Internet of Things (IoT) Security: Status, Challenges and Countermeasures

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a vast concept spreading rapidly throughout the world today. Due to their inherent nature, IoT devices are more vulnerable to attacks than other cyber infrastructure. In a typical IoT system, four different types of layers can be identified. Those layers can be specified as the application layer, data processing (software) layer, network layer, and sensing (physical) layer. According to this architecture, each layer operates under different technologies. Thus, various challenges and vulnerabilities related to security have emerged and exist. Thereby extant and forthcoming IoT applications must comply with standard cyber security guides and regulations to guarantee safety; otherwise, they would jeopardize the lives of people using these IoT applications resulting in chaos. To achieve this, IoT applications can create environments with end-to-end security by adding security measures and the required adjustment, guaranteeing safety and privacy. By bearing this in mind, this research reviews the different types of security challenges, such as access control attacks and physical security attacks found in each of the four layers of the IoT architecture, along with what countermeasures can be taken to mitigate these attacks. As the main objective of this research is to examine underlying security challenges in the standard IoT architecture, we examine and categorize IoT vulnerabilities and outline methods used to ensure such IoT systems safety. Further, we also present the future directions in terms of security and privacy of IoT as well.

Full text

Int. J. Advanced Networking and Applications
Volume: 14 Issue: 03 Pages: 5444-5454(2022) ISSN: 0975-0290
5444
Internet of Things (IoT) Security: Status,
Challenges and Countermeasures
Navod neranjan thilakarathne
Department of ICT, Faculty of Technology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
Email: navod.neranjan@ict.cmb.ac.lk
Rohan Samarasinghe
Department of ICT, Faculty of Technology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
Email: rohan@ict.cmb.ac.lk
DMCK Dasanayake
Department of ICT, Faculty of Technology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
Email: 2019t00436@stu.cmb.ac.lk
M.F.F. Fasla
Department of ICT, Faculty of Technology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
Email: 2019t00441@stu.cmb.ac.lk
AMSD. Ananda
Department of ICT, Faculty of Technology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
Email: 2019t00470@stu.cmb.ac.lk
G.H. Sonnadara
Department of ICT, Faculty of Technology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
Email: 2019t00471@stu.cmb.ac.lk
M.T. Sahirullah
Department of ICT, Faculty of Technology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
Email: 2019t00465@stu.cmb.ac.lk
R.G.T.R.L. Wijesekara
Department of ICT, Faculty of Technology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
Email: 2019t00475@stu.cmb.ac.lk
DSD. Silva
Department of ICT, Faculty of Technology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
Email: 2019t00470@stu.cmb.ac.lk
-------------------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT---------------------------------------------------------------
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a vast concept spreading rapidly throughout the world today. Due to their inherent
nature, IoT devices are more vulnerable to attacks than other cyber infrastructure. In a typical IoT system, four
different types of layers can be identified. Those layers can be specified as the application layer, data processing
(software) layer, network layer, and sensing (physical) layer. According to this architecture, each layer operates
under different technologies. Thus, various challenges and vulnerabilities related to security have emerged and
exist. Thereby extant and forthcoming IoT applications must comply with standard cyber security guides and
regulations to guarantee safety; otherwise, they would jeopardize the lives of people using these IoT applications
resulting in chaos. To achieve this, IoT applications can create environments with end-to-end security by adding
security measures and the required adjustment, guaranteeing safety and privacy. By bearing this in mind, this
research reviews the different types of security challenges, such as access control attacks and physical security
attacks found in each of the four layers of the IoT architecture, along with what countermeasures can be taken to
mitigate these attacks. As the main objective of this research is to examine underlying security challenges in the
standard IoT architecture, we examine and categorize IoT vulnerabilities and outline methods used to ensure such
IoT systems safety. Further, we also present the future directions in terms of security and privacy of IoT as well.
