulties.  
Orcid: 
Abdul Razak Mohamed Sikkander 
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8458-7448  
Hazarathaiah Yadav 
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5124-879X  
M. Meena 
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6270-7333  
Nitin Wahi 
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4235-710X  
Krishan Kuma 
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0330-4590 
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A Facile Platform of Kidney Failure Detection through the Creatinine Biomarker Adsorption by a Zinc-doped Nanocone along with Computational Assessments

Article

May 2024

Assessing a facile detection platform of kidney failure through the creatinine biomarker adsorption by a zinc-doped nanocone (ZnCone) was done in this work along with density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The singular models and bimolecular complexes were optimized by assigning the creatinine adsorbate and the ZnCone adsorbent. The Zn-doped atom managed the involving interactions with a reasonable strength of adsorption for the complex formations. Electronic molecular orbital features indicated them suitable for being detectable regarding the variations of electronic specifications. In the case of approaching recovery time and conductance rate, counteracts of complexes were strong enough to be attached to each other and the electronic variations were detectable. Finally, by the formation of strong complexes and the measurement of electronic features, the assessment of ZnCone revealed possibility of a successful platform for approaching the adsorption of creatinine biomarker regarding a facile detection of the kindly failure.

Advances in Diagnostic Tools and Therapeutic Approaches for Gliomas: A Comprehensive Review

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2023
SENSORS-BASEL

Gliomas, a prevalent category of primary malignant brain tumors, pose formidable clinical challenges due to their invasive nature and limited treatment options. The current therapeutic landscape for gliomas is constrained by a "one-size-fits-all" paradigm, significantly restricting treatment efficacy. Despite the implementation of multimodal therapeutic strategies, survival rates remain disheartening. The conventional treatment approach, involving surgical resection, radiation, and chemotherapy, grapples with substantial limitations, particularly in addressing the invasive nature of gliomas. Conventional diagnostic tools, including computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET), play pivotal roles in outlining tumor characteristics. However, they face limitations, such as poor biological specificity and challenges in distinguishing active tumor regions. The ongoing development of diagnostic tools and therapeutic approaches represents a multifaceted and promising frontier in the battle against this challenging brain tumor. The aim of this comprehensive review is to address recent advances in diagnostic tools and therapeutic approaches for gliomas. These innovations aim to minimize invasiveness while enabling the precise, multimodal targeting of localized gliomas. Researchers are actively developing new diagnostic tools, such as colorimetric techniques, electrochemical biosensors, optical coherence tomography, reflectometric interference spectroscopy, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and optical biosensors. These tools aim to regulate tumor progression and develop precise treatment methods for gliomas. Recent technological advancements, coupled with bioelectronic sensors, open avenues for new therapeutic modalities, minimizing invasiveness and enabling multimodal targeting with unprecedented precision. The next generation of multimodal therapeutic strategies holds potential for precision medicine, aiding the early detection and effective management of solid brain tumors. These innovations offer promise in adopting precision medicine methodologies, enabling early disease detection, and improving solid brain tumor management. This review comprehensively recognizes the critical role of pioneering therapeutic interventions, holding significant potential to revolutionize brain tumor therapeutics.

Emerging Trends in Artificial Intelligence-Based Urological Imaging Technologies and Practical Applications

Article

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Nov 2023

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into medical imaging has notably expanded its significance within urology. AI applications offer a broad spectrum of utilities in this domain, ranging from precise diagnosis achieved through image segmentation and anomaly detection to improved procedural assistance in biopsies and surgical interventions. Although challenges persist concerning data security, transparency, and integration into existing clinical workflows, extensive research has been conducted on AI-assisted imaging technologies while recognizing their potential to reshape urological practices. This review paper outlines current AI techniques employed for image analysis to offer an overview of the latest technological trends and applications in the field of urology.

