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SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE
It is the Society of Obstetrician and Gynaecologists of Canada (SOGC) policy to review the content 5 years after publication, at which time the
document may be revised to reflect new evidence or the document may be archived.
No. 412, March 2021 (Replaces No. 193, May 2007, reaffirmed July 2017)
Guideline No. 412: Laparoscopic Entry for
Gynaecological Surgery
This clinical practice guideline was prepared by the authors and
overseen by the SOGC Clinical Practice Gynaecology Commit-
tee. It was reviewed by the SOGC Canadian Paediatric and Ado-
lescent Gynaecology and Obstetrics (CANPAGO) Committee and
approved by the SOGC Guideline Management and Oversight
Committee and the SOGC Board of Directors.
This clinical practice guideline supersedes No. 193, published in
May 2007 and reaffirmed in July 2017.
Authors
George A. Vilos, MD, London, ON
Artin Ternamian, MD, Toronto, ON
Philippe Y. Laberge, MD, Ste-Foy, QC
Angelos G. Vilos, MD, London, ON
Basim Abu-Rafea, MD, London, ON
Sarah Scattolon, MD, Hamilton, ON
Nicholas Leyland, MD, Hamilton, ON
SOGC Clinical Practice Gynaecology Committee (2019): Olga
Bougie, Annette Bullen, Innie Chen, Devon Evans, Susan
Goldstein, Joann James, Sari Kives, Ally Murji, Jessica Papillon-
Smith, Leslie Po, Elizabeth Randle, David Rittenberg (co-chair),
Jackie Thurston, Wendy Wolfman, Grace Yeung, Paul Yong
(co-chair), and Andrew Zakhari
Disclosures: Statements were received from all authors.
Dr. George Vilos is a consultant for Allergan, AbbVie, and Idoman.
Dr. Ternamian is the inventor of the Endoscopic Threaded
Imaging Port (EndoTIP) reusable visual cannula system. No other
activities or relationships that could involve a conflict of interest
were declared. All authors have indicated that they meet the
journal’s requirements for authorship.
Keywords: laparoscopic surgery; pneumoperitoneum; Veress
needle; Hasson technique; direct trocar insertion; visual entry
system
Corresponding Author. George A. Vilos, george.vilos@lhsc.on.ca
UPDATED PRACTICES
1. When inserting the Veress needle, consider shifting or
elevating the umbilicus caudally to minimize retroperitoneal
vascular injury.
(En fran¸cais : Entr
ee laparoscopique en chirurgie gyn
ecologique Entr
ee laparo en chirurgie gyn
ecologique)
The English document is the original version. In the event of any discrepancy between the English and French content, the English version prevails.
J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2021;43(3):376−389
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jogc.2020.12.012
© 2021 The Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada/La
Société des obstétriciens et gynécologues du Canada. Published by
Elsevier Inc.
This document reflects emerging clinical and scientific advances as of the publication date and is subject to change. The information is not meant
to dictate an exclusive course of treatment or procedure. Institutions are free to amend the recommendations. The SOGC suggests, however,
that they adequately document any such amendments.
Informed consent: Everyone has the right and responsibility to make informed decisions about their care together with their health care
providers. In order to facilitate this, the SOGC recommends that health care providers provide patients with information and support that is
evidence-based, culturally appropriate, and personalized.
Language and inclusivity: This document uses gendered language in order to facilitate plain language writing but is meant to be inclusive of all
individuals, including those who do not identify as a woman/female. The SOGC recognizes and respects the rights of all people for whom the
information in this document may apply, including but not limited to transgender, non-binary, and intersex people. The SOGC encourages health
care providers to engage in respectful conversation with their patients about their gender identity and preferred gender pronouns and to apply
these guidelines in a way that is sensitive to each person’s needs.
Copyright: The contents of this document, in whole or in part, cannot be reproduced in any form without prior written permission of the publisher
of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada.
Weeks Gestation Notation: The authors follow the World Health Organization’s notation on gestational age: the first day of the last menstrual
period is day 0 (of week 0); therefore, days 0 to 6 correspond to completed week 0, days 7 to 13 correspond to completed week 1, etc.
376 MARCH JOGC MARS 2021
2. Use an initial Veress intraperitoneal pressure of <10 mm Hg
as the most reliable indicator of correct intraperitoneal
placement of the Veress needle.
3. Use transient high intraperitoneal pressure of 20−30 mm Hg
just before inserting a trocar.
4. Use the non-disposable threaded cannula for visual entry.
KEY MESSAGES
1. Laparoscopic access into the abdomen is a challenge and
deserves careful attention.
2. No single method of laparoscopic entry has been proven safer
or superior to another. Use the technique with which you are
most comfortable and experienced.
3. Consider left upper quadrant insertion of the Veress needle,
because this site is associated with fewer attempts and fewer
conversions to alternative sites.
ABSTRACT
Objective: To evaluate the benefits and risks of laparoscopic surgery
and provide clinical direction on entry techniques, technologies, and
their associated complications in gynaecological surgery.
Target population: All patients, including pregnant women and
women with obesity, undergoing laparoscopic surgery for various
gynaecological indications.
Options: The laparoscopic entry techniques and technologies
reviewed in formulating this guideline included the closed (Veress
needle−pneumoperitoneum−trocar) technique, direct trocar
insertion, open (Hasson) technique, visual entry systems, and
disposable shielded and radially expanding trocars.
Outcomes: Implementation of this guideline should optimize decision-
making in the selection of entry technique for laparoscopic surgery.
Evidence: We searched English-language articles from September
2005 to December 2019 in PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Science
Direct, Scopus, and Cochrane Library using the following MeSH
search terms alone or in combination: laparoscopic entry,
laparoscopy access, pneumoperitoneum, Veress needle, open
(Hasson), direct trocar, visual entry, shielded trocars, radially
expanded trocars, and laparoscopic complications.
Validation methods: The authors rated the quality of evidence and
strength of recommendations using the Canadian Task Force on
Preventive Health Care approach (Appendix A).
Intended audience: Surgeons performing laparoscopic
gynaecological surgery.
SUMMARY STATEMENTS
1. Laparoscopic entry using the Veress needle−pneumoperitoneum−trocar
(or “closed”) technique is practised by the majority of gynaecolo-
gists worldwide (I).
2. During closed entry, caudal umbilical displacement below the
sacrum and great vessels facilitates intraperitoneal placement of
the Veress needle and maximizes the success of entry and avoid-
ance of injury (I).