Keywords - Cybersecurity, Encryption, Internet of Things, IoT, Protocols, Security, Sensors, Internet, Wireless
Sensor Networks
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Date of Submission: Sep 21, 2022 Date of Acceptance: Oct 17, 2022
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I. INTRODUCTION
Over the years, various technologies have been
developed to accomplish different tasks towards making
our life easy. IoT is a fast-growing and pervasive
technology that has showcased exponential growth in
recent years. According to the latest research, the total
number of interconnected IoT devices is expected to be
more than 30 billion by 2025 [1]-
[3]. In the past century, the world has achieved
tremendous milestones owing to the contributions of
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT).
Now the place of this ICT has been acquired by the IoT,

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with the immense benefits they contributed to the
development of various industries such as healthcare,
agriculture, smart cities, and so on [4]-[8].
IoT is generally referred to as an interconnected, widely
spread network of smart devices or embedded devices
(things) connecting through the Internet. It primarily
designs an enormous geographically distributed network
that connects many devices to gather data, manipulates
data, sometimes processes that data, and uses that
processed data to make intelligent and smart decisions by
exchanging information [9]-[12]. These IoT physical
objects or things include devices such as smart virtual
assistants, smart meters, smart home cleaners, smart lights,
smart glasses, and other home appliances used in day-to-
day life and as well as heart-rate detectors, smart
thermometers, parking sensors on cars, Logix controllers
and other smart industrial devices [3],[13]-[16]. On the
other hand, IoT also includes different sensor-embedded
devices, wired, wireless, private, or public communication
networks, and sensor networks such as Wireless Sensor
Networks (WSN). Further IoT enables people and devices
to connect through the Internet with any other people and
devices, anywhere and anytime [4],[5],[17]-[20].
The concept of interconnected devices was first proposed
in 1832 when Baron Schilling invented the first
electromagnetic telegraph [6],[20]-[24]. In 1982, students
at Carnegie Mellon University designed the first connected
devices for a Coca-Cola vending machine to monitor the
machine's contents [7],[8],[25]-[29]. Later the
advancement of the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1989
fueled the growth of IoT and paved the way for the wide
use of IoT. The term “Internet of Things” was created in
1999 and introduced by Kevin Ashton [30]-[35].
In 2010, the IoT paradigm started to take off high owing to
the increased adoption of IoT in various industries making
every IoT infrastructure target for cyber-criminals if they
are not secured well[8]-[12]. As of now, this IoT security
has become a critical problem for governments,
companies, and individuals to protect their networks from
cyber attackers.
On the other hand, cybercriminals are taking advantage
of the coronavirus threat to increase their attacks on
remote workers and connected devices making the
situation worse. Almost every industry is at risk with IoT,
as 92% of industrial businesses, 82% of healthcare
organizations, and 63% of corporations use IoT [13]. IoT
systems and technologies are still evolving, yet there are
many challenges to overcome, among which security is the
most important [36]-[40].
In this research, we aim to provide a brief review of
security threats that target IoT and measures that can be
taken to prevent them. In this regard, the rest of the paper
is structured as follows. Following the introduction,
section two provides a brief background of the IoT
security challenges, security challenges in terms of its
layered architecture, and real-world examples of security
attacks. In section three, we discuss countermeasures that
can be taken. Section four highlights anticipated future
directions regarding IoT security, and finally, the paper
concludes with the conclusion.
II. IOT SECURITY CHALLENGES
The security impact of IoT extends from our homes to our
offices and beyond. Every day we access and deal with our
highly sensitive and personal data through various IoT
devices. As every device in the user’s environment has
sensors with other components connected to the Internet,
hackers can easily intrude through the Internet. Hence
everything from wired and interconnected devices to IoT
over wireless networks produces a large attack surface for
cyber attackers [14]-[18],[40]-[45]. With advanced
hacking techniques and tools, attackers are now capable of
completely crashing or crippling a system. Therefore,
users’ trust and interest in IoT may eventually be
diminished. Thus, IoT users also have responsibilities
associated with certain functions of the IoT as they are the
main stakeholders using these devices. For example, using
accurate and secure devices and regularly updating
information such as user credentials is essential for
preventing attacks [19]-[23].
IoT security threats can cause extensive damage to IoT
infrastructure, resulting in the loss of lives of people using
it. According to the literature [4]-[8],[46]-[50], these
threats and challenges can be apportioned according to the
layered architecture of IoT [20]-[24]. Hence, considering
all these aspects, IoT security challenges can be identified
in four ways: local, network, software, and hardware
security challenges [23]-[28].