Inorganic Nanoparticles as Radiosensitizers for Cancer Treatment

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2023

Nanotechnology has expanded what can be achieved in our approach to cancer treatment. The ability to produce and engineer functional nanoparticle formulations to elicit higher incidences of tumor cell radiolysis has resulted in substantial improvements in cancer cell eradication while also permitting multi-modal biomedical functionalities. These radiosensitive nanomaterials utilize material characteristics, such as radio-blocking/absorbing high-Z atomic number elements, to mediate localized effects from therapeutic irradiation. These materials thereby allow subsequent scattered or emitted radiation to produce direct (e.g., damage to genetic materials) or indirect (e.g., protein oxidation, reactive oxygen species formation) damage to tumor cells. Using nanomaterials that activate under certain physiologic conditions, such as the tumor microenvironment, can selectively target tumor cells. These characteristics, combined with biological interactions that can target the tumor environment, allow for localized radio-sensitization while mitigating damage to healthy cells. This review explores the various nanomaterial formulations utilized in cancer radiosensitivity research. Emphasis on inorganic nanomaterials showcases the specific material characteristics that enable higher incidences of radiation while ensuring localized cancer targeting based on tumor microenvironment activation. The aim of this review is to guide future research in cancer radiosensitization using nanomaterial formulations and to detail common approaches to its treatment, as well as their relations to commonly implemented radiotherapy techniques.

Surface Engineering of Bioactive Coatings for Improved Stent Hemocompatibility: A Comprehensive Review

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2023

Cardiovascular diseases continue to be a major contributor to illness and death on a global scale, and the implementation of stents has given rise to a revolutionary transformation in the field of interventional cardiology. The thrombotic and restenosis complications associated with stent implantation pose ongoing challenges. In recent years, bioactive coatings have emerged as a promising strategy to enhance stent hemocompatibility and reduce thrombogenicity. This review article provides an overview of the surface engineering techniques employed to improve the hemocompatibility of stents and reduce thrombus formation. It explores the mechanisms underlying thrombosis and discusses the factors influencing platelet activation and fibrin formation on stent surfaces. Various bioactive coatings, including anticoagulant agents, antiplatelet agents, and surface modifications, are discussed in detail, highlighting their potential in reducing thrombogenicity. This article also highlights a multitude of surface modification techniques which can be harnessed to enhance stent hemocompatibility including plasma treatment, physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and electrodeposition. These techniques offer precise control over surface properties such as roughness, charge, and composition. The ultimate goal is to reduce platelet adhesion, tailor wettability, or facilitate the controlled release of bioactive agents. Evaluation methods for assessing hemocompatibility and thrombogenicity are also reviewed, ranging from in vitro assays to animal models. Recent advances in the field, such as nanotechnology-based coatings and bioactive coatings with controlled drug release systems, are highlighted. Surface engineering of bioactive coatings holds great promise for enhancing the long-term outcomes of stent implantation by enhancing hemocompatibility and reducing thrombogenicity. Future research directions and potential clinical applications are discussed, underscoring the need for continued advancements in this field.

Evolution of Coronary Stent Platforms: A Brief Overview of Currently Used Drug-Eluting Stents

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2023

Cardiovascular disease, including ischemic heart disease, is the leading cause of death worldwide, and percutaneous coronary interventions (PCIs) have been demonstrated to improve the prognosis of these patients on top of optimal medical therapy. PCIs have evolved from plain old balloon angioplasty to coronary stent implantation at the end of the last century. There has been a constant technical and scientific improvement in stent technology from bare metal stents to the era of drug-eluting stents (DESs) to overcome clinical challenges such as target lesion failure related to in-stent restenosis or stent thrombosis. A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of these adverse events has led DESs to evolve from first-generation DESs to thinner and ultrathin third-generation DESs with improved polymer biocompatibility that seems to have reached a peak in efficiency. This review aims to provide a brief historical overview of the evolution of coronary DES platforms and an update on clinical studies and major characteristics of the most currently used DESs.

Emerging Applications of Nanotechnology in Healthcare and Medicine

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023
MOLECULES

Knowing the beneficial aspects of nanomedicine, scientists are trying to harness the applications of nanotechnology in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases. There are also potential uses in designing medical tools and processes for the new generation of medical scientists. The main objective for conducting this research review is to gather the widespread aspects of nanomedicine under one heading and to highlight standard research practices in the medical field. Comprehensive research has been conducted to incorporate the latest data related to nanotechnology in medicine and therapeutics derived from acknowledged scientific platforms. Nanotechnology is used to conduct sensitive medical procedures. Nanotechnology is showing successful and beneficial uses in the fields of diagnostics, disease treatment, regenerative medicine, gene therapy, dentistry, oncology, aesthetics industry, drug delivery, and therapeutics. A thorough association of and cooperation between physicians, clinicians, researchers, and technologies will bring forward a future where there is a more calculated, outlined, and technically programed field of nanomedicine. Advances are being made to overcome challenges associated with the application of nanotechnology in the medical field due to the pathophysiological basis of diseases. This review highlights the multipronged aspects of nanomedicine and how nanotechnology is proving beneficial for the health industry. There is a need to minimize the health, environmental, and ethical concerns linked to nanotechnology.

