Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered Accounting Information Systems

Abstract

When designed, technologies and frameworks are not created to be as dynamic and flexible as to cater to the requirements of other domains, and so is the case with Blockchain technology. Specifically designed for cryptocurrency, Blockchain was not intended to be used in other domains. However, during the past few years, critics argued that Blockchain has the potential to deal with some unique requirements like confidentiality and immutability and can therefore be deployed in several areas other than cryptocurrency. The use of Blockchain to support Accounting Information Systems (AIS) through enterprise resource planning (ERP) is another motivating domain to investigate in this research. ERP is another promising technology that has gained significant attention across the globe. In this research, a hybrid solution is proposed to ensure AIS data integrity against any deliberate attempt or mala-fide intention for alteration or deletion from the database that can be verified at any later stage. Since Blockchain can be used to prevent any mutability in the stored data, the proposed solution presents a concept of Data Vaults backed by the Blockchain. To this end, we apply cryptographic primitives like SHA256 on the data inside the block and then chain that block to secure data vaults. So far, Blockchain has not yet proven itself as an alternative to any traditional database system. However, it can be applied in conjunction with the Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS) to provide cost-effective yet robust solutions. This research demonstrates the application of a simple and lean version of Blockchain to assist enterprises in storing their financial and accounting data into data vaults, ensuring their data integrity against any alterations. The suggested cost-effective framework can be easily integrated into AIS and ERP systems to identify data breaches.

Full text

Received August 5, 2021, accepted August 17, 2021, date of publication August 24, 2021, date of current version August 30, 2021.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3107484
Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered
Accounting Information Systems
MUHAMMAD IMRAN SARWAR 1, (Member, IEEE), MUHAMMAD WASEEM IQBAL 2,
TAHIR ALYAS 3, (Member, IEEE), ABDALLAH NAMOUN 4, (Member, IEEE),
AHMED ALREHAILI 4, ALI TUFAIL 5, (Senior Member, IEEE), AND NADIA TABASSUM 6
1Department of Computer Science and IT, Superior University, Lahore 54500, Pakistan
2Department of Software Engineering, Superior University, Lahore 54500, Pakistan
3Department of Computer Science, Lahore Garrison University, Lahore 54500, Pakistan
4Faculty of Computer and Information Systems, Islamic University of Madinah, Madinah 42351, Saudi Arabia
5Faculty of Science, School of Digital Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
6Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, Virtual University of Pakistan, Lahore 54500, Pakistan
Corresponding author: Nadia Tabassum (nadiatabassum@vu.edu.pk)
ABSTRACT When designed, technologies and frameworks are not created to be as dynamic and flexible as
to cater to the requirements of other domains, and so is the case with Blockchain technology. Specifically
designed for cryptocurrency, Blockchain was not intended to be used in other domains. However, during the
past few years, critics argued that Blockchain has the potential to deal with some unique requirements like
confidentiality and immutability and can therefore be deployed in several areas other than cryptocurrency.
The use of Blockchain to support Accounting Information Systems (AIS) through enterprise resource
planning (ERP) is another motivating domain to investigate in this research. ERP is another promising
technology that has gained significant attention across the globe. In this research, a hybrid solution is
proposed to ensure AIS data integrity against any deliberate attempt or mala-fide intention for alteration
or deletion from the database that can be verified at any later stage. Since Blockchain can be used to prevent
any mutability in the stored data, the proposed solution presents a concept of Data Vaults backed by the
Blockchain. To this end, we apply cryptographic primitives like SHA256 on the data inside the block and
then chain that block to secure data vaults. So far, Blockchain has not yet proven itself as an alternative
to any traditional database system. However, it can be applied in conjunction with the Relational Database
Management Systems (RDBMS) to provide cost-effective yet robust solutions. This research demonstrates
the application of a simple and lean version of Blockchain to assist enterprises in storing their financial
and accounting data into data vaults, ensuring their data integrity against any alterations. The suggested
cost-effective framework can be easily integrated into AIS and ERP systems to identify data breaches.
INDEX TERMS AIS, blockchain, cryptocurrency, data vaults, ERP, cryptographic primitives, SHA256.
I. INTRODUCTION
Data is an integral part of an accounting information sys-
tem (i.e., AIS); therefore, it requires special consideration
while dealing and handling, and data stores in the DB are
secure and safe but to a certain extent. The data may be
compromised, where at least one person with unrestricted
access can manipulate the data as per her will or the company
requirements. Therefore, a computer-based system should be
proposed for companies to save their financial information
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and
approving it for publication was Wei Huang .
on a location other than their systems. Such systems can
ensure that the auditors and financial regulatory authorities
can ensure that the data are authentic, tamper-proof, and there
would be no data alteration in the future as a replica or true
copy is available and saved in the Data Vault. Traditional
databases (i.e., DBs) are used to store the data, but data
integrity is never out of the question. DBs are not as efficient
as the Blockchain is. Blockchain has essential features, which
ensure the integrity of data and stop unwanted mutability.
Luckily, data vaults apply similar concepts. However, storing
data using Blockchain is quite complex, and the process is
often difficult to understand. When Blockchain is applied in
117306 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ VOLUME 9, 2021

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
cryptocurrency, its complexity increases many folds, which
restrain many developers and researchers from initiating
any work in the Blockchain domain. A simple and easy-
to-understand version of Blockchain should be applied in the
application so that the work is done with limited resources and
without the need for a high level of expertise. Blockchain is
all about the arrangement of data in blocks and the coupling of
blocks in a chain using cryptographic primitives. It depends
on the requirements to satisfy the problem for which the
Blockchain is using. A simple and lean version of Blockchain
for data arrangement using cryptographic primitives is the
core idea of this research work.
A. ACCOUNTING INFORMATION SYSTEMS (AIS)
AIS refers to a structure used by businesses to collect, store,
manage, process, and retrieve financial information of the
organization. AIS considers accounting as an essential part
of an organization [1]. The input of AIS takes the form of
business activities-related data, and the output is generated as
financial reports. Such financial reports are essential to make
decisions and analyze business outcomes; these reports can be
shared by auditors, financial experts, and financial regulatory
authorities. Modern AIS is a computer-based system that uses
software and hardware for bookkeeping and is administered
by qualified accountants. Internal and external users use
the conceptual model of an AIS within an organization [1].
The purpose of the AIS is to process and generate financial
and non-financial reports [2]. The management accounting
process constitutes three main steps, including transactions,
reports, and decision making. Most management accounting
processes are implemented through an advanced level of
ERP system and vary from one company to another [2]. The
quality of the output entirely depends on the input data since
correct and timely information helps the management make
more effective and efficient decisions. Low-quality inputs
or the absence of quality data produce imprecise outputs,
leading to wrong decisions, and ultimately the business has
to bear losses [3].
Nowadays, technology is evolving daily, and individu-
als and companies expect more and seek optimized solu-
tions to meet modern challenges. Such phenomenon is also
witnessed in accounting, which strives to support manage-
rial strategies and decision-making processes [4]. AIS sys-
tems combine hardware and software resources and work
through joint modules connected to a central DB. An effective
AIS system prevents users from making mistakes, processes
data quickly, and produces insightful reports. Traditional
accounting practices, like Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles (GAAP), are preliminarily flexibly embedded into
the systems to be customized and replaced as per the require-
ments and needs of the companies. Figure 1 shows the process
flow of AIS in an IT-enabled environment.
The building blocks of an ERP system are integrated mod-
ules, which work cooperatively and span maximum func-
tions and processes. All modules are fully integrated, where
users can access real-time information related to all business
FIGURE 1. Process flow of AIS in a typical IT-based system.
functional areas [5]. AIS implemented through a dedicated
ERP system always has a significant impact on the perfor-
mance of an enterprise. The competency level of accounting
staff in an ERP environment is improved as work is carried
out more efficiently, resulting in positive outcomes for the
enterprise [6].
B. ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING (ERP)
ERP systems have gained considerable attention in the past
few years due to their ability to handle resources and trans-
actions within a single system [7]. An efficient system is
required to control the information flow in an organization.
ERP systems are developed based on the principle that all
system modules use a shared data repository, enabling the
integration of transactional and processed data [8]. Persistent
information on business functions is vital in decision-making.
There is a need for a reliable and efficient system that should
provide real-time information when required [9].
Information Systems (IS) enabled organizations to
improve their outputs manifold as they automated many mun-
dane processes. MRP (Manufacturing Resource Planning)
was the first version of ERP systems introduced in the 70s,
which was later upgraded to MRPII systems [10].
MRPII systems covered some other business processes that
were not included in the early MRP versions. In the early 90s,
the ERP vendors created more flexible ERP systems than the
legacy ERPs. It was thirty years since the ERP or ERP-like
systems were used, and ERP vendors brought innovations in
this field. These ERPs were able to integrate many business
processes to serve internal and external customers. The public
sector also started to adopt ERP systems on an experimental
basis. The purpose was to manage public resources for the
welfare of the citizens [11].
An ERP system is an effective and cost-saving solution
for many businesses, ranging from education, supply chain
management, retail management, banking, financial services,
and insurance. By function or by verticals, ERP has become
one of the most critical aspects of financial services [12].
These days, ERP vendors offer solutions that cater to the
demands of vertical industries. ERP sales were estimated at
US$ 41.69 billion in 2020 with a CAGR (compound annual
grown rate) of 7.2% annual increase [13]. They were highly
VOLUME 9, 2021 117307

