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Treating Parental Burnout: Impact of Two Treatment Modalities on Burnout Symptoms, Emotions, Hair Cortisol, and Parental Neglect and Violence
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... El BP aparece cuando los recursos parentales son insuficientes para afrontar los factores estresantes vinculados a la crianza (Brianda et al., 2020;Mikolajczak et al., 2019;. Se estima que la prevalencia del BP es bastante alta, ya que afecta al 5-8% de las familias (Brianda et al., 2020;de Paula et al, 2022;. ...
... El BP aparece cuando los recursos parentales son insuficientes para afrontar los factores estresantes vinculados a la crianza (Brianda et al., 2020;Mikolajczak et al., 2019;. Se estima que la prevalencia del BP es bastante alta, ya que afecta al 5-8% de las familias (Brianda et al., 2020;de Paula et al, 2022;. Es más, en circunstancias especialmente complicadas, como por ejemplo la vivida durante el confinamiento por la pandemia de COVID-19, el estrés familiar puede verse incrementado y, en consecuencia, potenciar el desarrollo del BP (Griffith, 2022). ...
... Estudios previos han señalado la necesidad y la eficacia de considerar las competencias emocionales en los programas de orientación familiar (Bayot et al, 2021;Lin et al., 2021;Martínez-González et al., 2021). En este sentido, Brianda et al. (2020) señalan que las intervenciones socioeducativas grupales para el desarrollo de habilidades sociales y emocionales son adecuadas para paliar el BP. También señalan la eficacia de las intervenciones donde se acompaña al grupo de progenitores/as y se les invita a compartir sus experiencias, con un enfoque dialógico. ...
RESUMEN: La crianza y la parentalidad pueden causar agotamiento y estrés en los padres y las madres. Si este estrés se prolonga en el tiempo surge el burnout parental, que aparece cuando los recursos parentales son insuficientes para afrontar los factores estresantes vinculados al cuidado y la educación de la descendencia. El estudio del burnout parental es muy importante porque provoca graves consecuencias negativas que afectan a los/as progenitores/as y su familia. Así, el burnout parental puede propiciar la aparición del maltrato infantil, que produce efectos irreversibles en el desarrollo físico, emocional y social de los y
las menores. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de este trabajo es analizar la relación que existe entre el burnout parental y el maltrato infantil. Para ello, se realizó una revisión sistemática tomando como referencia el protocolo PRISMA. Las bases de datos empleadas para la búsqueda de información fueron ERIC, WoS y SCOPUS. Tras el proceso de selección, aplicando los criterios de inclusión y exclusión establecidos, se seleccionaron 15 artículos. Los resultados encontrados permiten concluir que el burnout parental está relacionado con la negligencia y la violencia parental. Además, tras el análisis de los artículos se identifican diferentes factores
que pueden prevenir la aparición del burnout parental y que deben ser considerados a la hora de planificar las intervenciones de educación parental. Se destaca la necesidad de llevar a cabo iniciativas para la sensibilización social, la formación familiar y la detección precoz del burnout parental para evitar la aparición de las consecuencias indeseadas.
ABSTRACT: Education and parenting can generate exhaustion and stress in mothers and fathers. If this stress continues over time, parental burnout arises, which appears when parental resources are insufficient to cope with the stress factors linked to the care and education of their children. The study of parental burnout is very important because it causes serious negative consequences that affect parents and their families. Thus, parental exhaustion can lead to the emergence of child abuse, which has irreversible effects on the physical, emotional, and social development of minors. Therefore, the objective of this work is to analyze the relationship between parental exhaustion and child abuse. A systematic review was carried out using the PRISMA protocol as a reference. The databases used to search for information were ERIC, WoS and SCOPUS. After the selection process, applying the established inclusion and exclusion criteria, 15 articles were selected. The results found allow to conclude that parental exhaustion is related to neglect and parental violence. Furthermore, after analyzing
the articles, different factors were identified that can prevent the occurrence of parental burnout and that should be considered when planning parental education interventions. The need to carry out social awareness initiatives, family training and early detection of parental exhaustion is highlighted to avoid the emergence of undesirable consequences.
