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Decentralized Mechanism for Hiring
the Smart Autonomous Vehicles Using
Blockchain
Zain Abubaker1, Muhammad Usman Gurmani1, Tanzeela Sultana1,
Shahzad Rizwan2, Muhammad Azeem1, Muhammad Zohaib Iftikhar1,
and Nadeem Javaid1(B
)
1Department of Computer Science, COMSATS University Islamabad,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
nadeemjavaidqau@gmail.com
2Department of Computer Science, COMSATS University Islamabad,
Attock Campus, Attock, Pakistan
Abstract. Nowadays, technologies like Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) are
influencing the ways of our traveling. This paper inspects closely the
development of a decentralized blockchain-based mechanism for provid-
ing secure, reliable and real-time availability of AVs for the customers
who want to do the ride. The AVs have many advanced control systems
and sensors to detect a number of hurdles (unsafe design of vehicles,
negligence of civilians, etc.) in the environment. Blockchain is a decen-
tralized temper proof business protocol used to facilitate the users with
transparent, reliable, secure and cost-effective solutions. The consensus
mechanisms are used in blockchain for validation purposes. This paper
uses the Proof of Work consensus algorithm for the validation of Demand
Response (DR) events. It provides the mechanism for real-time monitor-
ing and real-time supervision to the ride of the end-user. Furthermore, it
briefly specifies that the AVs working with blockchain mechanisms pro-
vides real-time traffic information to the end-user. The blockchain-based
mechanism provides secure services to the end-user. It also provides the
mechanism of Peer to Peer (P2P) car-sharing that removes the need for
any bank or any reliable authority. The proposed system is proved in the
Ethereum environment by DR events in the network. The simulations
portray that our system is much cost-effective, efficient and reliable to
meet the demands of customers.
Keywords: Blockchain technology ·Autonomous Vehicles ·Mobility ·
Services
1 Introduction
The costs of transportation are rising gradually. Moreover, the environmental
damage occur due to ordinary vehicles are very serious. These issues prompted
c
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
L. Barolli et al. (Eds.): BWCCA 2019, LNNS 97, pp. 733–746, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33506-9_67
734 Z. Abubaker et al.
the making of new methods for transportation such as AVs. AVs offer a large
number of solutions to many issues in transportation. The AVs are driver-less
and in this way, these AVs facilitate the people in a secure and flawless way. In
the next few years, the AVs will become the standard for consumers. However,
fully AVs are difficult for any individual to be an owner of it as these are very
expensive. The people who want to hire a vehicle to reach at their desired place
face many problems. First, they have to wait on the road for a taxi. Second,
when they gets their taxi, the safety of their ride is compromised or not fully
satisfied as there is human errors involved. The AVs vehicles working on the
mechanism of blockchain satisfies all issues of customer.
Autonomous Vehicles
The AVs have many sensors to detect the road hurdles (unsafe design of vehicles,
negligence of civilians etc.) very quickly. The AVs have capabilities to compute
the distance between other vehicles and traffic signals on their own. These are
also effective to communicate with other AVs and to store data. The sensors
of AVs senses the traffic signals and respond well to them as compared to the
drivers. There are a number of possible deficiencies that occurs with the taxi
driver like they may drink and drive or may do distracted driving [7]. Using AVs
these deficiencies definitely be removed from the transport system. In today’s
traffic the blockage of routes is one of the main issues, the AVs performs well
while operating around stable or moving obstacles. With all aforementioned
capabilities of AVs, these vehicles have problem of storing data. These vehicle
store data according to their capability and their capability to store data is
not enough for large amount of vehicles. Therefore, we use the mechanism of
blockchain to store data of vehicles to very large extent.
1.1 Motivation
The authors in [1] studied that blockchain based vehicular network is a reliable
and robust model. They studied that the model operates well while some mali-
cious activities are still damaging the network and reducing the performance
of the network. The authors in [2] studied that sharing of resources of AVs is
actually the combination of traditional car sharing and the services with the
AVs. These shared vehicles provide cost-effective and convenient mobility on-
demand services in real time [3]. The authors in [4] proposed the mechanism of
self-driving autonomous cars which works well without the involvement of any
human effort. Firstly, AVs were made in the US and Germany from 1980 to 2000
[5]. Satoshi Nakamoto proposed a decentralized model for P2P sharing of cash
[6]. Our proposed vehicular network operates in a decentralized way to make the
distributed transport management system more effective and reliable [1]. Our
model uses the mechanism of smart share to tackle the issue of DR [2].