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
sophisticated and integrated to satisfy the requirements of
different areas of business. Modern ERP systems are devel-
oped using the multitier or multilayer architecture. These
ERP systems always use a database layer that is linked to
the other tiers of the system. The database tier incorporates
different technologies, such as SQL Server, Oracle, or Db2,
as shown in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2. A typical three-tier computer application.
C. BLOCKCHAIN
Blockchain is in the limelight since its invention and has
become one of the top-ranked items in the IT industry during
the past few years. Blockchain is a data storage technique that
keeps data immutable, transparent, confidential, open-source,
and located on a P2P decentralized network. Blockchain
has some unique characteristics, such as the data blocks
are distributed over the network and thereby unexposed to
deletion or alteration. The data are stored in blocks, which
are tightly coupled with each other using cryptographic hash
functions, like SHA256, for ensuring data integrity. It is antic-
ipated that 10% of the global gross domestic product (GPD)
will be stored using Blockchain by 2025 [14], while the
value of Blockchain will reach 2 trillion USD by 2030 [15].
Figure 3 explains the formation of Blockchain, which shows
three chains. The longest chain is called the main and original
chain, while all blocks outside the main chain are called
orphan blocks. The first block in the chain is called the
geneses block.
FIGURE 3. The formation of Blockchain.
Technologies and frameworks are, when designed, not
developed to be as dynamic and flexible as to cater to
the requirements of other domains and so is the case with
Blockchain. Blockchain was developed explicitly for cryp-
tocurrency. However, due to some indispensable features like
confidentiality and immutability, Blockchain has become a
favorable choice in various domains other than cryptocur-
rency. Blockchain has numerous unmatched properties that
distinguish it from traditional data storage technologies.
Besides technical challenges, advancements in technology,
and hardware, Blockchain still claims superiority because of
its cryptographic primitives [16].
The major value of Blockchain is its ability to store data
securely on distributed locations. As far as data security
is concerned, there is no evidence of security breaches in
Blockchain solutions till now. Blockchain is backed by solid
cryptographic primitives that are infeasible to break. Despite
its simple architecture, Blockchain has gained widespread
attention recently and is considered more disruptive than
any other area of computer science. It is claimed that
Satoshi Nakamoto was the person behind the innovation of
Blockchain. He developed it purposefully for the Bitcoin
cryptocurrency in 2008. The idea for creating Blockchain
was to eliminate the involvement of any third party in the
transactions and store data on a peer-to-peer, decentralized
network [12]. Nakamoto, in his whitepaper, discussed the
challenges involved in the ownership of the cryptocurrency
and presented a solution that formed the conceptual founda-
tions of Blockchain [17].
Blockchain ownership does not belong to a single person
or a group of people but to each node on the network; there-
fore, it works without the involvement of any centralized
authority or trusted third party. Blockchain operates as the
underlying data storage technique for storing transactions of
Bitcoin. However, Blockchain is not Bitcoin or vice versa
and should be differentiated clearly. Bitcoin and other cryp-
tocurrencies use Blockchain as an underlying data storing
technique. We can also call it data storage, where data or
records are located in raw form. Blockchain is a combination
of cryptography and an economic model that works on a
P2P decentralized network. Blockchain stores data in a block
which consists of two parts; first, a Block Header, and second,
a Block Body, as illustrated in Figure 4.
Block Header contains the following items:
•Block ID: Every block in the chain is assigned a unique
ID to get recognized.
•Timestamp: Current time is stamped every time a new
block is created. This time is taken from the UNIX time
server as a universal time in seconds since 1970 [18].
•Hash –Current Block: The hash value of the current
block, which is to be mined.
•Hash –Previous Block: The hash value of the previous
block.
•Nonce: A 32-bit random number to be searched by the
miners to produce the correct hash value. This number
ensures that any computation which has already been
done during the block mining process is never used again
in any other block.
117308 VOLUME 9, 2021

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
FIGURE 4. Block structure in Blockchain, including Block Header and
Blockchain.
•Merkle Root: A Merkle root is the hash value of all
transactions hashes in the block body.
•nBits: The difficulty level determines how difficult it
would be for a miner to mine the block.
In Bitcoin, transactions are stored in the blocks in a spe-
cific format. Each transaction is digitally signed by the par-
ticipants, i.e., the sender, the receiver, and the quantity of
the coins. Two cryptographic primitives are used to secure
transactions, the Hash Function and Digital Signature Algo-
rithms (DSA) [19]. Transactions are stored in the body of a
block. Figure 5 describes the transaction process in Bitcoin.
FIGURE 5. The Bitcoin transaction process [17].
Blockchain and Bitcoin are not the same, just like the
Internet and email are not the same. Blockchain is a technique
for storing data and is initially developed for the Bitcoin
cryptocurrency. Due to its unmatched features, various indus-
tries have started to explore its potential for other services.
Ripple is a Blockchain-based financial service application
used by various international banks for international remit-
tances and payments [22]. Famous international banks are
now looking for a common Blockchain-based platform for
remittances and payments [23]. R3 is a software company
that provides a Blockchain-based ecosystem to more than
300 companies from different domains working in a collabo-
rative environment [24].
Estonia is ranked first in the world, with 99% of its ser-
vices offered to its citizen online, and due to this reason,
the transparency in the public sector is exceptional [25].
The Chinese government is also focusing on e-Government
services for its citizens with the help of ICT to tackle trans-
parency issues [26]. Dubai provides all government services
to its citizens online, and Blockchain is also under consid-
eration [27]. It is estimated that Dubai would save up to
25 million person-hours of work per year which will save up
to US$1.5 billion per annum [28]. The Swiss government ini-
tiated a new approach to deal with healthcare data and is plan-
ning to develop a Health Bank with the help of Blockchain.
This health bank will be used for storing and sharing health-
care data of Swiss citizens. [29]. The exchange of healthcare
information and its use for diagnosis and research purposes
can be achieved by implementing smart contracts without
involving third parties. These data can be accessed through
Public, Private, and consortium Blockchain [30]. The world’s
top retail companies and major software vendors are actively
working on Blockchain [31]. Some universities and institutes
have also applied Blockchain to secure their academic records
on an experimental basis. [32]. For example, the Univer-
sity of Nicosia is the pioneer in this race and has already
issued its first degree, which is saved in Blockchain. Now,
the degrees can be verified publically without visiting the
university [33]. Sony Global Education applied Blockchain to
store and manage more than 150,000 participants from over
80 countries [34], [35].
II. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Practically accounting information systems and ERPs work
on some principles. One of these principles states that if any
wrong entry has been entered into a system, there is only one
way to deal with this situation, to rectify the entry. However,
opening the database, changing the amount(s) or accounting
code(s) of a transaction, and reprinting the voucher is an open
violation of accounting principles. Before posting the data
into the General Ledger (GL), there must be no provision
to change the entered transactions from the database. There
are chances that the data could be compromised majorly or
minutely even after completing the financial audit or sub-
mitting final accounts to the financial regulatory authori-
ties. Human errors cannot be avoided entirely but can be
minimized to a certain extent by applying different input
validation mechanisms. Moreover, input data can be checked
and verified at different levels in the management hierarchy
before it is available to add to AIS. Any deliberate attempt
or mala-fide attention to alter or delete data from DB cannot
be prevented as long as the system is used and run by many
users. If everything goes well, there are still chances that
the data can be compromised not by the users but by the
system or DB administrator who has unrestricted access to the
overall system. Our research work aims to achieve data
VOLUME 9, 2021 117309