A. Why is IoT security important?
Over the last decade, cyber-attacks that target IoT have
rapidly increased owing to the wide use of IoT
[29],[30],[50]-[53]. According to the latest research [30]-
[35]; it is evident that 70% of televisions, web cameras,
home-based alarm systems, televisions, door locks, and
other devices use network services that are not encrypted,
posing a doubt about securing user data [36]-[40]. On the
other hand, when we consider the 2020 and 2021 years,
we can find IoT device breaches of over one billion,
according to reports by Kaspersky, a major endpoint
security solutions vendor [39],[41]. Moreover, most
individuals are unaware of IoT devices and their inherent
risks. Nevertheless, they also do not understand how
serious the IoT security issues are.
Thus, it is important to understand the security challenges
that systems face before understanding how to secure them
when building systems. These challenges and threats must
be addressed through a series of steps to eliminate or
minimize them.

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B. IoT Architecture and Security Challenges
The introduction of IoT has become so popular in a very
short time because it’s a very simple and cheap platform
that provides very good solutions to many problems and
tasks that could not be done or solved. IoT has been used
extensively in various fields, such as agriculture,
manufacturing, military, etc. [54]-[59]. However, as they
become more widely used, their risks and threats can be
identified as a key challenge to IoT [14],[15].
In general, the IoT architecture can be apportioned into
four layers: application layer, data processing (software)
layer, network layer, and sensing (physical) layer,
according to the research [2]-[7],[60]-[65]. According to
this architecture, each layer operates under different
technologies, whereas various challenges and
vulnerabilities related to security have emerged pertained
to each layer. Figure 1 specifies the different technologies,
various devices, and applications used in each layer for
better understanding.
Figure 1. IoT layered Architecture
In the upcoming subsections, we briefly provide a
overview on security attacks that target each layer.
C. Security challenges in the sensing layer
The sensing layer is responsible for sensors and other
hardware devices in IoT systems. Different types of
sensors, such as smoke detectors, sensors in cameras,
ultrasonic sensors, temperature sensors, etc., can be used
to collect important data about the surroundings where
they are placed [53],[54] at the sensing layer.
 Malicious code injection attack
In code injection attacks, the attacker uses
malicious codes to execute attacks. This
malicious code is then inserted into the memory
of the physical nodes. As a result, attackers may
force nodes to perform unnecessary operations or
attempt to gain access to the IoT device [52].
 Fallacious data injection attack
The attacker first catches the node and injects
fallacious or misleading data into its IoT,
eventually malfunctioning IoT applications [65]-
[68]. This method could also be used to launch a
Denial of Service (DOS) attack.
 Node capturing
In node capturing, the attackers try to catch or
replace an existing node with a malicious node.
The new hostile node act as a part of the system,
where the attacker can control the new malicious
node, which severely impacts the security of the
IoT system [56].
 Intervention and eavesdropping
IoT systems frequently contain several nodes
deployed in an unsecured environment. In such
cases, unauthorized users can use them to gain
unauthorized access to the system if they are not
secured enough [57]. Further, attackers can read
and collect data over many processes, such as
authentication or data transmission, and these
attacks can lead to data leakage and unauthorized
access to user data.
 Side-Channel attacks
In the side channel attack, sensitive data on the
micro-architecture of the processors, power
consumption, and electromagnetic emission can
be revealed to the attacker. Examples of side-
channel attacks are over-consumption of energy,
electromagnetic attacks, timing attacks, and laser-
based attacks. Many protections are included in
modern CPUs to prevent side-channel attacks
[52].
 Sleep deprivation attack
Attackers aim to drain IoT devices from this kind
of attack. As IoT devices have a small battery
capacity, they cannot produce enough power
when the resources are highly utilized. As a
result, the IoT system faces denial-of-service
conditions, which would drain all its power [55].