1.2 Problem Statement
The searching for a driver of a taxi on the road frequently is not considered the
convenient mobility on-demand service [1,3]. One more issue with the existing
Decentralized Mechanism for Hiring the Smart Autonomous Vehicles 735
system of [1] is that it does not provide transparency about the traveling route
of the ride. This gives rise to concerns about security in the old system [1].
Moreover, the proposed model in [1] involves human deficiencies as the taxi
drivers are used in this model. When there is an ordinary car with driver, there
are security risks for the customer because he does not know the details of
the driver available for his ride. For the ride, he has to trust in case of driver
identification, because he has no other option. According to the situations of
nowadays, this is really a security risk for customers. The autonomous vehicles
are the proposed solution for this problem. The proposed model of [1] there is no
mechanism to tackle with DR events. When there are a lot of people who want
to do ride. When these people request over the network and number of vehicles
to serve them are small, this raises a serious issue to deal the customers. To
deal with a large number of requests with less number of vehicles, our proposed
model uses the mechanism of smart share.
2 Related Work
Networks share their resources to provide services to the nodes. However, these
networks have limited resources. To provide the services effectively, each and
every node in the network should participate and remain active for assigned
operations. With the increase in the data set and increasing size of the appli-
cation, networks are not more efficient and scalable. In [1,8,14,15,19,23,24]the
blockchain technology is used in the wireless sensors networks. Moreover, paper
[18] uses Proof of Authority (PoA) consensus mechanism for validation purposes
and consortium mechanism is used to make an alliance with other companies to
achieve the common goals. Moreover, Ethereum Geth -11.811 is used for transac-
tions in the proposed model. [15] uses the policy development process along with
LoRaWAN, Ethereum Geth -1-1.811. [22] uses Proof of Collaboration (PoC) for
authentication of nodes in the proposed network. In [18] all the simulations are
done in Python 3.6, Smart Contract and Raspberry pi2. All the simulations in
[24] are done using the mechanism of cloud-based data storage. The authors in
[26] proposed a cloud based mechanism for secure services for IoT devices. In
[2], the authors also perform simulations to prove secure distribution of services
over the network. [8] provides a mechanism for a decentralized system, spectral
efficiency Q-learning and exhaustive learning. [24] uses behavior chain and data
chain which ensures high data rate and high reliability in the network. [22]pro-
posed a mechanism for the sharing of data so that reuse the right of research
information be overseen by utilizing the innovations. Moreover, the authors in
[25] use blockchain mechanism over the smart grids for fair sharing of data in
deregulated smart grids. The authors perform some simulations to prove fair
data sharing in deregulated smart grids.
[1,20–22] use the mechanism of blockchain in the vehicles to establish a
secure, transparent and reliable network for the Internet of Vehicles (IoV). [1]
and [22] use Proof of Work (PoW) consensus mechanism for validations purposes
in the network. [1] and [22] both use Ethereum environments for the transac-
tion of commodities between different entities and all the smart contracts are
736 Z. Abubaker et al.
designed using solidity in visual code. [20] provides us a mechanism for vehi-
cles to overcome trust issues; moreover, the deadlock process is overcome in this
method. [21] uses store transport data, sensory data, environmental data and
insurance data of vehicles and performs trading in data. In [1] ordinary nodes,
miner nodes, and controller nodes are used to achieve the robustness and adapt-
ability. [22] uses mathematical puzzles and distributed consensus for a secure
and reliable network. The blockchain is used on the Internet of Vehicles (IoVs)
to establish the security, transparency and trust management between vehicles.
In [8–12] the blockchain is used on the IoVs to establish the security, trans-
parency and trust management between vehicles. The limitation of the model
of [8] is that the usage of advanced management hub might reduce the perfor-
mance of the overall system. In [9] the system model of trust policy is made
to detect compromised Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). The mechanism is
made to detect wrong information when an official UAV is physically hijacked.