3. The Veress needle can be inserted intraperitoneally at umbilical or
left upper quadrant sites. Left upper quadrant placement is
associated with fewer attempts and fewer conversions to alterna-
tive sites (I).
4. Initial Veress intraperitoneal pressure of <10 mm Hg is the most
reliable indicator of correct Veress needle placement (I).
5. Shielded trocars do not result in fewer visceral or vascular injuries
during laparoscopic access (II-2).
6. The blunt tip of the radially expanding trocars may provide protec-
tion from injuries, but the force required for entry is significantly
greater than for disposable trocars (I).
7. Single-use, push-through, optical trocars are not superior to blind
methods of inserting trocars and do not avoid visceral or vascular
injury (II-2).
8. Reusable visual entry cannulas have no sharp or pointed trocar,
minimize port wound size, and reduce insertional force; as a con-
sequence, they may be safer than trocars (II-2).
9. Direct trocar insertion is associated with fewer insufflation compli-
cations and failed entries. However, there is insufficient evidence
to conclude that direct insertion is associated with fewer major
complications (I).
10. Open entry is neither superior nor inferior to other entry techniques.
Open entry has a lower incidence of vascular injuries but a poten-
tially higher incidence of bowel injury (I).
11. Laparoscopy can be performed in pregnancy (II-2).
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Alternative insertion sites for the Veress needle (e.g., left upper
quadrant [Palmer’s point], transvaginal, or transuterine) should be
considered (1) when an umbilical entry is considered complicated,
based on patient history and characteristics (e.g., suspected or
known periumbilical adhesions, history or presence of umbilical
hernia, low or high body mass index) or (2) after 3 failed attempts
at umbilical Veress needle insertion (I-A).
2. Elevation of the abdominal wall during insertion of a Veress needle
or primary trocar is not routinely recommended because it does not
avoid visceral or vessel injury (II-2E).
3. Because the position of the umbilicus in relation to the aortic bifur-
cation varies according to the patient’s body mass index, the angle
of insertion of the Veress needle at the umbilicus should be
adjusted accordingly—from 45° in women of normal body mass to
90° in women with obesity (I-A).
4. Previously recommended Veress needle safety checks or tests,
such as the saline drop test and aspiration for fluid, have not been
found to confirm position and therefore are no longer recom-
mended as best practice (I-A).
5. Wiggling the Veress needle from side to side should be avoided;
this can increase the risk of complications (II-1E).
6. It is appropriate to to leave the source of gas attached to the Veress
needle so that the surgeon can use the pressure gauge to measure
the intraperitoneal pressure (<10 mm Hg) as the most reliable indi-
cator of correct placement of the Veress needle (I-A).
7. The volume of CO
2
insufflated with the Veress needle before trocar
insertion should depend on intra-abdominal pressure. Adequate
pneumoperitoneum insufflation should be determined by a pres-
sure of 20−30 mm Hg rather than by CO
2
volume (II-1 A).
8. During entry using Veress needle insufflation, intraperitoneal pres-
sure may be increased immediately before insertion of the trocars.
Transiently high intraperitoneal pressure does not adversely affect
cardiopulmonary function in healthy patients (II-1 A).
9. The threaded, reusable, visual cannula may be considered a safer
instrument for peritoneal entry than conventional trocars (II-2 B).
10. Direct trocar insertion may be used in accordance with the sur-
geon’s training, experience, and preference (I B).
11. Open (Hasson) entry may be used in accordance with the sur-
geon’s training, experience, and preference (II-2 C).
Laparoscopic Entry for Gynaecological Surgery
MARCH JOGC MARS 2021 377
12. Because there is no clear consensus on the optimal method of
peritoneal entry, surgeons should use the technique with which
they are most comfortable and experienced (II-2 C).
13. In women requiring intra-abdominal surgery in pregnancy,
Veress needle insufflation at the umbilical site can be
employed until 14 weeks gestation (if there are no contraindi-
cations), and open (Hasson) entry or left upper quadrant insuf-
flation are preferable after 14 weeks gestation (II-2 B). After
24 weeks gestation, an open (Hasson) entry is recommended
(II-2 B).
SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE
378 MARCH JOGC MARS 2021
I NTRODUCTION
Laparoscopy involves insertion of a cannula through the
abdominal wall, distension of the peritoneal cavity with gas,
and visualization and examination of the abdomen’s con-
tents with an illuminated telescope. Laparoscopic entry and
access into the abdomen may be challenging and have been
associated with injuries to abdominal viscera and blood ves-
sels. The overall injury rate at the time of entry is estimated
to be 1 per 1000 cases, and this rate has remained the same
over the last 40 years. The majority of these injuries are due
to the insertion of the primary umbilical trocar. If surgeons
fail to recognize the injury or intervene in a timely fashion,
morbidity, mortality, and medicolegal issues can result.
1-5
There are three main techniques for laparoscopic entry:
classic or closed (Veress needle−pneumoperitoneum−tro-
car) entry, open (Hasson) entry, and direct trocar insertion
(DTI) without prior pneumoperitoneum.
1
Table 1 lists var-
iations of laparoscopic entry, including optical Veress nee-
dle, optical trocars, radially expanding trocars, shielded
disposable trocars, and trocarless, reusable visual can-
nula.
1,4
Surgeon training, experience, and preference, as
well as regional and interdisciplinary variability, influence
the choice of entry method. Gynaecologists worldwide
commonly use closed entry, whereas general surgeons pre-
fer the open (Hasson) method. Because the frequency of
entry complications with any method is low and variable
(e.g., 0.04%−0.2% for bowel injury), no randomized con-
trolled trials (RCTs) have been sufficiently powered to con-
clude that one method is safer than or superior to another.
SUMMARY STATEMENT 1
This guideline examines the available evidence on laparo-
scopic entry techniques and provides recommendations
based on the Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health
Care levels of evidence (Appendix A).
6
CLOSED (CLASSIC) LAPAROSCOPY
Closed entry involves cutting the skin at the umbilicus with
a scalpel, inserting the Veress needle into the peritoneal
cavity (Figure), insufflating the cavity with carbon dioxide
(CO
2
), and inserting a primary trocar into the abdomen.
Because inserting both the Veress needle and the primary
trocar are non-visual, the two key steps of a successful
closed (classic) laparoscopy are (1) correct intraperitoneal
placement of the Veress needle and (2) avoidance of injury
with the Veress needle and/or primary trocar.