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
integrity in AIS. If the data have been altered, we seek to iden-
tify that particular change and check the authenticity of data
produced by a company for financial regulatory authorities,
auditors, or concerned third parties.
The purpose of our research work is to investigate the
current status of Blockchain and its implementation in AIS.
Our research attempts to answer the fundamental research
question: to implement Blockchain, do we always need a
long list of peers, high-tech equipment to mine a block,
a significant investment in terms of finance and resources,
and a complex programming code and expertise?
III. SIGNIFICANCE OF OUR STUDY
Blockchain is a data storing technique that can be applied
anywhere, depending on the requirements. The data stored
in Blockchain remains immutable, and there is no chance
of data tampering at any stage. Blockchain can be used as
a responsible party and can act as a custodian of data. This
research work focuses on a new dimension of Blockchain and
introduces the concept of Data Vaults, which is conceptually
a lean version of Blockchain. Similar to bank vaults, Data
Vaults will be available to companies to keep a true copy
of their financial data produced through their AIS. For this
purpose, we use the trial balance to save in the Data Vaults.
The concept of Data Vaults backed by Blockchain is quite
different from the use of Blockchain in Bitcoin. The imple-
mentation of Data Vaults is quite simple and can be trusted
for sure. Strong cryptographic primitives are applied, and
data are replicated on many network locations, so there is
no chance of data tampering. The Data Vaults can store the
data of other domains like healthcare, education, municipal
records, and criminals and prisoners information.
IV. RELATED WORK
A. SEARCH CRITERIA
We explored several Blockchain approaches and their usage,
mainly in Accounting, Finance, Auditing ERPs, and related
areas. The articles were retrieved from major databases,
such as IEEE Xplore (IEEE), ACM Digital Library (ACM),
Google Scholar (GS), Science Direct (SD), Springer Link
(SL), and Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute
(MDPI), with a focus on the latest works published in the
last three years. Furthermore, student theses from renowned
sources were also included and examined.
The following search terms were used in our searches:
‘‘Blockchain for Data Security and Integrity’’, ‘‘ERP System
and Blockchain’’, ‘‘Blockchain in Accounting and Finance’’,
‘‘Blockchain in AIS’’, ‘‘Blockchain-based Financial Appli-
cations’’, ‘‘Blockchain in FinTech’’. Our searches produced
more than a hundred research articles. However, we included
only the research works that discussed the potential of
Blockchain concerning AIS in using ERP and Management
Information Systems (MIS).
B. EXISTING WORK IN BLOCKCHAIN
Authors in [36] presented the impact of Blockchain on the
financial transaction for payment applications. They stated
that Blockchain could reduce the cost of cross-border trans-
actions and operational costs. The authors further argued that
due to immutability and timestamp on the data, Blockchain
is suitable for tracking assets and related activities with
the utmost trust between the involved parties. Blockchain
can manage identities with complete confidence and allow
‘‘self-sovereign identity’’, where users are more comfortable
controlling and managing their identities and related content.
Authors in [37] highlighted that the healthcare domain
has some unique problems, like a patient-centric approach,
in connecting to the central system, poor inter-system porta-
bility, and patients record accuracy. Authors suggested that
Blockchain can resolve many significant problems while
offering privacy, security, validation, and authentication.
It can also support unreported clinical trials, data breaches,
and misleading errors in data.
In reference [38], the authors discussed the usage of
Blockchain with BIM for coordination and collaboration in
different buildings life cycle stages. Authors stipulated that
BIM added to Blockchain can produce sustainable build-
ing designs, covering technical, management, financial and
legal risks while building confidence between multiple teams
working on different projects.
In reference [39], the authors suggested that Blockchain
can resolve two prominent issues in the accounting ecosys-
tem: first, checking and validating the inputs by multiple par-
ties involved in the transactions; second, if the audit process
is involved in the transaction, the audit evidence would be as
attestation engagement.
Authors in reference [40] proposed a Blockchain-based
framework for a transaction processing system that uses
Zero-knowledge proof (ZKP). ZKP is a cryptographic
method in which one of the involved parties proves that
the other party initiated a transaction without revealing any
sensitive information. An example is given as the initiator of
the transaction can confirm the transactions validity without
revealing the identity of the involved parties, values, and
amount of the transaction.
Authors in [41] discussed the implementation of
Blockchain in FinTech, a next-generation technology that
will replace traditional accounting, auditing, and finance
methods. The authors concluded that the impact of the
Blockchain on FinTech would be remarkable. FinTech is
expected to create new business models without the involve-
ment of any third party.
In reference [42], Japan’s Ministry of Economy, Trade, and
Industry analyzed the usage and impact of Blockchain on
various areas and the overall economy. The ministerial report
discussed the advantages and challenges of Blockchain and
framed some guidelines to exploit Blockchain by the industry.
Authors in [43] suggested that Blockchain can achieve
scalability and global interconnectivity for the Spanish bank-
ing sector. The author introduced a three-innovation process
model, including a search phase, selection, and implementa-
tion phase. Blockchain can tackle three key challenges, espe-
cially reduction of overhead costs inflicted by third parties,
117310 VOLUME 9, 2021

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
minimization of running out of capital risks, and speeding
the transactions processing time. Blockchain is disruptive but
does not constitute a threat to the existing systems since the
only challenge is technology adoption.
In reference [44], the authors claim that Block-based solu-
tions can reduce auditors’ workload, minimize the chances
of fraud, and optimize existing auditing systems. The authors
recommended integrating Blockchain with emerging tech-
nologies like Computer Assisted Audit Tools and Tech-
niques (CAATT) and Big Data and Analytics to cut the
overhead work of auditors, provide access to an increased
volume of data for auditing, and assist in the continuous
monitoring and use of AI-enabled audit software. In refer-
ence [45], the authors discussed the impact of the Blockchain
on the financial sector and other industries. Through four
distinct scenarios of using Blockchain in the financial section,
the authors demonstrated that Blockchain could provide a
unique and secure mechanism for establishing trust in any
financial transactions and simplify the money or information
transfer process anywhere in the world.
In reference [46], the authors discussed the implementa-
tion of Blockchain as a database for AIS applications where
financial reports are generated using the data stored within
the blocks to ensure authenticity and accuracy. Typically,
AIS databases are likely to be modified at their core level
through essential operations like storing, processing, and
data security. However, the authors demonstrated that the
role of Blockchain in AIS would be for validation purposes
and argued that accountants would no longer be the central
authority on the system. The Blockchain-based database is
suggested to be available on every node on the network. Any
change would be validated through the consensus of all users.
The authors concluded that the Blockchain would transform
the AIS and accounting profession.
The authors in reference [47] presented a case study of
a Dutch company that provides IT-based reverse factoring
supportive services to SMEs operating with low financial
resources. The company explored the possibilities to imple-
ment Blockchain for recording transactions between the par-
ties to improve the services. Unlike traditional transaction
processing systems (TPS), using Blockchain for record-
keeping, an open and transparent transaction processing sys-
tem can be designed without a third party. In the case study,
the author presented a model for validating transactions using
a Blockchain-based prototype. The prototype was applied to
the existing design showing that the blockchain reference
model is practically possible for transaction processing.
In reference [48], the authors evaluated double-entries and
triple-entries in an accounting system using Blockchain and
suggested that the accounting industry write their transactions
directly into joint bookkeeping by creating and interlocking
the transactions using Blockchain. The authors found that
triple-entry accounting adds a further level of clarity, trust,
and honesty in the transactions. The benefits included error
reduction (e.g., human errors), fraud prevention, workflow
simplification, costs saving, and the creation of reliable finan-
cial reports.
The authors in [49] discussed the implications of applying
Blockchain in the auditing and accounting domains. The
authors presented the implementation of Blockchain for a
real-time, reliable, and transparent accounting ecosystem and
its transformation from traditional audit to automatic assur-
ance system. Moreover, they explored different apps use
to encapsulate the existing audit procedures and induced a
guideline framework for Blockchain-based app development.
The author presented an accounting and assurance ecosys-
tem that is based on Blockchain. This ecosystem adopts a
triple-entry accounting system, a relatively new method to
record transactions independently in transparently in a secure
paradigm to process the data for financial reporting. In a
triple-entry system, a neutral intermediary party is required
for the authorization of the transaction process. There are
some downsides, like the system is exposed to cyber-attacks
and chances of data manipulation with mala-fide intentions.
Blockchain can mitigate the flaws and improve the per-
formance and reliability of the triple-entry system. Storing
the data in the blocks within Blockchain prevents reversion,
alteration, or deletion of transactions. Moreover, using smart
contracts will enable the rapid processing and verification of
transactions.
In reference [50], the authors discussed the decentralized
transaction ledger of Blockchain and its implementation to
register, confirm, and send different kinds of contacts to
other parties. A critical review was presented in the research
concerning state-of-the-art Blockchain-based applications,
including financial services, healthcare, business, and indus-
try. Blockchain can be used in an environment where the
parties do not trust each other or if some parties are not
trustworthy. Before the transaction enters into the block,
all parties must confirm the transaction amount, terms, and
conditions because of the non-mutatable nature of blocks.
Blockchain has some remarkable features, such as processing
speed, robustness, and openness. However, Blockchain is not
a universal solution for all problems. Some issues that require
further investigation include criminal records, legality, and
other economic risks.
The authors [51] analyzed the use of Blockchain in AIS
systems and highlighted the potential issues. Fields of imple-
mentation of Blockchain in AIS included governance, trans-
parency and trust, continuous auditing, smart contracts, and
accounting. The authors believe that the double-entry system
can be categorized as a centralized system where a high
risk of manipulation is involved, and more workforce is
required to process a large volume of operations. On the other
hand, a Blockchain-based system uses a triple-entry system,
which distributes authority and control across the network
nodes to reduce the risk of manipulation and processing
efforts. The possibility of integrating smart contracts with
the Blockchain-based AIS will also allow a self-executing
process and improve capacity control. A triple-entry system
VOLUME 9, 2021 117311