 Booting attacks
Booting time is the most vulnerable period in any
IoT device as the device manufacturers are
designed to implement security features after
booting time. As the features are not enabled at
the booting time when node devices are rebooted,
attackers may exploit this vulnerability and
attempt to attack, compromising its security [68]-
[72].
 Unknown device vendors
Most IoT-related sensors and devices are made
by unknown Chinese vendors. They use
customized operating systems and less secure

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basic firmware for their hardware whereas these
types of devices can’t be trusted to handle our
data securely. At times, they might implement
some tracking tools to send our data secretly to
their sources [16],[17].
 Low physical security of devices
When using an IoT platform for remote
monitoring purposes, we use sensors to gather
some data where they would be placed in public
or outdoor locations. This always risks the
devices as the security is not tight in these
locations [17].
 Visible device debug ports
Debug ports of IoT devices are used to connect
and analyze the device's log and error information
[17]. These ports must be accessed only by
authorized persons, whereas most device
manufacturers designed IoT devices in such a
way without providing adequate security for
these external debug ports [20], [25].
 Unverified third-party components utilized in
IoT devices
IoT devices commonly use third-party firmware,
such as open-source libraries or chip components.
Built-in security features and inherent security
vulnerabilities of these third-party components
would also be inherited by IoT upon the
connection of these components with IoT [21],
[25].
 Exploiting Universal Plug-and-Play (UPnP)
UPnP connects network-enabled devices instantly
and seamlessly. For example, CCTV cameras use
UPnP to communicate with routers and allow
external connections to connect to local devices
enabling consumers to connect their devices to
the Internet easily. But it also opens connected
devices to the rest of the world through Internet,
which would pave the way for attackers to get
inside users’ devices through the UPnP protocol
[27].
D. Security challenges in the network layer
Transferring data from the sensing layer to the data
processing layer is the major function of the network
layer. The key security concerns at the network layer are
listed below for better understanding.
 DoS attack
In this type of attack, the attacker makes a high
number of unwanted requests to the target servers
or the network device. As a result, the target
server/network would be disabled, affecting all its
user services. A Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS) attack occurs when an attacker combines
many sources to overload the target server.
Although such attacks are not unique to IoT
applications, the network layer of the IoT is
vulnerable to them due to the heterogeneity and
complexity of the IoT networking infrastructure
[60],[72]-[76].
 Routing attacks
In routing attacks, malicious nodes may try to
divert information over the Internet. Sinkhole
attacks are routing attacks in which an adversary
shows a false shortest routing pathway and
recruits network nodes to route traffic through it
[58]. A wormhole attack is another routing attack
that may be extremely dangerous when coupled
with other types of attacks, such as sinkhole
attacks [27]. By constructing a warm hole
between a hacked node and a device on the
Internet, an attacker can try to overcome the
fundamental security procedures of an IoT
system [60].
 Cellular network intercepting
As IoT platforms work with the Internet to get
Internet access, IoT devices most commonly use
Wi-Fi or cellular connection. Many IoT devices
work on cellular connections instead of Wi-Fi, as
in cellular networks, as devices not only get
internet access but also can get SMS services and
Call services. On the contrary, using a cellular
connection is not a secure option as attackers in
the vicinity can create a fake cell site and listen to
consumers’ conversations, read their text
messages secretly, or directly breach the devices
[21],[27].
 Brute-force attack
In the past, email accounts and PCs faced brute-
forcing attacks, whereas nowadays, IoT devices
are found everywhere, posing doubt about
securing them against brute force attacks. In
brute-force attacks, the attacker attempt to access
a device through SSH or Telnet ports with a list
of commonly used credentials or collected
account credentials from data breaches [28].
E. Security challenges in the data processing layer
The data processing layer serves as an intermediate
layer between the application layer and network layer in
the IoT systems. The data processing layer is often
comprised of powerful computing and storage facilities.
Persistent data storage, Artificial Processing (AI) units,
queuing systems, and other components are included in the
data processing layer to further process the data gathered
at the sensing layer [73]-[77]. In the data processing layer,
cloud security and database security are two key
challenges stakeholders must be aware of.
 Cloud malware injection
By injecting cloud malware into the virtual
machine, the attacker can take control of the
cloud virtual machine. Later the attacker can
access the service requests and capture sensitive
data on the cloud virtual machine [78].