Umbilical Insertion
Conventionally, the most common site to insert the Veress
needle is the umbilical area. Alternative insertion sites may
be sought (1) in patients with a history or presence of
umbilical or ventral hernia, midline surgical incisions,
known or suspected periumbilical adhesions, high or low
body mass index (BMI), or a palpable mass, or (2) after 3
attempts to establish pneumoperitoneum have failed. The
most common alternative site is the left upper quadrant
(LUQ; Palmer’s point).
1
RECOMMENDATION 1
Elevation of the Anterior Abdominal Wall
Some surgeons elevate the lower anterior abdominal wall
by hand or using towel clips when they insert a Veress nee-
dle or primary trocar. One study reported that only towel
clips placed within 2 cm of the umbilicus provided signifi-
cant elevation of the peritoneum (mean 6.8 cm above vis-
cera) and maintained that elevation during the force of the
primary trocar insertion.
7
One RCT found that lifting the
lower abdominal wall to place the Veress needle increased
the risk of failed entry, provided no difference in extraperi-
toneal insufflation, and did not reduce vascular or visceral
complications.
8
RECOMMENDATION 2
Angle of Insertion of the Veress Needle at the
Umbilicus
Based on computed tomography scans of 38 women of
reproductive age examined while under anaesthetic, the
umbilicus was located, on average, 0.4 cm, 2.4 cm, and
2.9 cm caudal to the aortic bifurcation in women with a
normal body mass (BMI <25), those who were overweight
(BMI 25−30), and those with obesity (BMI >30), respec-
tively. In all cases, the umbilicus was cephalad to where the
left common iliac vein crossed the midline at the sacral
promontory.
9
Based on these findings, it is recommended
that the angle of insertion of the Veress needle at the umbi-
licus vary from 45° in women of normal body mass to 90°
in women with obesity.
ABBREVIATIONS
DTI Direct trocar insertion
LUQ Left upper quadrant
VIP Veress intraperitoneal pressure
Laparoscopic Entry for Gynaecological Surgery
MARCH JOGC MARS 2021 379
RECOMMENDATION 3
Caudal Umbilical Displacement (Vilos Technique)
In the Vilos technique, the assistant grasps the skin and
abdominal wall below the umbilicus with both hands and pulls
caudally and upwards to maximize displacement of the umbili-
cus. After a 1-cm vertical infraumbilical incision is made with a
No. 12 (hooked) scalpel cutting upwards, the Veress needle is
inserted at a 90° angle at the base of the umbilicus. One study
showed that the median umbilical caudal displacement was
6cm(range2−9cm)andcorrelatedwithpatient’sheight
(r = −0.3, P= 0.001), body mass (r = 0.17, P=0.08), BMI
(r = 0.29, P= 0.001), and parity (r = 0.15, P=0.10).
10
SUMMARY STATEMENT 2
Left Upper Quadrant (Palmer’s Point) Insertion
Adhesions at the umbilical area are found in approximately
10% of all laparoscopies. In women who have undergone
no previous abdominal surgery, umbilical adhesions are
found in 0% to 0.7% of laparoscopies. Rates of umbilical
adhesions range from 0% to 15% in women who have had
prior laparoscopic surgery, from 20% to 28% in those who
have had previous laparotomy with horizontal suprapubic
(Pfannenstiel) incisions, and from 50% to 60% in those
who have had previous laparotomy with longitudinal inci-
sions.
11-13
Patients with midline incisions for gynaecologi-
cal indications have significantly more adhesions (109 of
259; 42%) than those with all types of incisions for obstet-
rical indications (12 of 55; 22%).
11
In patients who have had a previous laparotomy, Palmer
advocated insertion of the Veress needle 3 cm below the left
subcostal border in the midclavicular line (Palmer’s point;
Figure). In very slender women with prominent sacral
promontory and android pelvis, the great vessels lie only 1
to 2 cm underneath the umbilicus; in women with obesity,
the umbilicus is shifted caudally to the aortic bifurcation.
9
Insufflation at Palmer’s point requires emptying the stomach
by nasogastric (or orogastric) suction and introducing the
Veress needle perpendicular to the abdominal wall. This
approach is contraindicated in patients with previous splenic
or gastric surgery, significant hepatosplenomegaly, portal
hypertension, or gastro-pancreatic masses.
1
Alternatively, an area of approximately 5 cm in diameter
centred in the LUQ (Figure), caudally to Palmer’s point,
can be used to insert a Veress needle and trocar after palpa-
tion to exclude underlying masses. When using this area,
emptying the stomach may not always be necessary. In a
randomized comparison of Veress needle insertion at an
umbilicus that had been shifted caudally (n = 146) versus
at the LUQ area (n = 137), conversion from umbilicus to
LUQ sites occurred in 10 (6.9%) cases and from LUQ to
umbilicus sites in 1 (0.75%) case (x
2
= 0.025). Veress intra-
peritoneal placement was satisfactory with both LUQ and
umbilical sites, but the LUQ site was associated with fewer
attempts and fewer conversions to alternative sites.
14
Using
this technique, there have been no reported failed entries
or complications in over 5000 laparoscopies.
SUMMARY STATEMENT 3
Table 1. Laparoscopic entry and access techniques and technologies
Technique Non-visual entry Visual entry
Closed Insufflated with Veress needle Classic entry (Veress needle pneumoperitoneum−trocar) Optical trocar
Visual cannula
Open Non-insufflated
Hasson blunt trocar
Direct trocar insertion (sharp trocar entry)
Figure. Anatomy of the anterior abdominal wall and Veress
needle insertion sites.
Adapted from Taskforce for Abdominal Entry (https://www.ejog.org/
article/S0301-2115(16)30138-5/fulltext).
SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE
380 MARCH JOGC MARS 2021
Other Sites of Veress Needle Insertion
Ninth and 10th Intercostal Space
Agarwala and Liu
15
have used Veress needle insertion in
the ninth or 10th intercostal space at the anterior axillary
line along the superior surface of the lower rib; this site is
intended to avoid injury to the underlying neurovascular
bundle. After pneumoperitoneum is established at 20−30
mm Hg pressure, 5-mm laparoscopes can be introduced at
LUQ site for inspection of the abdomen and additional
trocars can be inserted under direct vision in appropriate
sites to perform the surgery.