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
provides greater transparency of information ensures the
immutability of data.
In reference [52], the authors presented an in-depth anal-
ysis of Blockchain usage in accounting and similar pro-
fessions. Dominant companies like PwC, Deloitte, EY, and
KPMG have already started to explore the opportunities to
adopt Blockchain in their business practices. For instance,
PwC has started using a Blockchain-based platform to
develop a digital asset as its global client services. EY adopted
a different approach and is working on an editable Blockchain
in which an alert would be generated if an error occurs while
entering the transaction. KPMG is partnering with Microsoft
for the development of the BaaS (Blockchain-as-a-Service)
model. The authors expand their study of Blockchain eval-
uation in three phases. In the first phase, Blockchain can
be applied by professional service firms in the accounting
industry to meet the clients’ requirements. In phase two,
the adoption of Blockchain would be to remove the unnec-
essary and complicated processes in the field of taxation
and insurance. The most significant change would be shift-
ing from double-entry to triple-entry systems as the current
accounting systems have become vulnerable, and there is a
high risk involved in data management and storage. In this
phase, the adoption of Blockchain would ensure accurate data
representation and leave no room for any biased judgment by
the accountants as there is an added layer for real-time dimen-
sion to track transactions. In the third phase, Blockchain
could be used by CPAs and accountants to manage financial
records, transactions and generating financial reporting.
In reference [53], the authors stated that with the advance-
ment of wearable technologies and mobile computing, a vast
amount of healthcare data is generated daily. The datasets
contain critical and confidential information of the users,
and therefore should be owned and controlled by them only.
Currently, the datasets are stored in a centralized data storage
where security is the prime concern. The authors proposed a
conceptual design for sharing data using Blockchain on cloud
storage and implemented a data quality inspection mecha-
nism that employs machine learning for better controls and
management. The proposed healthcare data storage and shar-
ing system apply three key roles, namely Users, Key Keeper,
and Customers, and for each role, an app has been proposed.
The author concluded that the proposed Blockchain-based
system would enable users to own, control, and share their
data. The integration of Blockchain with cloud storage can
assist in storing, managing, and sharing data that is produced
continuously. The data quality validation module plays a
vital role in controlling and maintaining data quality using
machine learning techniques.
In [54], the authors discussed the interoperability issues
in the UK medical records systems. Security of online med-
ical data, potential breaches, and regulations for governing
data ownership are the critical parameters for developing
efficient methods for the administration of medical records.
This research applied a novel distributed ledger technology to
store and secure healthcare records and maintain patient data
ownership without compromising privacy and security. In the
MedRec19 system, data can be accessed by medical doctors
and researchers only following patient consent. The demon-
strated system is a cloud-based system backed by Blockchain
and uses smart contracts for interaction between multiple
parties. Interfacing different systems using Blockchain can
considerably reduce administrative delays and interoperabil-
ity issues.
In reference [55], the authors argue that patients are
deprived of accessing and managing their personal health
information (PHI) stored in the healthcare provider infras-
tructure. The authors proposed a Blockchain-based concep-
tual model for managing PHI derived from multiple sources
on a P2P network. The proposed architectural model will
manage PHI data with the help of Blockchain and other
embedded protocols. The model will thus enable patients and
healthcare professionals to collect information from multiple
sources on a single location with guaranteed data integrity.
Healthcare professionals act as miners, and PoW (proof of
work) is done at their end. Once changes are validated on all
network nodes, the block containing the record will become
part of the chain.
In reference [56], the authors presented a novel
tamper-proof Blockchain architecture for electronic health
record (EHR) management. In the proposed system,
cloud-based storage is used. There is always a threat of
data security in such storage as someone can hide, delete
or alter the data. With the help of Blockchain, the proposed
system prevents any tampering, manipulation, or altering of
healthcare data. Replacing existing systems with Blockchain
technology is expensive; therefore, the authors introduced
an efficient wrapper layer integration technique named
Blockchain Handshaker (BH). Initially, the user app will
send the transaction, which contains the patient health infor-
mation, to the BH for sharing on the public Blockchain
network. The BH processes the transaction by generating
a Blockchain compliance transaction and broadcasts it on
the public Blockchain network for validation. The network
will validate the transaction using a smart contract before
adding it to the Blockchain. Next, the network will send an
acknowledgment to the BH after validating the data, and then
the BH will send the validated transaction to the cloud for
further processing and storing in the cloud. In the proposed
system, the BH has an essential role as every transaction
needs to be validated first by the BH. Parties or users remain
anonymous throughout the procedure.
In reference [57], the authors presented a Blockchain
solution to facilitate the sharing of private and auditable
healthcare records and permission handling on data access.
The authors identified three entities concerned with enter-
ing, managing, and processing healthcare records, namely
patients, web/cloud platforms, medical centers.
1) Patients: It represents those who want to share their
healthcare data and they are aware of the effect it will have
to improve their own medical treatment and overall out-
come in the long run. 2) Web/Cloud Platforms: This entity
117312 VOLUME 9, 2021

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
is responsible for providing a web interface having its own
database(s) for storing patients’ data. Data can be exported in
the required format and at this stage, there is still no need to
employ Blockchain or any of its nodes. 3) Medical Research
Centers: Those who want to use healthcare data stored on
cloud platforms for medical research. Validators: A group of
nodes on the network which are responsible for validating
the data, creating and appending the new blocks into the
Blockchain.
The above model is based on the consortium Blockchain
technology in which medical research centers work as nodes
on the Blockchain network and are validated off-chain. Once
verified, they become available as network nodes and are
considered to be trustworthy.
The presented Blockchain-based architecture works in
three layers; Layer 1: Web/cloud platforms, this layer pro-
vides multiple platforms which are either hosted on the web
or hosted as a cloud service over the cloud and store data
locally in their databases, Layer 2: Cloud middleware, where
multiple VMs are set up on one dedicated server including
middleware infrastructure. The multiple VMs ensure that no
single point of failure occurs during the operation. This layer
connects web or cloud platforms at layer 1 with the con-
sortium Blockchain hosted on layer 3. Layer 3: Blockchain
network, smart contracts are deployed on this layer through
which all permissions are managed. Communication between
the layers takes place with the help of the APIs. The authors
concluded that their proposed system enables healthcare data
sharing and helps manage permission efficiently, securely,
and in an auditable manner. The Blockchain added enhanced
security features for permissions management using smart
contracts.
In [58], the authors discussed the importance of infor-
mation sharing in power grids and they presented a
Blockchain-based solution for information sharing in smart
grids. Blockchain enables data sharing reliably and resiliently
to different types of attacks like MITM or data spoofing. The
use of Hyperledger Fabric in a permission network, where the
grid acts as a node, makes information sharing more secure
and transparent.
The proposed design is based on four components; Power
network, the design relies on the Wide Area Monitoring &
Control system (WAMC). The purpose of the proposed sys-
tem is to use and share information with WAMC, which
will be helpful for smart grids in the future. The issues that
have been identified with the use of traditional Supervi-
sory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) will be solved
by employing the Blockchain. Internal Network, a MySQL
database, is installed in the facility of United States Military
Academy (USMA), which reads data from a hosted location
at USMA by an OPVN (Open Virtual Network) client using
SQL queries. Then the data is sent to a VPN concentrator
with the request to update the data on all network nodes
for confirmation and validation. Upon validation, the nodes
send confirmation to the client with appropriate information.
DB Query Algorithm enables querying the database using
PyMyDQL and JSON. Scalability, after a successful proof of
concept, the framework can communicate with many nodes
on the network and can be adopted on a commercial scale in
smart grids. The authors concluded that the proposed model
is practically possible to be adopted for communication in
power grids at a global level, and Hyperledger Fabric is a
helpful tool in this regard.
In a whitepaper in [59], the author highlighted some issues
in the ERP system regarding Blockchain and studied its
impact on businesses in the future. A high-level overview
is presented by the author on Blockchain and ERP systems.
Moreover, the authors discussed Blockchain, its components,
working mechanism, advantages and cryptographic primi-
tives in detail. Current development in this field has been
highlighted, and some of the initiatives taken by key players
like Hyperledger, Multichain, Quorum, and Corda have been
mentioned in the study.
The use of Blockchain has also been discussed compre-
hensively in various domains such as smart contracts. These
contracts are a form of self-executing contacts that get trig-
gered upon meeting specific conditions already mentioned
in the contract. It is a kind of a non-disclosure agreement
and is recorded into the Blockchain once all involved parties
agree on the contract terms. In ERP, Supply Chain Man-
agement (SCM), and traditional systems, where customers
and suppliers use their own database, there are chances of
conflicts between the parties on transactions recording issues.
However, when customers and suppliers use the Blockchain
to record their transactions, many errors can be avoided since
transactions start from the contract agreement and are exe-
cuted in a specific order, i.e., processing, payment settlement,
and delivery of goods or services. In this fashion, the same
data is entered multiple times from different locations and
entities. Blockchain-based electric meters is another such
application where errors and omissions can be avoided by
implementing Blockchain-based electricity meters at power
generator for recording and reading electricity consumption.
The author concluded by suggesting that the combination
of ERPs and Blockchain can positively impact both the
end-users and the enterprises. However, it will take a con-
siderable amount of time before becoming standard practice
in these enterprises.
The report published in [60] highlighted the initiatives
implemented by the Estonian government to secure the over-
all data bank of their country. Estonia has developed an
efficient, secure, and transparent ecosystem through which
99% of government services are available online and secured
mainly by Blockchain. Their role during the COVID-19 pan-
demic was remarkable since an efficient and robust healthcare
system was put in place. The Estonian government is now
focusing on making the online services better and faster and
improving the quality of services for the public and the private
sector while trying to reduce the overall cost of all operations.
Today, virtually all government services and operations can
be carried out digitally via online services except marriage
registrations, divorce records, and real estate transactions.
VOLUME 9, 2021 117313