The model explains that due to the dynamic topology of UAVs, these vehi-
cles raise security challenges. Go Methods, ABS security UAV, NetLogo is used
for its utility to support mobile ad-hoc network. Novel agent-based simulator
ABS- security UAV is used to validate the model. [10] addresses that the accu-
racy and power of driving safety assessments are limited. Dynamic prediction
of road safety in a city is not capable to provide safety on roads. This paper
proposes the model of a Deep learning framework (DeepRSI) to conduct the
prediction of real time road safety in order to improve the safety of vehicles.
Mobile sensing data collection is used in VANETs to identify problems. Intel
Core i7 machine with 32 GB Ram and NVIDIA TITAN X graphics card are
used for simulations purposes. The limitation of this proposed model is that
there is no mechanism to check the reliability of the prediction of road safety.
The authors in [27] applied blockchain mechanism on under water, Water Sen-
sor Network (WSN) and achieve efficient routing of energy. The authors in [28]
use the mechanism of blockchain on the management of data over the ethereum
network. The authors in [29] do monetization of data using data science over
the IoT devices. The authors in [30] achieve the trustfulness in complex network
using both blockchain and data science together. In [11] the blockchain based
decentralized mechanism is proposed to handle the energy demand by control-
ling the number of transactions. It explains the issues that to update the ledger,
a large amount of consumption of energy in the transaction of blockchain may
cause some serious issues for vehicles. Distributed clustering is used to label
every chain sequentially. The results are simulated in MATLAB TM. The model
does not provide a fully optimal solution in handling the energy. In [12]P2P
data sharing system is proposed to achieve accurate reputation management for
high-quality data sharing for vehicles. It explains that the vehicular edge com-
puting servers (Road Side Units) are not fully trusted and may cause serious
security and privacy challenges. Consortium blockchain and smart contracts are
used to achieve secure data storage. The authors in [31] balances the demand
and response in smart grids using blockchain mechanism. The authors in [32]
analyze and secure data using both broad fields data science and blockchain.
Decentralized Mechanism for Hiring the Smart Autonomous Vehicles 737
The authors in [33] introduce the mechanism of incentive for lightweight client
based on blockchain. The authors in [34] introduce the node recovery scheme for
wireless sensor network.
3SystemModel
In [1], when the user selects any vehicle for the ride and starts the ride with this
particular vehicle. During his travel, there is no mechanism to show the details
of ride to the customer. This mechanism does not facilitate the user to keep
an eye on the route during traveling. The blockchain provides the capability
of transparency. In our proposed model, there is a mechanism to show each
and every detail of the vehicle on the network and the location of each vehicle
is also given. The user selects any vehicle according to his wish without any
inference of the third party. This proposed model increases the user’s choice for
transportation. However, in our proposed model, we have used the mechanism
where all details of the routes are mentioned for the network. These details are
also monitored by other miner nodes in the network. All miner nodes in the
network are static nodes. These miner nodes are actually the Road Side Units
(RSU). In this way, the model facilitates the customer with transparency about
the details of travel. The proposed model provides the mechanism to establish
communication between the smart vehicles and end users. Our proposed system
model shown in Fig. 1is similar to the system model proposed in [1].
In [1], the vehicles with drivers are used and this raises a big security concern
for customers. Because, the user knows nothing about the driver and he has to
travel with random driver. According to the situations of nowadays, there is a
lot of probability that the driver may drink or drive, may do distract driving.
The driver may harm the customer, this is really a big security concern. In
this way, with such security risks, the customer had to travel with the driver.
The issue with the system of [1] is that there is no mechanism to store and
to show these details to the customer. Here, one important point to keep in
mind is that all the way we use a mechanism to store the reputations’ details
of the driver. These details are shown to the customer. When the user selects
any vehicle for ride, there is also a chance that the driver do drink and drive or
harm the customer. Therefore, our proposed model uses AVs as these vehicles
are driver-less vehicles. So there is no security concern about the driver at all.
This proposed model solves this issue of security as AVs are used and there is
no driver involved. When the user interacts with the smart autonomous vehicle
through the blockchain mechanism, then the user sees each and every detail of
the vehicle about its previous rides and feels free to select any vehicle for his ride.