15
Lee
−
Huang Point
Lee and Huang
16
reported on Veress needle insertion at
the midpoint between the umbilicus and xyphoid process,
perpendicular to the abdominal wall, followed by introduc-
tion of a 5-mm trocar for inspection of the abdomen and
insertion of additional trocars under direct visualization in
appropriate sites to perform the surgery.
Transvaginal
Others have reported on inserting a long Veress needle
through the cervix and uterine wall or the posterior vaginal
fornix, with the latter approach being particularly helpful
in women with obesity.
17
Veress Needle Safety Tests or Checks
Tests and techniques for determining intraperitoneal place-
ment of the Veress needle include the double-click sound/
acoustic test of the Veress needle as it traverses the fascia
and the peritoneum, the aspiration test, the hanging-drop
of saline test, the “hiss”sound test, and the syringe test.
1
The combined aspiration−syringe test is referred to as
Palmer’s test. In 2005, a prospective study reported that
the double-click, aspiration, and hanging-drop tests pro-
vided very little useful information on the placement of the
Veress needle
5,18
and did not prevent visceral or vascular
injury.
18
Furthermore, wiggling the Veress needle from
side to side, which some surgeons believe can confirm
intraperitoneal placement, can enlarge a Veress needle
puncture to a tear injury of up to >1 cm in viscera or blood
vessels.
RECOMMENDATIONS 4 AND 5
Prospective studies have concluded that an initial Veress
intraperitoneal pressure (VIP) of 10 mm Hg or below is
the most reliable indicator of correct intraperitoneal Veress
needle placement, regardless of the women’s body habitus,
parity, and age,
18,19
and a VIP ≥10 mm Hg is more likely
to indicate failure to achieve intraperitoneal placement.
20
SUMMARY STATEMENT 4 and
RECOMMENDATION 6
Number of Attempts to Insert Veress Needle
The Veress needle is successfully placed into the peritoneal
cavity on the first attempt in 82% to 87% of cases, on the
second attempt in 8% to 11% of cases, on the third
attempt in 2% to 4% of cases, and after more than
3 attempts in 0.3% to 3% of cases.
18,19,21
Corresponding
complication rates (e.g., extraperitoneal insufflation, omen-
tal and bowel injuries, and failed laparoscopy) are 1% to
16% for 1 attempt, 16% to 38% for 2 attempts, 44%
to 64% for 3 attempts, and 85% to 100% for more than
3 attempts.
18,21
Optical Veress Needle
The Veress needle has been modified to a 2.1-mm diame-
ter cannula to allow insertion of a thin (<1.2-mm diame-
ter), zero-degree, semirigid, fibreoptic mini-laparoscope.
This system may be inserted in the umbilicus or LUQ, and
subsequent ancillary ports are inserted under direct vision.
Adequate Pneumoperitoneum
Adequate pneumoperitoneum has been defined arbitrarily
as a volume of 2−4 L of CO
2
or an intraperitoneal pres-
sure of 10−30 mm Hg.
21
The rationale for high intraperitoneal pressure entry
(20−30 mm Hg) is that greater splinting (tension) of the
anterior abdominal wall and deeper intra-abdominal CO
2
bubble can be achieved than with a volume-limited pneu-
moperitoneum of 2−4L.
3,18-20,22-24
One study determined
that 3 L and 4 L of insufflated CO
2
established intraperito-
neal pressures of 10 mm Hg and 15 mm Hg, respectively.
23
The study demonstrated that, when a downward force of
3 kg was applied to an umbilical trocar, the intra-abdominal
CO
2
bubble was reduced to 0 at 15 mm Hg, and the tip of
the trocar touched abdominal contents; when the same
force was applied at 25 mm Hg pressure, a CO
2
gas bubble
at least 4 cm deep was maintained, and the tip of the trocar
never touched abdominal contents.
23
Inserting a reusable
trocar requires 4−6 kg of force, and shielded disposable
trocars require half this force.
25
The combined results of 3 case series involving 8997 lapa-
roscopies using entry pressures of 25 to 30 mm Hg
included 4 (0.04%) trocar bowel injuries and 1 (0.01%)
major vessel injury.
3
In all bowel injuries, the bowel was
Laparoscopic Entry for Gynaecological Surgery
MARCH JOGC MARS 2021 381
adherent at the entry site, and the vascular injury was
caused by inadvertent loss of pneumoperitoneum.
The use of transiently high intraperitoneal pressure entry
causes minor hemodynamic alterations of no clinical signif-
icance. The high pressure causes a decrease in pulmonary
compliance (approximately 20%, requiring ventilation pres-
sure from 15 to 30 mm Hg), similar to that caused by the
Trendelenburg position, at an intra-abdominal pressure of
15 mm Hg.
24
RECOMMENDATIONS 7 and 8
Trocar Insertion
Basic Technique
After correct intraperitoneal placement of the Veress nee-
dle and establishment of a pneumoperitoneum pressure of
25 to 30 mm Hg, the surgeon can insert a reusable or dis-
posable primary trocar or visual cannula of a chosen diam-
eter and size. The trocar should be inserted at the same
site as the Veress needle and following roughly the same
direction and angle. The trocar is usually palmed with the
dominant hand while the index finger and thumb of the
other hand can pinch the trocar 2−3 cm away from the tip,
depending on the estimated thickness of the abdominal
wall. This manoeuvre of “choking”the trocar tip prevents
surgeons from thrusting the trocar beyond the thickness
of the abdominal wall and penetrating viscera or major
vessels.
After inserting the trocar or cannula, the surgeon introdu-
ces the laparoscope under vision, and examines the inser-
tion site and 360° around the abdomen for any potential
injury before the patient is tilted into the Trendelenburg
position. The presence of any bowel contents or blood
should be investigated before proceeding with the surgical
procedure. The origin of free blood can be determined by
displacing the omentum and bowel cephalad and to the left
of midline, then directly visualizing omental and mesen-
teric vessels and peritoneum overlying the great vessels.
Bowel injuries are evaluated by looking for small punctu-
res, tears, bleeding, oozing of serosal areas, or gas bubbles
escaping from the bowel.
Alternative Trocar Systems
Reusable Trocars
Reusable trocars with variable tips lose their sharpness
following repetitive insertion and therefore require increas-
ingly greater force for penetration through the abdominal
wall. Increased entry force frequently results in loss of
operator control and over-thrusting of the trocar, which
can cause visceral or vascular injury.