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
Filing a tax return would not take more than five minutes.
Citizens can vote online, patients’ data is safe and available
online, and establishing a company is relatively easy as all
information and registration processes are online. With the
help of digital ID, documents are signed digitally. Digital
ID, X-Road, e-Residency, and Blockchain Pioneers are the
source hub for the Blockchain-related services in Estonia.
Blockchain is the underlying technology for enforcing data
and system integrity in Estonia.
Estonian Information Systems Authority (RIA) is the key
service provider to the government for the management of
e-services and guaranteeing access to the Blockchain net-
work for the government agencies through their X-Road
infrastructure.
In [61], authors carried out their research work in relatively
a new domain of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) such as
drones. The authors proposed a Blockchain-based solution
for UAVs that can be used for surveying and surveillance in
remote and sensitive areas. The authors claim that the pro-
posed Blockchain-based solution is capable enough to ensure
the privacy and security of the IoT-based virtual circuits. The
instructions to the UAV, like authentication instructions and
the vehicle’s reaction, are to be placed on a cloud platform and
will be secured with the help of Blockchain technology by
using SHA and Elliptic curve cryptographic primitives.The
authors further discussed the secure communication between
the ground-level devices and flying objects. For every device,
a block is created with the instructions set. The data that
will be received from the devices will be validated through
Pentatope based ECC (PECC) digital signature algorithm.
The authors concluded that a Blockchain-based solution,
when compared with the traditional systems, can fulfill the
requirements of secure communication while maintaining the
security and privacy of the data.
In [62], authors discussed Fake Media or the Internet of
Fake Media Things (IoFMT), which is emerging due to social
media’s advancement and popularity, primarily once used
for news and politics. The digital society emphasized taking
revolutionary steps to stop the spread of IoFMT. The authors
further claimed that Blockchain technology holds the solution
to block the spread of IoFMT, and it can be used for the
authenticity of fake media. In their proposed solution, the
authors also discussed a customized proof-of-authority con-
sensus mechanism and weight-ranking algorithms that can be
implemented through gamification components to evaluate
any fake news. Their proposed mechanism works with five
entities, i.e., user, publisher, validator, transaction, and news.
All these entities work collectively to prevent fake news from
being submitted and help to stop it from spreading. The
proposed solution works on text, images, videos, or audio
data types and uses hash values for validation purposes.
C. COMPARISON OF RELATED WORK
We performed a comprehensive review to evaluate the current
status of Blockchain-based applications and their implemen-
tation in various domains. Blockchain architecture was also
reviewed to find out how to lean the current architecture of
Blockchain so we can use it to store a unique set of data
like Trial Balance. One major gap that has been identified
in the current research works is that in all implementations
where the Blockchain is used as a storage location, all data
or information are proposed to be stored in the Blockchain,
which is obviously the ultimate utilization of Blockchain, but
this is a costly solution in terms of finance and resources.
Table 1 shows the existing work and contributions that have
been reviewed in this research work.
V. SOLUTION DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
A. CONCEPTUAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SOLUTION
Figure 6 depicts the conceptual model of our solution
designed to protect data integrity.
The framework works in three steps: first, it uploads the
trial balance into the system; second, it requests a trial balance
and accesses permission to a company, financial regulatory
authorities, and auditors; and third, it verifies the trial balance.
1) DATA VERIFICATION
The proposed framework verifies the source trial balance
with the trial balance available in the Data Vaults uploaded
previously. The process starts with verifying the metadata
information encoded in the user access code and compares
the line-by-line hash values. If both source and saved trial
balances are found correct and matched, the system responds
positively. However, if the source trial balance has been
changed in the AIS, the system identifies the particular line
number(s) where the information has been altered. The sys-
tem works as a custodian of the data and acts as a facilitator or
third-party; therefore, the ownership of the data remains with
the company that uploads the data to the vaults. Permission
to view or verify the data would be granted by the owner
company.
2) DATA VAULTS
Data Vaults is an abstract concept and is similar to the
Blockchain. Applying strong cryptographic primitives in data
arrangements while saving the data in the block is the fun-
damental idea behind the Blockchain. Our proposed system
works in a similar fashion. Saving data in a Blockchain
is conceptually the same as saving data in a vault that is
immutable. Any attempt to manipulate data intentionally or
unintentionally is not feasible. The system stores the data into
the block and then chains the block into the chain of blocks.
B. DESIGN OF THE SOLUTION
The proposed solution facilitates storing financial data, in our
case a trial balance, and keeps it as a true copy that can
be validated in the future against the trial balance available
in the company’s AIS. When uploading the trial balance,
the system generates hash values of each line of the trial
balance(s) that are available for processing and then creates a
block and stores the processed trial balance(s) into the block.
At the time of verification, once again, the system generates
the hash values of each line in the source trial balance and
117314 VOLUME 9, 2021

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
TABLE 1. Comparison of major Blockchain-based applications.
FIGURE 6. Conceptual model of our data integrity solution.
starts comparing each line’s hash value with its corresponding
line’s hash value of the trial balance available in the Data
Vaults. Our proposed model uses cryptographic hash function
SHA-256 to generate a 32-bit hash value, a 64 characters
string as an output from the given input. For verifica-
tion purposes, data in the vaults are available to partner
VOLUME 9, 2021 117315

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
FIGURE 7. Design description of the proposed solution.
companies, trusted parties like auditors or involved parties in
a transaction, and financial regulatory authorities, but the data
owner must grant permission through the system to view the
data.
Our solution consists of three layers: 1, User Interface to
interact with the system, 2, Data Processing layer to process
the data and make it available for storage within the blocks, 3,
Data Vaults layer where the data are stored. Fig. 7 describes
the design description of the solution. Data can be entered
through an ERP system where the framework is embedded or
by using a standalone application where different versions of
ERP or AIS systems are running. A web application is also
part of the proposed solution.
1) LAYER 1 - USER INTERFACE
There are three types of user interfaces available through
which the consortium company, regulatory authorities, audi-
tors, or any partner company can interact with the system for
data inputs and verification, as follows.
An Integrated Framework: a framework is integrated with
the AIS or ERP system, and a user interface is available
within the system. The ERPs or other financial application
developers integrate an executable programming code in their
system. After the data rearrangement, the framework would
directly interact with the database to extract the trial balance
and send it onward to Data Vaults.
A Standalone Application: a standalone installable appli-
cation is proposed for installing and interaction by the user.
The user interface and functionality of the application are
identical to the integrated framework.
A Web Application: user can interact with the system
through a web interface. This option is appropriate if the ERP
or AIS is not compatible with the framework or the standalone
application cannot be installed. This web application is hosted
on a secure web server.
2) LAYER 2 – DATA PROCESSING
The second layer is the central part of the solution, which
processes the received data from Layer 1. The information
received in this layer is stored in a database that includes
the trial balance and other information. The system is open
to receive the companies’ data every day for 23 hours from
00:00 to 23:00. From 22:00 to 23:00 is the buffer time, and
the system would intimate all logged-in users if they are
logged in during this period or performing some activities.
The system cutoff time is 23:00, after which any logged-in
user will be disconnected from the system forcefully. The
system starts processing the data from 23:00 till 23:59:59.
The data processing is an automated routine and starts work-
ing as per the given schedule. The routine processes the data
and makes it available for a block, creates a block for data,
inserts the processed data into the block, and then chains it
into the Blockchain. All essential functions are done in this
layer, including the generation of hash values.
3) LAYER 3 – DATA VAULTS
After processing the data in the second layer, the block is
now ready for broadcasting to different nodes on network
locations to become part of a chain of blocks. Now, the data is
saved in digital Data Vaults. It is assumed that a P2P network
is already established, nodes are identified and connected
117316 VOLUME 9, 2021

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
to the super-node or main server. Creating or establishing
a decentralized network is out of the scope of this research
work.
C. VALIDATION PROTOTYPE
This section describes the prototype created to evaluate the
outcomes and results of our research work. The aim is to
develop a simplified version that can process the data, save it
into the block according to the proposed solution, and retrieve
it from the block. First, the scope of the prototype is defined,
and then its work is presented.
1) SCOPE
The purpose of the prototype is to collect data from the user,
process it, and then insert it into a block. In the next step, the
processed and inserted data is used for validation. Following
are the objectives of the prototype:
1) Upload a trial balance as an input from the user and
save it into the DB of the main server.
2) Process the data, apply cryptographic primitives, create
a block, and insert all information in the block and
make it available for distribution on a P2P network.
3) Develop a module that can access information from
the block and verify that information with a source
document.
4) Analyze the data processing and data verification time
and accuracy.
2) DATABASE STRUCTURE
Some tables are used in the database for the prototype which
are presented as in Table 2:
D. WORKFLOW AND IMPLEMENTATION
The workflow of data processing is done in different steps,
where every step depends upon the previous one. All pro-
cesses are completed in a specific order, and details are given
below.
As shown in Fig. 8, this module works on the user end.
After successful login credentials verification, the user can
start uploading the trial balance into the system. This module
takes the following inputs and prepares the data for upload-
ing into the main server: FY, Financial Year as 20 and TP,
Transaction Periods as 00 to 12, which refer to the periods
from January to December as monthly closing trial balance,
and 99 as full-year trial balance. By clicking the ‘Upload’ but-
ton, the system starts uploading the data into the transaction
table (SY03_YYYY_MM_DD) stored in the main server.
Every day a new table will be created and made available
for user transactions but deleted after processing the data.
YYYY is replaced as year, MM as month number, and DD as
day. The system is available to upload the data from 00:00 to
23:00. Data processing is an automated and scheduled routine
that initiates as per the given schedule. For understanding,
evaluation, and verification of results proposes, the output of
this routine is depicted in Fig. 9.
TABLE 2. Tables and their structure in the DB.
VOLUME 9, 2021 117317