After that the user selects any vehicle for his trip and he sends his location to
the AVs, then this vehicle picks him from that particular location and drops him
at his desired place. In this way, all the mechanism is under control of traveler
as he selects any vehicle according to his wish.
Figure 1shows the system model in which a rider wants to do ride and
he requests over the network for the ride. While receiving his request, all the
738 Z. Abubaker et al.
nodes in the network respond him back about their availability. Our proposed
model provides two-way communication in the network. In this two-way com-
munication, the customer picks the vehicle according to his priorities. Moreover,
the vehicle also selects the customer according to its priority. This reduces the
latency in the DR event. Moreover, to handle the issue of DR, our proposed
model uses the mechanism of smart share. A vehicle using a smart share facili-
tates a lot of customers. When any customer is traveling from destination 1 to
destination 2, on the way the AV can facilitate another person who also wants
to go to destination 2. In this way, the smart share facilitates a lot of customers
in less time. Therefore, the proposed system becomes better to deal with a large
number of customers without any inconsistencies, because the proposed model
provides two-way communication. In this way, this model does not only facilitates
the customer/rider but also to the vehicles, that pick the customer according to
their priorities.
The system model shown in Fig. 1works without the involvement of any third
party and is owned by nobody. The reason for not having any involvement of the
third party is that this proposed model is blockchain based and blockchain works
in a decentralized way without involvement of any third party. This property of
blockchain suits us to tackle the issue of extra cost. The rider has only to pay
the vehicles for their services and has not to pay to the third party. In this way,
the proposed model using blockchain provides us a cost-effective solution.
4 Methodology
We proposed an Intelligent Transport System (ITS) based on the mechanism of
blockchain as shown in Fig. 1. This ITS system is made by taking the motivation
from [1] and [22]. All the transactions and consensus are held by following the
principles of the blockchain mechanism. Firstly, when a rider wants to go to his
desired place. He requests over the network by giving all his details like location,
from where he wants to take the ride and at which place he wants to reach.
After submitting his request over the network, he has to wait for a while for
the response. In the network, there are some AVs that respond to the request
of the rider. If more then one vehicle respond to the customer then it is the
choice of the customer to pick any vehicle according to his priorities. Moreover,
each and every detail of the vehicle is given on the network. Then the user
selects any vehicle according to his desire and comfort. When the user selects any
vehicle then a consensus mechanism is established between the customer/rider
and the vehicle in the form of the smart contract. The business rules are stored
in the smart contract. Every entity contains its own smart contract. After the
consensus is done, the AVs provide service to the customer and get the incentive
as decided in the smart contract. In this way, the customer easily gets his services
according to his desire. He picks any vehicle without any involvement of third
party that interferes in selecting the vehicle. Moreover, during the ride of the
customer, his ride is constantly monitored by miners. This capability of our
proposed model provides us the transparency in the network. Finally, when the
Decentralized Mechanism for Hiring the Smart Autonomous Vehicles 739
Smart Vehicle
Smart Vehicle
Miner Node
Miner Node
Mobile User
Miner Node
Mobile Users
Controller Node
DR Data Exchange
Ordinary Node
Environm ental Data
Exchange
Vehicular Cloud Vehicular Cloud
Fig. 1. The proposed model for communication and transaction between Autonomous
Vehicles and End-Users
rider reaches his desired place and AV gets its reward/incentive, then miner
nodes authenticate the exchange of services and rewards between them. The
miner nodes also authenticate that the customer safely reached the desired place.
This authentication is done using the PoW mechanism. When 51% of miner
nodes authenticate the successful transaction between these entities then this
transaction becomes part of the ledger and permanently stored in the ledger.
Our blockchain based proposed model also balances the DR events. The
demands of customers and the responses to their demands are balanced well in
our proposed model. In the centralized approach, the customer has to rely on
the third party, he has to wait until the third party provides him the vehicle.