4
Disposable Shielded Trocars
Disposable shielded trocars are made of plastic materials
equipped with bladed or bladeless tips covered by a par-
tially retractable shield, which springs forwards to cover
the tip after it traverses the abdominal wall. However, there
is a brief moment when the sharp trocar tip is exposed and
unprotected as it enters the peritoneum.
In 103 852 laparoscopies involving 386 784 trocars, 10 of
36 (28%) serious injuries and 2 of 7 (29%) deaths involved
shielded trocars.
26
Based on 629 trocar injuries reported to
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), there were
408 injuries to major vessels, 182 injuries to other viscera
(mainly bowel), and 30 abdominal wall hematomas. It was
concluded that safety-shielded and direct-view trocars can-
not prevent serious injury during laparoscopic access.
27
Consequently, the FDA requested that, in the absence of
clinical data showing reduced incidence of injuries, manu-
facturers and distributors voluntarily eliminate safety
claims from the labelling of shielded trocars and needles.
SUMMARY STATEMENT 5
Radially Expanding Access System
These systems consist of a 1.9-mm Veress-like needle sur-
rounded by an expanding polymeric sleeve. After insuffla-
tion, the needle is removed, and the sleeve acts as a tract
that can be dilated up to 12 mm by inserting a blunt obtu-
rator.
4
Advantages of this system include eliminating sharp
trocars, applying radial force, stabilizing the cannula’s posi-
tion, avoiding injury to abdominal wall vessels, and elimi-
nating the need to suture fascial defects.
25
SUMMARY STATEMENT 6
Visual Entry Systems
Visual peritoneal entry involves the operating room moni-
tors transmitting real-time images of the trocar’s travel
through the layers of the abdominal wall. Several single-use
optical trocars and one reusable visual cannula entry sys-
tem are available for this purpose.
Single-Use (Disposable) Optical Trocars
These instruments trade blind, sharp trocars for a hollow
trocar with a distal transparent pointed tip where a 0°
SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE
382 MARCH JOGC MARS 2021
laparoscope is loaded, to relay real-time images to a moni-
tor as it traverses abdominal wall layers. After the perito-
neum is insufflated with CO
2
using a Veress needle, the
laparoscope−trocar−cannula unit is advanced perpendicu-
larly towards the peritoneal cavity. Twisting the trocar
advances the hydrophobic, winged trocar to dissect succes-
sive tissue layers towards the peritoneal cavity. Once in the
peritoneal cavity, the optical trocar and laparoscope
are withdrawn, leaving the outer cannula in situ, allowing
introduction of a regular laparoscope.
Direct optical trocar application, with or without prior
pneumoperitoneum, allows rapid peritoneal entry com-
pared with conventional open
28
or closed
29
entry techni-
ques, and its use without insufflation may be preferred in
patients with obesity. However, bowel and vascular injuries
have been described.
SUMMARY STATEMENT 7
Reusable Visual Threaded Cannula
The Endoscopic Threaded Imaging Port (EndoTIP) is a
reusable visual cannula system that allows real-time, inter-
active, primary peritoneal entry. As with all visual entry sys-
tems, knowledge of anatomy, appreciation of navigational
cues, and correct recognition of monitor-displayed images
(situational awareness) are essential competencies for safe
deployment.
30
Once CO
2
insufflation is complete, the surgeon uses one
hand to hold a 0° laparoscope and sheathed cannula per-
pendicular to the patient’s supine abdomen and into the
umbilical or any other chosen site (e.g., the LUQ). The fin-
gers of the other hand rotate the threaded cannula clock-
wise with minimal downward axial pressure. The cannula
eliminates the need for any sharp or pointed trocars, con-
verts uncontrolled excessive linear penetration force to
radial torque, allows visual access, offers incremental and
controlled entry with no chance of overshoot, and pre-
serves myofascial port competence, as the cannula’s tract
recoils during removal. The reusable visual cannula has
also been used successfully without prior CO
2
insufflation
with the Veress needle.
A 10-year multicentre prospective study (n = 4724 entries)
revealed no vascular injuries and only 1 inadvertent enter-
otomy, in which the transverse colon was adhered across
the umbilical region. The injury was immediately recog-
nized and repaired with no untoward effects. Many of
these patients had undergone more than one previous lap-
aroscopy and/or laparotomy; several (2.6%) had LUQ
entry with no adverse events.
30
Since this study was pub-
lished, the same group reviewed >10 000 laparoscopic
entries using the reusable visual cannula, with no vascular
or visceral adverse events.
SUMMARY STATEMENT 8 and
RECOMMENDATION 9
Systematic Approach to Closed Laparoscopic Entry
(Vilos Technique)
A systematic approach to closed laparoscopic entry devel-
oped by Vilos et al.
10,14,31,32
advocates (1) shifting the umbi-
licus caudally, (2) a low initial VIP (<10 mm Hg) indicating
correct placement of the Veress needle, (3) high intraperito-
neal pressure (20−30 mm Hg) before primary trocar inser-
tion, (4) visual entry with the reusable threaded cannula, and
(5) liberal use of the LUQ site for insufflation and/or entry.
Withtheuseofthesefive steps, no injuries have been
reported in a cohort of over 5000 laparoscopic entries.
31
Direct Trocar Insertion Laparoscopic Entry
In 1978 Dingfelder published an article on DTI into the
abdomen with a sharp trocar.
33
The obvious advantages of
this method are the avoidance of complications related to
the use of the Veress needle (i.e., failed pneumoperitoneum,
preperitoneal insufflation, Veress needle injury to viscera
and vessels, and the more serious but rare CO
2
embo-
lism).
34
Laparoscopic entry is initiated with only one blind
step (trocar) instead of three (Veress needle, insufflation, tro-
car). DTI is faster than any other method of entry; however,
it is the least performed technique in clinical practice today.
1
The technique begins with an infra-umbilical skin incision
wide enough to accommodate the diameter of a sharp tro-
car system. The periumbilical abdominal wall must be ade-
quately elevated by hand before the trocar is inserted
directly into the abdominal cavity, aiming towards the pel-
vic hollow. Alternatively, the abdominal wall is elevated
with towel clips placed 3 cm to either side of the umbilicus,
and the trocar is inserted at a 90° angle to the abdominal
wall. On removal of the sharp trocar, the laparoscope is
inserted to confirm correct placement before CO
2
insuffla-
tion is initiated.