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
FIGURE 8. Data import and upload interface.
FIGURE 9. Data processing – an automated, scheduled routine.
The whole process is completed by following the below
steps:
1) Retrieves the last block number and displays it by
adding 1 into it as the next block number.
2) Retrieves the previous block hash from the DB.
3) Creates an empty file and saves it as the next block
number with a.DAT extension.
4) The system calculates the Unix Time in seconds since
01.01.1970 and displays it in seconds.
5) The system starts generating a line hash of each record,
and a specific pattern is adopted. For every odd number
record, the system calls the hash function and takes the
right eight characters of the hash value. For the even
number records, the system takes the left eight charac-
ters of the hash value. During this process, the system
also counts the number of records to be uploaded and
displays NoT (i.e., number of transactions), as shown
in Figure 9. The system keeps a record of the company
117318 VOLUME 9, 2021

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
FIGURE 10. A new block produced for the chain of blocks.
FIGURE 11. Access code for a saved document.
data from-line numbers and to-line numbers in order to
track the data within the block.
6) The next step is to calculate the root hash from the
transaction lines. This root hash starts from the pre-
vious block hash value, adds the hash value of each
line from left or right, and ends up with a root hash,
as shown in Figure 9.
7) Next, the system generates the block hash from the
metadata. The metadata includes block no, UNIX time
values (in seconds), NoT (number of transactions in
the block), the hash of the previous block, and the root
hash. After creating a block hash, the system writes the
metadata at the first line of the block and closes the
block. Figure 10 shows the newly created block, which
is to be chained in the chain of blocks.
8) The system then generates the hash of the completed
physical file and saves it into the SY05 table. This
hash value is not saved into the block and is used
to validate a complete block in case of changes or
alterations.
9) After creating a block, the system updates the block
number counter and the hash value of the current block
in table SY00. The metadata hash will be used in the
next block as a previous block hash value.
10) The block information table SY05 updates and stores
the metadata information of each block. Typically,
a block has two types of information: Metadata and
Block body, as explained below. Fig. 10 shows the
structure of the block.
MetaData:
•Block No. (8) – self-explanatory.
•Unix Time Value (12) – UNIX time value in sec-
onds starting from 01.01.1970.
•No. of Transactions (5) – number of transaction
lines in a block body, 1 to 99,999.
•Previous Block Hash (64) – self-explanatory
•Root Hash (64) – a root hash of all transaction lines
in the body of the block.
•Metadata Hash - (64) to be used in the next block
as a previous block hash.
Block body
•Account No.
•Account Title
•Account Segment 1 to 5
•Debit Amount
•Credit Amount
•Line Hash (8)
11) Finally, the system informs the user that a block has
been created and displays its serial number.
12) The system performs the last process and gener-
ates an access code, which is a long string, and
stores it into the SY04 table of the DB and shares
with the user as a token access code is a combi-
nation of different parts of the metadata as shown
in Fig. 11.
1) GRANTING ACCESS TO DATA
To verify a document in the Data Vaults, the data
owner first authorizes the validator and grants access to
a specific trial balance for a particular financial year
and transaction period. As depicted in Fig. 12, the data
owner will enter an access code (Fig. 11). The system
decodes the access code and displays encrypted informa-
tion. Then, system asks further details as shown and after
data entry the user would save the form to finish the
process.
VOLUME 9, 2021 117319

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
FIGURE 12. Granting access to a document.
FIGURE 13. Document verification form (all data verified case).
2) VERIFYING A DOCUMENT
As soon as the company/user who has been granted access
to the document opens the application and initiates the doc-
ument verification module, a form is displayed as shown
in Fig. 13. On this form, the user would import the source
document, and an Excel will be imported using the format
that was used to upload the document in the system at the
initial stage. Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 show the output of the verifi-
cation process where some records are successfully verified
and some are not verified.. Fig. 13 shows an ideal scenario
where all 5000 records are checked and verified. However,
Fig. 14 shows that some records have been altered. In the
source documents, 4996 accounts were found to be intact,
while four records did not pass the verification process due
to some sort of alteration, as shown in Fig. 14.
VI. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEM
To evaluate the contributions of our research, we tested
the prototype against five different throughputs, specifically
5,000, 10,000, 25,000, 50,000, and 100,000 lines of records.
117320 VOLUME 9, 2021

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
FIGURE 14. Document verification form (failed case).
FIGURE 15. Data processing per second against the change of records.
The readings show that when the numbers of records to
be processed increase, the output graph trends upward. The
records processed in one second were 412.47 out of 5,000,
417.33 out of 10,000, 435.12 out of 25,000, 443.49 out of
50,000, and 461.63 out of 100,000 records. The average
records calculated were 434.01 per second. It is observed that
the output of every subsequent test is higher than the previous
test, and a similar trend is seen for the average number of
records for the same throughput.
Similarly, the readings show that the increase in the
number of records during the verification stage causes
FIGURE 16. Data verification per second against the change of records.
the output graph to trend upward. The system verified
188.98 records per second out of 5,000, 192.96 out of 10,000,
194.00 out of 25,000, 199.15 out of 50,000, and 200.25 out
of 100,000 records. The average records verified per second
were 195.07. The same tendency is observed where the output
of every subsequent test is higher than the previous test.
The numbers of records processed and verified in one sec-
ond increase after every subsequent test. Results show that
based on this prototype, a full capacity version of Data Vaults
can be developed to cater to more complex requirements. The
results are shown in Table 3 and Fig. 15 and Fig. 16.
VOLUME 9, 2021 117321

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
TABLE 3. Performance results and comparison.
The prototype is developed in Visual Basic and used SQL
Server as a backend DB, and all the results produced using
the prototype were validated and found correct. The system
was tested on a computer station with the following specifi-
cation: Intel Core i5-6200U @ 2.3GHz, 08.00 GB RAM, and
1 TB HDD. The numbers of records processed and verified
were increased after every test, demonstrating that a full
capacity version of Data Vaults can be developed to cater to
more demanding requirements based on this prototype.
VII. FUTURE WORKS
The system capacity and further scalability issues are still
to be verified. Quantum computing is also a threat for
Blockchain as hashes can be broken. It is still unknown how
much we can ensure that our proposed solution is ready
for Quantum computing resilience. Our implementation did
not consider a P2P decentralized network since creating a
decentralized network is out of our research scope. The
proposed system can be extended to other research areas.
Audit and accountability of the blocks on all nodes can be
done by comparing their physical file hashes, but it requires
a dedicated mechanism. A system based on the proposed
solution can also be developed to ensure data integrity within
the financial regulatory authorities. The prototype has also
identified several areas where the proposed solution can be
applied. A lighter version of Blockchain is introduced in this
research work, which does not need high-level resources but
produces the required results.
As stated in the previous sections, Blockchain is still in
its infancy, and its total capacity and drawbacks are still
unknown. So far, from the existing development and research
work in the area, we assert that Blockchain can build trust-
worthy relationships between businesses due to its unmatched
features. Data in Blockchain remains tamper-proof, and any
alternation or deletion is infeasible or nearly impossible.
We have seen its potential in Bitcoin and other cryptocur-
rencies applications, and to date, there is no evidence that,
at any stage, the data can be compromised. This unique
feature distinguishes Blockchain from its counterpart, e.g.,
databases.
VIII. CONCLUSION
Technologies and frameworks are, when designed, not devel-
oped to be as dynamic and flexible as to cater to the require-
ments of other domains, and so the case is with Blockchain
technology. A full capacity implementation of Blockchain is
a huge project and could be suitable for cryptocurrencies.
Any engagement of undue or over capacity resources is not
a practical idea. Therefore, we have to look carefully at the
pros and cons of Blockchain. The features of Blockchain
are unmatched, but its drawbacks are also unique. A hybrid
solution that works with the combination of Blockchain and
traditional DB empowered us to use Blockchain features with
a limited capacity to meet our requirements and provided
us with all the required features within a resource-limited
environment. In fact, we do not always need a hundred of
thousands of network nodes, high-tech mining equipment,
or complex programming codes to fulfill our requirements.
In this research, we introduced a solution that can assist
enterprises in saving their financial data in Blockchain,
or so-called Data Vaults, and we have selected the trial bal-
ance for implementation purposes. The proposed framework
can ensure data integrity in AIS or ERP systems, and if at
any stage, the data is compromised, with the help of the
proposed system, breaches can be identified immediately.
Our system also ensures the authenticity of the data that have
been provided for business deals or similar purposes. We have
analyzed a lean version of Blockchain, which is several times
lighter than the one used in cryptocurrency. The proposed
framework is based on a hybrid combination of Blockchain
and databases, which may be applied to other domains to cater
to specific requirements and scarce resources.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Allahverdi, ‘‘A general model of accounting information systems,’’
in Proc. 5th Int. Conf. Appl. Inf. Commun. Technol. (AICT), Oct. 2011,
pp. 1–5.
[2] A. G. Georgantopoulos, E. I. Poutos, and N. Eriotis, ‘‘Recentdevelopments
and trends in accounting information systems,’’ J. Bus. Finance Res., vol. 3,
no. 1, pp. 1–9, 2006.
[3] F. A. N. Al-Dalabih, ‘‘The impact of the use of accounting information
systems on the quality of financial data,’’ Int. Bus. Res., vol. 11, no. 5,
p. 143, Apr. 2018.
117322 VOLUME 9, 2021