Sometimes, there are some drivers who are not interested to go to the specific
route. First, the third party searches for interested drivers and then provides the
vehicle to the customer. It is really a time consuming process and the customer
has to wait until the third party finds any vehicle. However, in our proposed
model, there is not any driver who influences the decision. Another issue of
the centralized approach is that sometimes, there are a lot of vehicles in the
network. It is only decided by the third party that which customer is given to
which vehicles. This reduces the equality for any vehicle to pick the customer. In
our proposed model, there is two-way communication. So, not only the customer
picks the vehicle according to his priorities. However, the vehicle also picks the
740 Z. Abubaker et al.
customer according to its priorities. The request of the customer is deployed on
the network where all the vehicles have equal chances to pick the customer and
to own currency. When there are more then one vehicles are interested to give
ride to the customer, In such situations, it is fully dependent on the customer to
pick any vehicle. Usually the customer picks the vehicle that offers him better
rates with better services. When all the vehicles and customers are involved
in the network, then this reduces the delay in responding to the customer. This
mechanism is helpful for both the customer and the vehicles. This helps to tackle
the DR event in the proposed model. Moreover, the mechanism of smart share
is also used to tackle the issue of DR.
In the centralized approaches, the driver of vehicles is not allowed to pick any
customer. First, the centralized authority takes the request from the customer
and then forwards it to the driver. The driver of the vehicle is only allowed
to say “yes” or “no” to the request. However, in our proposed model, the AVs
have full authorization to select any customer. After showing his interest in the
customer, the whole next process depends upon the consensus between customer
and AVs. In our proposed model, when there are a number of requests on the
network, and if the AVs select any customer, the network gives access to the
AVs to communicate with this specific customer if this customer is still the part
of the network. The access to communicate to the customer is not given to the
AVs if the customer is not still part of the network, i.e, the customer leaves the
network or selects another vehicle for a ride. The same mechanism is followed for
the customer, a customer can select any vehicle only if this vehicle is present in
the network. Moreover, the issue of DR is tackled by using the scheme of smart
sharing [1].
4.1 Smart Share
A vehicle using a smart share facilitates a lot of customers. As a customer wants
to go to destination 2 and another customer also want to go to destination 2.
They both can share their vehicle to go to the common destination (Destination
2). This scheme of smart share facilitates a lot of people in less time, resulting
in response to the requests of the customers. The mechanism of smart share is
helpful in two ways. First, when two or more customers are sharing the vehicle,
the total cost is equally divided between them and in this way smart share
provides cost effective solution. Second, it is helpful to tackle the DR issue.
4.2 Smart Contracts
The smart contracts are made to allow the trustworthy transaction between cus-
tomer and service providers. The business rules are stored in this smart contract.
First, the contract checks either the user has enough currency to travel at his
desired place or not. When the user has sufficient currency then the access to
travel is given to the user. On the other hand, the smart contract checks whether
Decentralized Mechanism for Hiring the Smart Autonomous Vehicles 741
the AVs have enough capabilities that they achieve the requirements of the cus-
tomer, i.e, electricity power and path planning, etc. Once the smart contract
checks the authentication of both, it gives access to both parties for the journey.
4.3 Mining
Once the successful travel is done, the details of the transactions broadcast on the
blockchain network and the miner nodes in the network start mining to validate
the transaction. All the miner nodes in the network are static nodes while the
vehicles and the mobile user are considered as mobile nodes. The validation is
done according to the consensus algorithm. PoW consensus algorithm is used
in our proposed model. The miner nodes check either the person reached his
desired place safely, means he got his services and the vehicle got its reward.
Once the miner nodes have completed mining, the blockchain mechanism checks
either the 51% nodes validate the transaction then this transaction permanently
becomes the part of the blockchain ledger. The miner nodes are static nodes,
these miner nodes are RSU in our proposed solution. The miner nodes should
have particular capabilities that are needed for mining.
4.4 Hashing Algorithm
Each block in the blockchain is connected to its next block. The blocks are
connected in this way that every node keeps the hash of its previous block. This
hash is created by using different hash functions. In our proposed model, SHA-
256 hashing algorithm is used for the encryption of data of the block. When
someone wants to alter any data in the block then the hash of this particular
block changes. This leads to the change of hashes of all the next blocks. This
capability of blockchain provides us a secure and reliable network.
4.5 Consensus Algorithm
Blockchain uses consensus algorithms for the validation of transactions done in
the network. These consensus mechanisms help in checking the effectiveness of
the transaction without the involvement of any third party [17]. Our proposed
model uses the PoW consensus mechanism for validation purposes. It is used to
authenticate the transactions and to produce new blocks in the blockchain. In
the mechanism of PoW, the miner nodes compete with each other to complete
the task given on the network for getting reward. These miner nodes performing
PoW solve the mathematical puzzle. First, the nodes solve this puzzle and then
get the incentives that has been decided earlier.