Nanosystems in Cardiovascular Medicine: Advancements, Applications, and Future Perspectives

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. Despite significant advancements in the development of pharmacological therapies, the challenges of targeted drug delivery to the cardiovascular system persist. Innovative drug-delivery systems have been developed to address these challenges and improve therapeutic outcomes in CVDs. This comprehensive review examines various drug delivery strategies and their efficacy in addressing CVDs. Polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, microparticles, and dendrimers are among the drug-delivery systems investigated in preclinical and clinical studies. Specific strategies for targeted drug delivery, such as magnetic nanoparticles and porous stent surfaces, are also discussed. This review highlights the potential of innovative drug-delivery systems as effective strategies for the treatment of CVDs.

Synthesis and Characterization of Nanomaterials for Application in Cost-Effective Electrochemical Devices

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023

Nanomaterials have gained significant attention as a remarkable class of materials due to their unique properties and the fact that they encompass a wide range of samples with at least one dimension ranging from 1 to 100 nm. The deliberate design of nanoparticles enables the achievement of extremely large surface areas. In the field of cost-effective electrochemical devices for energy storage and conversion applications, nanomaterials have emerged as a key area of research. Their exceptional physical and chemical properties have led to extensive investigations aimed at improving the performance and cost-effectiveness of electrochemical devices, including batteries, supercapacitors, and fuel cells. The continuous development and enhancement of these high-performance materials are driven by the demand for enhanced productivity, connectivity, and sustainability at a reduced cost. This review focuses on the electrochemical performance of electrodes, energy storage, and electrochemical sensors (ES) based on nanotechnology. It discusses the application of nanotechnology in electrochemistry for water purification and the fate of substances in water, while also introducing green nanotechnology and cost-effective, high-fidelity product creation through electrochemical methods. The study emphasizes the synthesis of novel nanomaterials, such as metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs), and MXenes, with applications in electrochemical devices. Furthermore, it explores the integration of nanostructures with electrochemical systems in economically significant and future applications, along with the challenges faced by nanotechnology-based industries. The paper also explores the interplay between nanomaterials and biosensors, which play a vital role in electrochemical devices. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the significance of nanomaterials in the development of cost-effective electrochemical devices for energy storage and conversion. It highlights the need for further research in this rapidly evolving field and serves as a valuable resource for researchers and engineers interested in the latest advancements in nanomaterials for electrochemical devices.

Carbon Nanodots Memristor: An Emerging Candidate toward Artificial Biosynapse and Human Sensory Perception System

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023

In the era of big data and artificial intelligence (AI), advanced data storage and processing technologies are in urgent demand. The innovative neuromorphic algorithm and hardware based on memristor devices hold a promise to break the von Neumann bottleneck. In recent years, carbon nanodots (CDs) have emerged as a new class of nano‐carbon materials, which have attracted widespread attention in the applications of chemical sensors, bioimaging, and memristors. The focus of this review is to summarize the main advances of CDs‐based memristors, and their state‐of‐the‐art applications in artificial synapses, neuromorphic computing, and human sensory perception systems. The first step is to systematically introduce the synthetic methods of CDs and their derivatives, providing instructive guidance to prepare high‐quality CDs with desired properties. Then, the structure–property relationship and resistive switching mechanism of CDs‐based memristors are discussed in depth. The current challenges and prospects of memristor‐based artificial synapses and neuromorphic computing are also presented. Moreover, this review outlines some promising application scenarios of CDs‐based memristors, including neuromorphic sensors and vision, low‐energy quantum computation, and human–machine collaboration.

Digitalomics, digital intervention, and designing future: The next frontier in cardiology

Article

Dec 2023
J Cardiol

A Review of Diagnostic Nano Stents: Part (I)

Abstract

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