DTI has a reduced incidence of minor complications,
mainly owing to fewer episodes of extraperitoneal insuffla-
tion (including omental and subcutaneous insufflation) and
fewer failed entries.
35
A task force for abdominal entry created by the Interna-
tional Society for Gynecologic Endoscopy pointed out that
Laparoscopic Entry for Gynaecological Surgery
MARCH JOGC MARS 2021 383
all existing studies lack power to detect differences in major
complications between DTI and Veress techniques.
1
To
detect a 50% difference in bowel injury rates between DTI
and Veress techniques, a study population in excess of
800 000 would be required. Because existing RCTs are
underpowered, surgeons should interpret with great cau-
tion any published data attempting to demonstrate a differ-
ence in rare complications, such as bowel or vascular
injury.
A 2019 Cochrane review reported that trial results show
a reduction in failed entry into the abdomen with the
use of a DTI in comparison with Veress needle entry
(moderate-quality evidence).
35
Evidence was insufficient to
show whether there were differences between groups in
rates of vascular, visceral, or organ injury (very lowquality
evidence). There was no mortality in any of the groups in
4 studies and no gas embolism events in 2 studies.
35
A major issue with DTI is that injuries to bowel and major
blood vessels may be more catastrophic, which may lead to
higher litigation and underreporting. The catastrophic
nature of DTI injuries is invariably related to the size of
the hole created by the sharp trocar. One publication
reported on 9 litigated cases involving inadvertent bowel
and/or vessel injury with DTI.
36
There were 7 cases of
bowel injury and 2 cases of major vessel injury resulting
from DTI over a 25-year period. There was 1 death and
1 permanent brain injury among the 9 cases. Most of the
cases had medicolegal outcomes that were unfavourable
towards the surgeon.
SUMMARY STATEMENT 9 and
RECOMMENDATION 10
OPEN LAPAROSCOPIC ENTRY OR HASSON
TECHNIQUE
Hasson first described the open-entry technique in 1971.
37
The suggested benefits are prevention of gas embolism,
preperitoneal insufflation, and visceral and major vascular
injury.
The technique involves using a cannula fitted with a cone-
shaped sleeve, a blunt obturator, and possibly a second
sleeve to which stay sutures can be attached. The entry is
essentially a mini-laparotomy. A small incision is made
transversely or longitudinally at the umbilicus. This incision
is long enough to allow the surgeon to dissect down to the
fascia and peritoneum, incise it, and enter the peritoneal
cavity under direct visualization. The cannula is inserted
into the peritoneal cavity with the blunt obturator in place.
Sutures are placed on either side of the cannula in the fas-
cia and attached to the cannula, or sutures are purse-
stringed around the cannula to seal the abdominal wall inci-
sion to the cone-shaped sleeve. The laparoscope is then
introduced and insufflation is started. At the end of the
procedure, the fascial defect is closed, and the skin is reap-
proximated. The open technique is favoured by general
surgeons; some believe that the open technique is indicated
in patients who have undergone previous abdominal sur-
gery, especially those with previous longitudinal incisions
of the abdominal wall.
Hasson reviewed 17 publications on open laparoscopy by
general surgeons (9 publications, 7205 laparoscopies) and
gynaecologists (8 publications, 13 486 laparoscopies) and
compared them with closed laparoscopy performed by
general surgeons (7 publications, 90 152 patients) and
gynaecologists (12 publications, 579 510 patients).
38
Has-
son reported that the rates of complication for open lapa-
roscopy were 0.4% for umbilical infection, 0.1% for bowel
injury, and 0% for vascular injury. The corresponding rates
for closed laparoscopy were 1%, 0.2%, and 0.2%. In his
own 29-year experience with open laparoscopy in 5284
patients, Hasson encountered 1 bowel injury within the
first 50 cases.
39
Garry reviewed 6 reports (n = 357 257) of closed laparos-
copy and 6 reports and 1 survey (n = 20 410) of open lapa-
roscopy performed by gynaecologists.
3
With the closed-
entry technique, the rates of bowel and major vessel injury
were 0.04% and 0.02%, respectively; with open entry, they
were 0.5% and 0%, respectively. When the survey report
(n = 8000) was excluded, the rate of bowel injury with
open entry was 0.06%. Garry concluded that open laparos-
copy is an acceptable alternative method that has been
shown to almost eliminate the risk of injury in normally
situated intra-abdominal structures.
3
A 2002 meta-analysis of English-language studies (level III
evidence) from both the gynaecological and general surgi-
cal literature on open laparoscopy reported 23 (0.1%)
bowel injuries and 1 (0.005%) vascular injury in the course
of 21 000 procedures.
40
Additional case reports of vascular
injuries with the open technique have also been published.
1
Chapron et al.
41
reported on a non-randomized compari-
son of open versus closed laparoscopic entry performed
by university-affiliated hospital teams. Bowel and major
vessel injury rates were 0.04% and 0.01% in the closed-
entry laparoscopies (n = 8324) and 0.19% and 0% in the
SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE
384 MARCH JOGC MARS 2021
open-entry procedures (n = 1562), respectively. They con-
cluded that open laparoscopy does not reduce the risk of
major complications during laparoscopic access.
According to a 2019 Cochrane review, in the direct com-
parison of Veress needle and open-entry techniques, there
was insufficient evidence to determine whether there was a
difference in the rates of vascular or visceral injury or failed
entry (very lowquality evidence). Two studies reported
no deaths in either group. No studies reported gas embo-
lism or solid organ injury.
35
SUMMARY STATEMENT 10 and
RECOMMENDATIONS 11 AND 12
COMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
LAPAROSCOPIC ENTRY
With the Veress Needle
Extraperitoneal and Preperitoneal Insufflation
Extraperitoneal insufflation is common, and its occurrence
may cause difficult or failed entry, often leading the sur-
geon to abandon the procedure. Further attempts to
achieve pneumoperitoneum are usually unsuccessful and
are associated with an increased risk of complications. In
1 study, preperitoneal insufflation occurred in 3%, 15%,
44%, and 100% of cases in 1, 2, 3, and more than
3 attempts, respectively.
18
Veress Needle Injuries
It is difficult to differentiate between puncture injuries
caused by the Veress needle or by the tip of a trocar.