The above proposed model makes every ride safe for the end user. The pro-
posed model is blockchain based and the capabilities of blockchain solve many
issues for end users.
742 Z. Abubaker et al.
5 Simulations and Results
The simulations are done using laptop which has following storage and comput-
ing capabilities:
•4.00 GB RAM and 500 GB ROM
•64-bit window 10 (Operating System).
•Intel (R) Core(TM) M-5Y10c CPU @ 0.80 GHz 1.00 GHz
In the centralized approach, there are many time slots when the number of
vehicles and the number of requests are not equal. Sometimes, the number of
vehicles are not enough to deal with the customer. So, the customer has to wait
for a while. Figure 2shows the results of centralized technique which is normally
known as Careem Ride Service. Figure 3shows the results of our proposed model.
In our proposed model, the mechanism of smart share is used to deal with this
issue. In this way, the customer without any wastage of time gets the service
from vehicles. Figure 3also shows the trade-off in DR events. When the number
of requests of customers are very high and the number of vehicles in the network
is small. Then, these vehicles are not able to deal with the requirements of the
customer. In proposed blockchain based network, the customers have to wait
for some while for the response. This shows the trade-off of time with demand
response events. It may be also seen that the cost of the ride increases a little
bit due to the high number of requests of customer. This shows the trade-off
between time and DR as well as between cost and DR.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1357911131517192123
Requests
Time (Hours)
Centralized Demand Response Mechanism
No. of Vehicles
No. of Requests
Fig. 2. Centralized demand response mechanism
In centralized approach, the third party is involved and customers have to
pay some charges to the third party. Moreover, the price is not stable for same
amount of distance. Therefore, the customer has to pay more charges for the
resources he used. In proposed model, there is no involvement of the third party.
Moreover, before starting the ride, the amount that the customer has to pay to
Decentralized Mechanism for Hiring the Smart Autonomous Vehicles 743
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Requests
Time (Hours)
Decentralized Demand Response
Mechanism
No. of Vehicles
No. of Requests
Fig. 3. Decentralized demand response mechanism
the vehicle is predetermined. Therefore, our proposed model is considered to be
better than the centralized approach. The simulation results of both centralized
and decentralized approaches are shown in Fig. 4.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
12345678910
Cost
No. of TransacƟons
Decentralized
Approach
Centralized Approach
Fig. 4. Comparison of cost between centralized approach and decentralized approach
6 Conclusion and Future
In this paper, we propose the use of AVs together with decentralized blockchain
based protocol. The blockchain based model provides us the mechanism in which
the whole trip for the passenger is secure and transparent because the AVs are
used in our proposed model. This removes the necessity of identification of the
driver. Our blockchain based proposed model provides the whole information
744 Z. Abubaker et al.
about the route to the customer by real time traffic information. It makes the low-
cost transaction easier by providing the mechanism of peer to peer car sharing
which removes the need for any bank or any reliable authority. Moreover, the
property of smart sharing between different nodes of the network helps to tackle
theissueofDR.
In proposed model, AVs are used and actually these vehicles are driver-less.
Due to the use of these AVs, there are some issues that are given below:
•Who will be responsible in case of an occurrence of an accident due to the
systematic error of AVs? In our above described proposed model, it is very
difficult to know the answer to this question that who is responsible for the
accident and who should reimburse for the damage?
•The AVs are actually designed to work using the information propagated in
the environment. In proposed model, the vehicles use the sensitive information
of the user like the address of home or location, etc. These are very private
pieces of information, thus this creates major privacy issues.
•The hackers can attack the autonomous vehicles and can easily get into the
system of the vehicle. It controls the operations of the AVs, which creates a
security concern.
In the future, more work will be done to tackle these issues. Some studies
are still needed in the future that the mechanism of rating is introduced in this
network. The vehicles that provide a feasible time and comfortable service to
the customer get a positive rating. Moreover, the vehicle that fails to provide
feasible time and comfortable services and gets a negative rating. All the ratings
of the vehicle should deploy on the network. This improves the services in the
network.
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