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 SQL injection attack
In the SQL Injection (SQLi) attack, an attacker
can include malicious SQL statements in service
requests that are made to the cloud [62]. By doing
so, an attacker can obtain sensitive information
from the database and even insert data into
database entries [63].
 Flooding attack in cloud
Flooding attack has an impact on quality of
service (QoS). To drain cloud resources, attackers
regularly send many requests to the cloud, which
is the same as performing a cloud DoS attack.
Therefore, by extending the load on cloud
servers, these attacks can have a major effect on
the availability of cloud servers.
F. Security Challenges at Application Layer
End-users are directly interacted with and served by the
application layer. This layer contains several security
flaws, including data theft and privacy problems. Many
IoT systems additionally have an application support layer
between the network and application layers. It delivers
various corporate services and assists in resource
allocation and computation.
 Service interruption attacks
Commonly known as DDOS attacks or
illegitimate interruption attacks. Here the attacker
purposefully floods the network or servers with
many requests. As a result, servers may become
too busy to react, or services may become
unavailable. Such attacks discourage legal
consumers from using the services.
 Data theft
IoT systems often handle a massive amount of
data. As IoT devices and platforms are always
interconnected with the Internet, there is a high
chance of intruders looking in to break into such
devices seeking access to personal data. Personal
information of the users, location coordinates,
sensor readings, IP address, email, mobile
phones, and CCTV camera data are all vulnerable
to this data theft attacks. To secure IoT devices
from data theft, technologies and protocols such
as privacy management, user and network
authentication, data isolation, and data encryption
could be used [18],[24].
 Sniffing attacks
If there aren’t adequate protective mechanisms in
place to prevent sniffer attacks, attackers might
use sniffer programs to monitor unwanted
network traffic in IoT applications [70]-[75].
 Using default credentials
When consumers buy new IoT devices, the
devices come with a default username and
password set up by the device manufacturers.
Recent research shows that default passwords are
used by 15% of IoT devices which is a bad habit
in consumers that will lead to losing the privacy
of data stored in devices [23].
 Low-Level transport encryption
At times, IoT devices connected to the Internet
use HTTP unencrypted protocols for
intercommunication [15]. In such cases, devices
share their credentials with other devices as plain
text on an HTTP connection, where attackers on
the network can easily view the data
communicating on devices [22].
G. Real-World IoT Security Incidents
 Nortek Security and Control: Access control
system breach – 2019
Applied Risk (a cyber security firm) computer
security service in Amsterdam discovered ten
vulnerabilities in eMerge E3 in Nortek Linear
devices in 2019. They found that hackers could
steal credentials, take control of devices
(opening/locking doors), install malware into the
devices, and launch DoS (Denial of Service)
attacks [73].
 Ring Home: Security camera breach – 2019
Ring Home is an Amazon-owned security camera
solution provider that has built notoriety for itself
in recent years due to two significant security
issues. The first was due to an IoT security issue
in which cybercriminals successfully hacked into
multiple families’ connected doorbells and home
monitoring systems. The second was due to third-
party trackers in their Android app mistakenly
revealing user data to both Facebook and Google.
Hackers could access live feeds from cameras
surrounding users’ houses and even engage
remotely via the devices’ integrated microphones
and speakers using a combination of insecure and
default credentials [72].
 The Hackable Cardiac Devices from St. Jude –
2017
In 2017 CNN reported that “St. Jude Medical’s
implantable cardiac” small IoT heart monitoring
device is vulnerable and can be accessed by
hackers. The device helps physicians monitor and
manage patients’ heart rates and prevents sudden
heart attacks. The news also reported this
device’s wireless transmitter share patient heart
condition status with physicians. To get control,
hackers connect to the transmitter and have full
control after that [27], [33].
 The Mirai Botnet – 2016
In 2016 a large DDoS attack happened, suffering
a number of major websites worldwide, including
the world’s most famous websites such as Reddit,
Netflix, Guardian, Twitter, and CNN. This has
happened owing to an IoT botnet called Mirai
[26], [32].