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
[4] A. Susanto and Meiryani, ‘‘The evolution of accounting information sys-
tems,’’ Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res., vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 8–10, 2019.
[5] R. W. Scapens and M. Jazayeri, ‘‘ERP systems and management account-
ing change: Opportunities or impacts? A research note,’’ Eur. Accounting
Rev., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 201–233, May 2003.
[6] H. Daoud. and M. Triki., ‘‘Accounting information systems in an ERP
environment and Tunisian firm performance,’’ Int. J. Digit. Accounting
Res., vol. 13, pp. 1–13, Jan. 2013.
[7] K. B. Osnes, J. R. Olsen, P. Vassilakopoulou, and E. Hustad, ‘‘ERP systems
in multinational enterprises: A literature review of post-implementation
challenges,’’ Procedia Comput. Sci., vol. 138, pp. 541–548, Jan. 2018.
[8] V. U. Sørheller, E. J. Høvik, E. Hustad, and P. Vassilakopoulou, ‘‘Imple-
menting cloud ERP solutions: A review of sociotechnical concerns,’’ Pro-
cedia Comput. Sci., vol. 138, pp. 470–477, Jan. 2018.
[9] M. A. Rashid and J. D. Patrick, ‘‘The evolution of ERP systems:
A historical perspective,’’ Idea Group Publishing, USA, Tech. Rep., 2002,
doi: 10.4018/978-1-930708-36-5.ch00.
[10] S. Demi and M. Haddara, ‘‘Do cloud ERP systems retire? An ERP lifecycle
perspective,’’ Procedia Comput. Sci., vol. 138, pp. 587–594, Jan. 2018.
[11] K. M. Rosacker and R. E. Rosacker, ‘‘Information technology project man-
agement within public sector organizations,’’ J. Enterprise Inf. Manage.,
vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 1–9, Sep. 2010.
[12] M. I. Sarwar, K. Nisar, and A. Khan, ‘‘Blockchain-from cryptocurrency
to vertical industries—A deep shift,’’ in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Signal
Process., Commun. Comput. (ICSPCC), Liaoning, China, Sep. 2019,
pp. 537–540.
[13] ERP Software Market by Deployment and Function—Global Opportunity
Analysis and Industry Forecast, Allied Market Res., USA, 2020.
[14] The Global Agenda Council on the Future of Software and Society—
Technology Tipping Points and Societal Impact, World Econ. Forum,
Cologny, Switzerland, Sep. 2015, pp. 1–44.
[15] D. Tait, ‘‘Blockchain vertical opportunities report—2018,’’ HIS Markit,
U.K., Tech. Rep., 2009.
[16] M. S. Imran, K. Nisar, S. Andleeb, and M. Noman, ‘‘Blockchain crypto-
intensive technology review,’’ in Proc. 35th Int. Bus. Inf. Manage. Assoc.
(IBIMA) Conf., Seville, Spain, 2020, pp. 14803–14809.
[17] S. Nakamoto. (2008). Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System.
Accessed: Apr. 4, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf
[18] Z. Zheng, S. Xie, H. Dai, X. Chen, and H. Wang, ‘‘An overview
of blockchain technology: Architecture, consensus, and future trends,’’
in Proc. IEEE 6th Int. Congr. Big Data, BigData Congr., Oct. 2017,
pp. 557–564.
[19] L. Wang, X. Shen, J. Li, J. Shao, and Y. Yang, ‘‘Cryptographic primitives
in blockchains,’’ J. Netw. Comput. Appl., vol. 127, pp. 43–58, Feb. 2019.
[20] I. Giechaskiel, ‘‘An evaluation of the effects of broken cryptographic
primitives on bitcoin,’’ Univ. Oxford, U.K., Tech. Rep. 27, 2015.
[21] B. K. Kikwai, ‘‘Elliptic curve digital signatures and their application in the
bitcoin crypto-currency transactions,’’ Int. J. Sci. Res. Publ., vol. 7, no. 11,
pp. 135–138, 2017.
[22] B. Chase and E. MacBrough, ‘‘Analysis of the XRP ledger
consensus protocol,’’ 2018, arXiv:1802.07242. [Online]. Available:
https://arxiv.org/abs/1802.07242
[23] D. Treat, C. Brodersen, C. Blain, and R. Kurbanov, ‘‘Banking on
blockchain—A value analysis for investment banks,’’ Accent. Consult.,
vol. 4, p. 10, Oct. 2017.
[24] Enterprise Blockchain Platform & Technology Company. Accessed:
Jul. 22, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.r3.com/
[25] E-Governance—E-Estonia. Accessed: Feb. 27, 2019. [Online]. Available:
https://e-estonia.com/solutions/e-governance/
[26] H. Hou, ‘‘The application of blockchain technology in E-government
in China,’’ in Proc. 26th Int. Conf. Comput. Commun. Netw. (ICCCN),
Jul. 2017, pp. 1–4.
[27] S. D. D’Cunha. (2017). Forbes—Dubai Sets Its Sights On Becoming
The World’s First Blockchain-Powered Government. [Online].
Available: https://www.forbes.com/sites/suparnadutt/2017/12/18/dubai-
sets-sights-on-becoming-the-worlds-first-blockchain-powered-
government/#1b4607b454ba
[28] The Smart Dubai. Accessed: Sep. 15, 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://www.smartdubai.ae/
[29] P. Zhang, D. C. Schmidt, J. White, and G. Lenz, Blockchain Technology
Use Cases in Healthcare, vol. 111. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier,
2018.
[30] Z. Alhadhrami, S. Alghfeli, M. Alghfeli, J. A. Abedlla, and K. Shuaib,
‘‘Introducing blockchains for healthcare,’’ in Proc. Int. Conf. Electr. Com-
put. Technol. Appl. (ICECTA), Nov. 2017, pp. 1–4.
[31] Blockchain in Retail Market by Provider, Application (Compliance Man-
agement, Identity Management, Loyalty & Rewards Management, Pay-
ment, Smart Contracts, and Supply Chain Management), Organization
Size, and Region—Global Forecast to 2023, Marketsand Markets, Pune,
India, 2018.
[32] M. Sharples and J. Domingue, ‘‘The blockchain and kudos: A distributed
system for educational record, reputation and reward,’’ in Adaptive and
Adaptable Learning (Lecture Notes in Computer Science), vol. 9891.
Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2016, pp. 13–16.
[33] Academic Certificates on the Blockchain—UNIC Blockchain Initiative.
Accessed: Mar. 6, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://digitalcurrency.
unic.ac.cy/free-introductory-mooc/self-verifiable-certificates-on-the-
bitcoin-blockchain/academic-certificates-on-the-blockchain/
[34] N. Louis. (2016). Sony Global—Education Develops Technology Using
Blockchain for Open Sharing of Academic Proficiency and Progress
Records. [Online]. Available: https://globalbrandsmagazine.com/sony-
global-education-develops-technology-using-blockchain-for-open-
sharing-of-academic-proficiency-and-progress-records/
[35] A. Yasin and L. Liu, ‘‘An online identity and smart contract management
system,’’ in Proc. IEEE 40th Annu. Comput. Softw. Appl. Conf. (COMP-
SAC), vol. 2, Jun. 2016, pp. 192–198.
[36] A. Kotishwar, ‘‘Impact of blockchain technology on efficiency of financial
transactions,’’ Indian J. Finance, vol. 14, no. 3, p. 36, Mar. 2020.
[37] H. D. Zubaydi, Y. W. Chong, K. Ko, S. M. Hanshi, and S. Karuppayah,
‘‘A review on the role of blockchain technology in the healthcare domain,’’
Electronics, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 1–29, 2019.
[38] Z. Liu, L. Jiang, M. Osmani, and P. Demian, ‘‘Building information
management (BIM) and blockchain (BC) for sustainable building design
information management framework,’’ Electronics, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 1–15,
2019.
[39] J. M. Mccomb and S. W. Smalt, ‘‘The rise of blockchain technology and its
potential for improving the quality of accounting information,’’ J. Finance
Accounting, vol. 23, pp. 1–7, Mar. 2018.
[40] Y. Wang and A. Kogan, ‘‘Designing confidentiality-preserving blockchain-
based transaction processing systems,’’ Int. J. Accounting Inf. Syst., vol. 30,
pp. 1–18, Jun. 2018.
[41] M. Al-Essa, ‘‘The impact of blockchain technology on financial technol-
ogy (FinTech),’’ Univ. degli Studi di Salerno, San Fisciano, CA, USA,
Tech. Rep., 2019, doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.27279.12961.
[42] M. Japan, ‘‘Survey on blockchain technologies and related services
FY2015,’’ Japan’s Ministry Econ., Trade Ind., Japan, Tech. Rep., 2015.
[43] J. G. Miró, ‘‘Strategic innovation in financial sector: Blockchain and the
case of Spanish banks,’’ KTH, Stockholm, Sweden, Tech. Rep. INDEK
2016:70, 2016.
[44] P. W. Abreu, M. Aparicio, and C. J. Costa, ‘‘Blockchain technology in
the auditing environment,’’ in Proc. 13th Iberian Conf. Inf. Syst. Technol.
(CISTI), Jun. 2018, vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 37–45.
[45] D. Knezevic, ‘‘Impact of blockchain technology platform in changing the
financial sector and other industries,’’ Montenegrin J. Econ., vol. 14, no. 1,
pp. 109–120, Mar. 2018.
[46] B. S. Tan and K. Y. Low, ‘‘Blockchain as the database engine in the
accounting system,’’ Austral. Accounting Rev., vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 312–318,
Jun. 2019.
[47] E. C. Spijkerboer, ‘‘Blockchain based transaction processing system,’’
Univ. Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands, Tech. Rep. 77221, 2019.
[48] A. Faccia and N. R. Mosteanu, ‘‘Accounting and blockchain technology:
From double-entry to triple-entry,’’ Bus. Manag. Rev., vol. 10, no. 2,
pp. 108–116, 2019.
[49] J. Dai, ‘‘Three essays on audit technology: Audit 4.0, blockchain, and audit
app,’’ State Univ. New Jersey, New Brunswick, Newark, Tech. Rep., 2017,
doi: 10.7282/T3RN3BZ9.
[50] B. A. Tama, B. J. Kweka, Y. Park, and K.-H. Rhee, ‘‘A critical review of
blockchain and its current applications,’’ in Proc. Int. Conf. Electr. Eng.
Comput. Sci. (ICECOS), Aug. 2017, pp. 109–113.
[51] O. Fullana and J. Ruiz, ‘‘Accounting information systems in the blockchain
era,’’ SSRN Electron. J., vol. 4, p. 35, Jan. 2020.
[52] M. Karajovic, H. M. Kim, and M. Laskowski, ‘‘Thinking outside the block:
Projected phases of blockchain integration in the accounting industry,’’
Austral. Accounting Rev., vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 319–330, Jun. 2019.
[53] X. Zheng, R. R. Mukkamala, R. Vatrapu, and J. Ordieres-Mere,
‘‘Blockchain-based personal health data sharing system using cloud stor-
age,’’ in Proc. IEEE 20th Int. Conf. E-Health Netw., Appl. Services (Health-
com), Sep. 2018, pp. 1–6.
[54] A. A. Vazirani, O. O’Donoghue, D. Brindley, and E. Meinert, ‘‘Blockchain
vehicles for efficient medical record management,’’ NPJ Digit. Med.,
vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1–5, Dec. 2020.
VOLUME 9, 2021 117323