3
Small
punctures (<2 mm in diameter) can result from the tip of a
trocar, and larger tears (>2 mm in diameter) from wiggling
the Veress needle from side to side. A 2009 review of 38
case series, including 696 502 laparoscopic procedures,
reported that 1575 (0.23%) injuries were attributed to the
Veress needle. Of these, 126 (8%) were injuries to blood
vessels or hollow viscera (0.018% of all laparoscopies).
42
Another study reported that 31 (13%) of 246 litigated lapa-
roscopic entry injuries were ascribed to the Veress needle.
43
Bowel Injury. In the aforementioned review,
42
there were
17 (0.0024%) bowel injuries of both the small intestine
(n = 9) and large intestine (n = 8; 1 cecum, 2 transverse,
2 sigmoid, 3 not specified). Although the incidence of
bowel (n=17) and retroperitoneal vascular (n=42) injuries
during blind insertion of the Veress needle is low (1 in
every 11 805 needle insertions), such accidents should not
be dismissed; they are potentially fatal if undetected.
However, the prognosis is good when injuries are detected
quickly and treated properly.
42
Vascular Injury. The review also found 98 vascular inju-
ries, of which 42 were major vascular injuries (0.006% of
the total number of laparoscopic procedures).
42
Eight
were injuries to major retroperitoneal vessels (8.1% of the
vascular injuries); in 34 injuries, which retroperitoneal ves-
sel was injured was not specified. Three injuries affected
the aorta (1 patient died) and 5 affected the common
iliac arteries (2 right, 2 left, and 1 unspecified). A total of
34 injuries to the great vessels were reported, but the
injured vessel was not specified. Fifty-six minor vascular
injuries occurred: 1 to the inferior mesenteric artery, 5 to
epigastric vessels, and 1 to a vein in the greater omentum.
42
Gas Embolism. In a review of 489 335 closed laparosco-
pies, the rate of CO
2
embolism was 0.001%.
44
Several case
reports have detailed fatal or near-fatal coronary, cerebral,
or other embolism. Asystole followed by resuscitation has
also been reported, with sequelae including prolonged hos-
pitalization. CO
2
embolism is associated with a mortality
rate of up to 28.5%.
44
Complications Due to Trocars
The most crucial step in laparoscopic surgery is the inser-
tion of the primary trocar. The trocar is inserted blindly;
resulting injuries are frequently serious (diameter 5−10
mm) and can be catastrophic. According to the FDA, such
serious trocar injuries are fairly common and tend to be
grossly underreported.
2,27
The two most critical aspects of
laparoscopic trocar complications are overshooting and/or
misdirecting a sharp trocar, then failing to recognize the
injury and act in a timely fashion. All trocar-related vascu-
lar and visceral injuries are associated with significant mor-
bidity and mortality. They are often subject to serious
medicolegal scrutiny and litigation, representing one-third
of all claims.
2,45
Secondary Trocar Insertion
All secondary trocars and cannulas should be inserted
under direct vision and good manual control to avoid mis-
direction and/or overshoot, which may result in injury to
intra-abdominal viscera or vessels.
46
Vascular Injuries (Abdominal Wall and Intra-
Abdominal Vessels)
Vascular injuries may occur during insertion of the Veress
needle, any of the trocars, or with the scalpel during open
entry. A significant vascular injury appears perioperatively.
By contrast, bowel injuries are more likely to go unde-
tected, resulting in delayed intervention with significant
Laparoscopic Entry for Gynaecological Surgery
MARCH JOGC MARS 2021 385
adverse clinical and medicolegal outcomes.
5
Injuries to
anterior abdominal wall vessels, including the inferior epi-
gastric vessels and their tributaries, are more common with
secondary port placement. Injury of these smaller vessels
may result in patient death. A meta-analysis reported that
blunt trocars were associated with less risk of abdominal
wall vascular injury than bladed trocars.
47
Trocar Site Hernia
Herniation of omentum or bowel through a port site is
uncommon and is related to port size, occurring more fre-
quently laterally than centrally. Not all herniations through
the port site are Richter hernia (herniation of only a por-
tion of the circumference of the bowel wall through the
fascial defect). Trocar site hernia occurs rarely in 5- and 7-
mm ports and more commonly in ports >10 mm, with a
3.1% increased risk with 12-mm ports. Richter hernia may
be fatal if it goes unrecognized and may require emergency
reoperation for bowel obstruction or strangulation.
47
Estimated rates of complications associated with the vari-
ous laparoscopic entry methods and instruments are sum-
marized in Table 2.
LAPAROSCOPY IN SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Laparoscopy in Patients Who Are Overweight or
Obese
Given the global increased incidence of obesity (BMI ≥30
kg/m
2
), a growing number of patients will require laparo-
scopic surgery for common conditions as well as for bariat-
ric procedures. Laparoscopic surgery in people who are
overweight or obese represents a safety challenge. In Can-
ada, the prevalence of obesity in adults has doubled from
13.8% in 1979 to 26.8% in 2018.
48
In the United States,
approximately 35% of the population is obese, and this
number is expected to reach 42% by 2030.
49
In patients with obesity, the anterior abdominal wall anat-
omy is variable, necessitating special considerations in port
entry, port location, instrument design, and initial VIP and
CO
2
volume. Body habitus, standard laparoscopic instru-
ments, patient positioning, and comorbidities all present
operative challenges.
All peritoneal entry methods (closed, open, DTI, visual)
have been used in patients who are obese.
Closed Entry (Veress Needle Insertion)
In patients weighing >200 pounds (90 kg), the umbilicus is
located 2.9 cm caudal to the aortic bifurcation.
9
Lifting the
anterior abdominal wall in patients with obesity can be dif-
ficult, but the umbilicus can be shifted caudally, as
described previously.
10
Therefore, the Veress needle should
be inserted at 90° to avoid preperitoneal insufflation.
9
Given the thicker subcutaneous adipose tissue, extra-long
Veress needles (>15 cm) may be required if the Veress nee-
dle is not inserted infra-umbilically.
Most gynaecologists use the umbilical location in the mid-
sagittal plane for Veress needle insertion. However, in
patients with obesity, the LUQ area may be a better alterna-
tive; the subcutaneous fat layer of the anterior abdominal
wall is thicker caudally to the umbilicus than at the
LUQ.
11,50
Transvaginal (transuterine, posterior cu-de-sac)
insertion of the Veress needle has also been used in
patients who are obese.