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III. ENSURING THE SECURITY OF IOT
SYSTEMS: WHAT MUST BE DONE?
Unsecured IoT devices can allow attackers access to
networks and other linked devices [76]-[80]. As IoT
devices have a wide attack surface and a large supply of
security faults, cybercriminals frequently target them in
cyber-attacks [80]-[84]. As the number of linked devices
increases, ensuring IoT security without the necessary
knowledge and methods becomes increasingly difficult.
Hence in the following, we provide a brief overview of
what measures can be taken to improve the security of IoT
systems.
 Authentication and authorization
To limit or decrease network vulnerabilities and
breaches, IoT applications must implement
authentication services such as access control
methods. Improper device authentication allows
attackers to direct access, creating a security risk
[44],[47]. Access control, however, limits the
privileges of IoT device components and
applications. It defines who has been permitted
access to the data and IoT devices and how much
access they should be given. And it ensures that
data is only accessible to authorized users and
utilizes strong authentication to authorize them.
So, they get access only to the resources they
need.
Further, it is also necessary to apply a strong
password, fingerprint or facial identity, or other
biometric authentication means to verify the
user's identity; to allow access to the user data
[44]. Password protection must be strong to avoid
brute force attacks [47]. When configuring the
password, the user should ensure that each IoT
device has different passwords, change
passwords at least several times a year, and avoid
common and general passwords [46]. On the
other hand, for IoT devices to ensure maximum
security and privacy, well-structured access
control must be required [45].
 Data encryption and integrity
All sensitive data must be encrypted during the
data storage or transmission phase [47]. Even if
attackers gain access to the transmission media or
database, well-built data encryption makes it
tough for them to access sensitive user data [45].
 Data minimization
This is the best practice for maintaining a safe
data repository within an organization by
minimizing the duration of the repository. As a
privacy measure, it suggests that IoT services
should minimize gathering personal data by only
collecting needed data [48]. An organization
should obtain data for a specific period and delete
unwanted personal user data that is no longer
needed. Too much gathering of personal data and
maintaining a large data repository can have a lot
of potential for security breaches.
 Continuous monitoring and reporting
IoT devices should monitor regular and continual
data collection as a preventative measure against
cyber-attacks [44]. In a centralized log
management system, all IoT applications and
device-related logs must be collected, whereby
implementing a centralized system can monitor
and analyze network and internet attacks
continuously.
 Manage updates of devices
A lack of device updates is one of the biggest IoT
security issues [46]. Automatic updates must be
in place in IoT devices to check for official
updates by the device manufacturer. IoT
manufacturers often release security patches
every quarter [44]. Operating system versions and
security patches are also upgraded as part of these
updates. When working with users’ IoT device
makers, they need to develop patch management
and firmware upgrade plan. Also, it’s vital to
ensure users’ devices are updated to the latest
version. This ensures that the system's security is
up to date, and the system’s data must be
safeguarded in all aspects [47].
 Minimize device bandwidth
Limiting the amount of network traffic essential
for the IoT devices to function. If possible,
configure the devices to restrict hardware and
kernel-level bandwidth while observing
suspicious activities. This will protect IoT
systems against Denial-of-Service attacks.
 Using Honeypots
The most popular method of securing IoT is
using honeypots. These decoy programs appear
reliable but are specifically developed to catch
attackers attempting to attack a system. The
attackers are stealthily watched throughout the
process without the intruder’s knowledge. The
honeypot information can be transferred to a
sandbox for automated analysis. This enables us
to anticipate attacks, gather and analyze malware
targeting IoT devices, and respond quickly to
remediation operations [76].
 Follow best practices
Implementing firewalls, lightweight encryption,
hardening, and eliminating device backdoor
channels are all strategies to secure the IoT
system from harm. Because these IoT devices
and apps are always linked to the Internet,
network security should be ensured by
implementing hypertext transfer protocol secure
(HTTPS), intrusion prevention systems (IPSs),
security sockets layer (SSL)/transport security
layer (TSL), and intrusion detection systems
(IDSs) [45]. On the other hand, before installing
an IoT device, a risk management assessment
should be carried out to identify any potential

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vulnerabilities before setting up the system
environment [49].