M. I. Sarwar et al.: Data Vaults for Blockchain-Empowered AIS
[55] S. Rahmadika and K. H. Rhee, ‘‘Blockchain technology for providing
an architecture model of decentralized personal health information,’’ Int.
J. Eng. Bus. Manag., vol. 10, pp. 1–12, Oct. 2018.
[56] M. S. Rahman, I. Khalil, P. C. M. Arachchige, A. Bouras, and X. Yi,
‘‘A novel architecture for tamper proof electronic health record man-
agement system using blockchain wrapper,’’ in Proc. ACM Int. Symp.
Blockchain Secure Crit. Infrastruct., 2019, pp. 97–105.
[57] A. Theodouli, S. Arakliotis, K. Moschou, K. Votis, and D. Tzovaras,
‘‘On the design of a blockchain-based system to facilitate healthcare data
sharing,’’ in Proc. 17th IEEE Int. Conf. Trust, Secur. Privacy Comput.
Commun., Aug. 2018, pp. 1374–1379.
[58] C. Banks, S. Kim, M. Neposchlan, N. Velez, K. J. Duncan, J. James,
A. S. Leger, and D. Hawthorne, ‘‘Blockchain for power grids,’’ in Proc.
SoutheastCon, Apr. 2019, pp. 1–5.
[59] R. Pandey, ‘‘A tryst of ERP with blockchain,’’ Walldorf, Germany,
Tech. Rep., 2019, doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19466.31682.
[60] Estonia—The Digital Republic Secured by Blockchain, Price Waterhouse
Coopers, London, U.K., 2019.
[61] R. Ch, ‘‘Security and privacy of UAV data using blockchain technol-
ogy,’’ J. Inf. Secur. Appl., vol. 55, Oct. 2020, Art. no. 102670, doi:
10.1016/j.jisa.2020.102670.
[62] Q. Chen, ‘‘An incentive-aware blockchain-based solution for internet
of fake media things,’’ Inf. Process. Manage., vol. 57, no. 6, 2020,
Art. no. 102370, doi: 10.1016/j.ipm.2020.102370.
MUHAMMAD IMRAN SARWAR (Member,
IEEE) received the M.S. degree in information
technology from the Department of Computer
Science and IT, The Superior College, Lahore,
in 2021. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree
with Superior University, Lahore. He is also work-
ing as an IT Head in a public sector organization.
His research interests include blockchain, ERP,
AIS, MIS, big data, and industry-based specialized
solutions.
MUHAMMAD WASEEM IQBAL received the
Ph.D. degree in human–computer interaction from
Superior University, Lahore, Pakistan, in 2020.
He is currently working as an Assistant Profes-
sor with the Software Engineering Department,
Superior University. He has more than 15 years of
teaching and research experience in well-reputed
institutions and has more than 40 research pub-
lications in multiple conferences and journals.
He worked as the Head as well as an Incharge
of the Software Engineering Department, Superior University, for a period
of three years. He specializes in human computer interaction (HCI), with
special interest in adaptive interfaces for mobile devices in user’s context.
Further, he focuses in different research areas like usability evaluation of
mobile devices for normal and visual impaired people, people centered
interfaces, the Internet of Things (IoT), the Internet of Medical Things
(IoMT), user context, semantic relations, and ontological modeling. Mostly,
the user centered design (UCD) process model is used in his research work
for usability evaluation of interfaces according to user’s mental model.
TAHIR ALYAS (Member, IEEE) received the
M.Phil. degree in computer sciences from the
Department of Computer Science, NCBA&E,
Lahore, Pakistan, and the Ph.D. degree from the
School of Computer Science, NCBA&E, in 2018.
He is currently working as an Associate Professor
with the Computer Science Department, Lahore
Garrison University, Lahore. His research interests
include cloud computing, cloud security, hyper-
convergence, the IoT, and intelligence computa-
tion. He has been Oracle certified in Cloud Infrastructure 2019 Architect
Professional, Cloud Infrastructure 2019 Architect Associate, Cloud Infras-
tructure Foundations 2020 Associate, and Autonomous Database Cloud
2019 Specialist.
ABDALLAH NAMOUN (Member, IEEE) received
the bachelor’s degree in computer science and the
Ph.D. degree in informatics from The University
of Manchester, U.K., in 2004 and 2009, respec-
tively. He is currently an Associate Professor of
intelligent interactive systems and the Head
of the Information Systems Department, Faculty
of Computer and Information Systems, Islamic
University of Madinah. He has authored more
than 50 publications in research areas spanning
intelligent systems, human–computer interaction, software engineering, and
technology acceptance and adoption. He has extensive experience in leading
complex research projects (worth more than 21 million Euros) with several
distinguished SMEs, such as SAP, BT, and ATOS. He has investigated user
needs and interaction with modern interactive technologies, design of com-
posite software services, and methods for testing the usability and acceptance
of human-interfaces. His research interests include integrating state of the art
artificial intelligence approaches in the design and development of interactive
systems.
AHMED ALREHAILI received the bache-
lor’s degree in computer science from Taibah
University, Medina, Saudi Arabia, in 2008, and
the master’s degree in applied computer science
from Concordia University, Canada, in 2012. He is
currently a Lecturer with the Computer Science
Department, Faculty of Computer and Information
Systems, Islamic University of Madinah, Saudi
Arabia. He has several publications under his name
in different research areas. His research interests
include cloud computing, blockchain, artificial intelligence, information
security, and the Internet of Things.
ALI TUFAIL (Senior Member, IEEE) gradu-
ated from Ajou University, South Korea, in
February 2010. He received the master’s degree
in advanced computing from the University of
Bristol, U.K., in 2006, and the Ph.D. degree
in information and communication engineering.
He is currently working with the University of
Brunei Darussalam. He has been successful in get-
ting his research work accepted in the prestigious
conferences and journals in this domain. He has
over 25 publications in renowned conferences and journals. His research
interests include wireless sensor networks, the Internet of Things, the Internet
of Vehicles, and M2M.
NADIA TABASSUM received the M.Phil. degree
in computer sciences from the Department of
Computer Science, NCBA&E, Lahore, Pakistan,
and the Ph.D. degree in computer science from the
School of Computer Science, NCBA&E, in 2019.
She is currently an Assistant Professor with the
Department of Computer Science and Informa-
tion Technology, Virtual University of Pakistan.
Her research interests include cloud computing,
autonomous databases, intelligent system design,
and intelligence computation.
117324 VOLUME 9, 2021