17
Among the most reliable safety tests for correct intraperi-
toneal Veress needle placement is an initial VIP of <10
mm Hg. In patients with obesity, the weight of the anterior
abdominal wall invariably increases the initial VIP reading
to closer to 10 mm Hg or sometimes even slightly
higher.
18-20
Open (Hasson) Entry
In patients with obesity, a larger skin incision may be
required to expose the anterior rectus fascia, which can be
held by long Kocher clamps to offer counter-resistance.
Table 2. Estimated complication rates associated with techniques and instruments during laparoscopic entry
Complication
Closed entry
Direct trocar insertion Open entry Optical trocar
Visual threaded
cannula
Veress needle or trocar Veress needle
Bowel 0.04%−0.2% 0.0024%
a
0.11% 0.06%−0.1% 0.8% 0.001%
Major vessel 0.01%−0.2% 0.006% Cases reported;
rate unknown
Cases reported;
rate unknown
Cases reported;
rate unknown
0.0%
Preperitoneal insufflation >3.0% Not applicable Not applicable
CO
2
embolism 0.001%
a
Approximately 20% of all bowel or major vessel injuries associated with the closed laparoscopic entry technique are attributed to the Veress needle.
SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE
386 MARCH JOGC MARS 2021
Some surgeons believe that the open-entry method is more
difficult and time-consuming in patients who are obese.
They are concerned that a larger skin incision may lead to
CO
2
leakage during the laparoscopic procedure, resulting
in inadequate pneumoperitoneum, reduced visibility of the
operative field, and increased operative risk.
Direct Trocar Insertion
There are few reputable reports on DTI in patients with
obesity.
26
Optical trocars, without prior pneumoperito-
neum, have been used in patients with obesity; however,
inserting bladed optical trocars without pneumoperito-
neum is not recommended, and manufacturers advise their
use only after pneumoperitoneum.
51
Threaded Visual Cannula
Threaded visual cannula has been used for primary umbili-
cal, LUQ, and ancillary port placement after pneumoperi-
toneum in patients who are obese, with no major
complications.
11,30,31
Trendelenburg Position
The Trendelenburg position may be required to improve
visualization in patients who are obese, especially in those
with excessive omental fat; this may hamper the ability to
provide adequate ventilation, especially when higher pneu-
moperitoneal pressure is required.
Port-Site Hernia
A systematic review of laparoscopic entry methods and
instruments reported a 0.74% incidence of port-site hernia
in general, with bariatric procedures having the lowest inci-
dence at 0.57%.
52
RECOMMENDATION 12
Laparoscopy in Pregnancy
When surgery is required in pregnancy, the surgeon must
determine the appropriate modality by taking into account
patient factors, including gestational age and the nature
and urgency of the surgery, in addition to the experience
and comfort level of the surgeon and the availability of
appropriate resources, including health care personnel.
If the laparoscopic approach is chosen, there are specific
considerations for the entry technique. The size of the
gravid uterus and gestational age are key factors in deter-
mining the optimal method to access the peritoneal cavity.
All entry methods can be considered, and the location can
be adjusted to account for the height of the uterine fun-
dus.
53-55
Umbilical Veress needle insufflation can be used
until 14 weeks gestation, although some surgeons prefer
an open technique for the primary trocar using the supra-
umbilical subxiphoid midline or LUQ sites. After 14 weeks
gestation, however, umbilical Veress needle insufflation
should be avoided because of the proximity of the gravid
uterus to the umbilicus. Open laparoscopic entry or LUQ
entry is therefore recommended.
International guidelines also suggest that an open tech-
nique is preferred if laparoscopy is performed after
24 weeks gestation.
55
After establishing the pneumoperito-
neum, CO
2
insufflation pressures of 10−15 mm Hg can
be safely used, with the lowest pressures needed for
adequate visualization.
Although laparoscopy can be performed safely in all tri-
mesters, appreciable risks must be considered if the preg-
nancy is at an advanced gestational age. These include the
risk of intra-amniotic insufflation, intravasation of CO
2
and fetal acidosis, and uterine laceration. The latter can
interrupt the uteroplacental unit, resulting in uterine hema-
tomas and/or hemorrhage and preterm labour and deliv-
ery. Inadvertent Veress needle insufflation of the gravid
uterus has been associated with subsequent prelabour
rupture of membranes, preterm birth, and fetal loss.
SUMMARY STATEMENT 11 and
RECOMMENDATION 13
CONCLUSION
Laparoscopic entry and access into the abdomen may be
challenging and have been associated with injuries to
abdominal viscera and blood vessels. No one method of
laparoscopic entry has proven safer than or superior to
another. Surgeons should perform the technique with
which they are most comfortable and experienced. Surgical
candidates should be advised of the potential risks associ-
ated with laparoscopic surgery, including the risks associ-
ated with laparoscopic and laparotomic entry. Regardless
of entry method, a systematic approach should be used.
Adjustments to surgical technique should be considered in
certain populations, including patients who are pregnant or
obese.
GUIDELINE TOOLKIT
SOGC members can visit the Guideline Resource Kit
webpage on sogc.org to find complementary tools and
Laparoscopic Entry for Gynaecological Surgery
MARCH JOGC MARS 2021 387
resources and to participate in accredited continuing pro-
fessional development activities.
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APPENDIX A
Table. Key to evidence statements and grading of recommendations, Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care
a
Quality of Evidence Assessment Classification of Recommendations
I: Evidence obtained from at least one properly randomized
controlled trial
II-1: Evidence from well-designed controlled trials without
randomization
II-2: Evidence from well-designed cohort (prospective or
retrospective) or case-control studies, preferably from more than
one centre or research group
II-3: Evidence obtained from comparisons between times or places
with or without the intervention. Dramatic results in uncontrolled
experiments (such as the results of treatment with penicillin in the
1940s) could also be included in the category
III: Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience,
descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees
A. There is good evidence to recommend the clinical preventive action
B. There is fair evidence to recommend the clinical preventive action
C. The existing evidence is conflicting and does not allow to make a
recommendation for or against use of the clinical preventive action;
however, other factors may influence decision-making
D. There is fair evidence to recommend against the clinical preventive
action
E. There is good evidence to recommend against the clinical preventive
action
L. There is insufficient evidence (in quantity or quality) to make a
recommendation; however, other factors may influence decision-
making
a
Adapted from the Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination. The periodic health examination. Can Med Assoc J 1979;121:1193-125.
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