IV. FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF THE IOT
SECURITY CHALLENGES
Our lives will be made easier when the network
capabilities are expanded to all possible physical locations,
but the growth of IoT will raise the number of potential
threats, which will influence device productivity and
safety [85]-[90]. With the development of the IoT, various
technologies will emerge that can make the next
generation of IoT more secure. This section intends to
provide users with a summary of the anticipated future
directions regarding IoT security.
 Blockchain and IoT security
Blockchain technology became well-known with
the emergence of cryptocurrency mining, and
currently, the technology is used for designing
robust, secure systems. The data processed by
IoT devices is vast and always vulnerable to
cyber-attacks. Thus, it’s possible to use
blockchain to standardize, authenticate, and
safeguard the adoption of data handled by such
devices. In general, blockchain can keep track of
the data collected using sensors without allowing
it to be replicated by erroneous data. Further,
blockchain technology provides security to; data
collected in real-time from IoT sensors by storing
this data in blockchain ledgers [78].
 IoT Security and Fogcomputing
IoT devices produce massive amounts of data
regularly, and it is not easy to manage and move
the generated data to the cloud storage for
analysis in real time. As a solution, the Fog
computing concept has been developed where
cloud computing services are being extended to
the network’s edge by Fog Computing. It aims to
improve security, avoid data theft, decrease the
quantity of data saved in the cloud, and improve
the overall efficiency of IoT devices. [81].
 IoT security and Edge computing
An edge computing: system’s compute and
analytical capacity is delivered right at the
network edge. The devices in an application can
form a network and collaborate to compute data.
As a result, a considerable amount of data can be
prevented from being sent outside the device,
either to the cloud or to fog nodes. So, the
security of IoT applications can be improved.
Edge computing also helps to reduce
transmission costs by eliminating the need to
send all data to the cloud [52].
 IoT security and AI
There has been much interest in AI with IoT in
recent years. Many fields are emerging with AI
and are also being used to secure IoT devices. As
AI introduces various approaches to securing
networks against real-time threats, it seems to be
a good preventive method to protect IoT devices
against cyber threats [90],[91]. The security of all
devices connected to the network is an important
requirement of IoT. In such cases, the role of AI
is to develop and train algorithms for detecting
anomalies in IoT devices or any undesired
activity occurring in an IoT system, to secure data
loss or other difficulties. As a result, machine
learning and deep learning provide a potential
foundation for solving the issues of protecting
IoT devices [82].
 Cryptographic techniques
 Homographic encryption
Homomorphic Encryption (HE) is a
unique encryption technology that
enables computations on encrypted data
without demanding access to a secret
(decryption) key. The computations’
outcomes are encrypted, and only the
secret key holder can reveal that data
[79].
 Searchable encryption
Searchable Encryption (SE) is a
cryptographic mechanism that enables
secure searching of encrypted data. This
allows a human or an automated
program to execute a safe query for a
particular incident without jeopardizing
the confidentiality of data [80].
Future IoT systems will use these technologies to
respond rapidly and properly to threats and
attacks, learn and incorporate new threat
information, and design and implement threat
mitigation actions. They will also be able to
ensure that data ownership is controlled across
business boundaries. In the future, new data
analytics algorithms and encryption approaches
will be applied to secure the privacy of users and
organizations while processing massive amounts
of data. Risk assessment and risk management
methods such as threat analytics algorithms
would be introduced using the above
technologies. As a result, in the future,
organizations and device manufacturers will
assess the effect of vulnerabilities and design
particular control mechanisms through constant
testing & evaluation.
V. CONCLUSION
In this research, we have reviewed the latest status of IoT
security, highlighting challenges and countermeasures. In
this regard, we have summarized different security
challenges that persist at the different layers of the IoT
architecture, namely at the application layer, data
processing layer, network layer, and physical layer. We
have identified all these challenges and highlighted what
countermeasures can be taken to protect from these

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security challenges. We believe this research will help
select secure IoT technologies for an organization and
would be a worthwhile resource for security enhancement
for future IoT applications.
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