... According to previous research, the prevalence of burnout in the parental role is 2%-12% , and a recent study on the presence of parental burnout in 42 countries (Roskam et al., 2021) found that 5% of parents suffered from parental burnout, even up to 8% in some Western countries, for example in Belgium and Poland. Since burnout is not only harmful to parents' mental health (Brianda et al., 2020;Mikolajczak, Brianda, et al., 2018), but it also increases parental neglect of children and violence towards children (Brianda et al., 2020;Mikolajczak et al., 2019), it is crucial to study etiological factors for the emergence of feelings of burnout in parents. ...
... According to previous research, the prevalence of burnout in the parental role is 2%-12% , and a recent study on the presence of parental burnout in 42 countries (Roskam et al., 2021) found that 5% of parents suffered from parental burnout, even up to 8% in some Western countries, for example in Belgium and Poland. Since burnout is not only harmful to parents' mental health (Brianda et al., 2020;Mikolajczak, Brianda, et al., 2018), but it also increases parental neglect of children and violence towards children (Brianda et al., 2020;Mikolajczak et al., 2019), it is crucial to study etiological factors for the emergence of feelings of burnout in parents. ...
Modern parenting is characterized by numerous changes which make the parental role not only fulfilling but also very demanding and stressful. In the process of adjustment to the parental role, some personality characteristics of parents can function as protective or risk factors for subjective parental adjustment (parental burnout and competence) and for parental behavior. Therefore, the aim of this research was to test the mediating role of parental burnout and competence in the relationship between personality characteristics of parents (neuroticism and tendency towards parenting perfectionism) and parental neglect of children and violence towards children, while controlling for some sociodemographic variables. A total of 1025 parents from Croatia (90% mothers) participated in the research. Using SEM, two competing models (“i.e.,”, partial vs. full mediation) were tested. The obtained results clearly indicated better fit of the partial mediation model to the data. It was determined that parental burnout and competence had a partial mediating role in the relationship between personality characteristics of parents and their tendency towards child neglect and violence. Higher levels of neuroticism and parenting perfectionistic concerns contribute to increased parental burnout. Furthermore, a higher level of parental burnout contributes to a higher level of parent reported violence and neglect towards the child. Also, parents who are more emotionally stable and have higher standards regarding oneself as parent (self-oriented parenting perfectionism) and a lower tendency to be self-critical in one’s parenting role (perfectionistic concerns), with greater perceived parental competence, are less susceptible to being violent against their children.
... Parental burnout can lead to an increase in flight/escape ideas and suicidal ideation, as well as neglect and violence towards children (Mikolajczak et al., 2019). Ideas of escape can manifest through alcohol consumption (Mikolajczak et al., 2018a), with recent studies showing dysregulations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by parental exhaustion (Brianda et al., 2020a;Brianda et al., 2020b). Mikolajczak and Roskam (2020b) point out that these findings could explain possible somatic difficulties and sleep disorders, while the increase in cortisol could explain the potential increase in parental violence. ...
Under usual circumstances, without a global pandemic, numerous parents might encounter stress associated with their roles as caregivers. However, with the added impact of the health crisis and the widespread adoption of lockdown measures, family routines were disrupted as many parents found themselves spending more time at home. Most caregivers had to juggle remote work while simultaneously providing care for their children. This situation has raised concerns about the potential for parental burnout. The objective of this study was to describe parental burnout in mothers and fathers during the COVID-19 lockdowns in Chile and analyze its relationship with possible risk factors such as days in quarantine, perceived impact of COVID-19 on parenting, hours dedicated to weekly paid work, and caregivers’ perception of the need for care of their children. Furthermore, we sought to describe the relationship between parental burnout and coparental cooperation, evaluating the latter as a possible protective factor. An online cross-sectional survey design was used. The sample consisted of 599 people (78.5% mothers) over 18 years old who live in Chile with at least one child. Through a quantitative methodology and using R, multiple regression models were performed with predictive modeling to contrast the hypotheses. The results indicate that the variables related to lockdown, such as days in quarantine and level of involvement of fathers and mothers in parenting due to the pandemic, predict parental burnout. Caregivers’ perception of the need for care of their children also has a significant impact on this phenomenon. In addition, mothers have higher levels of exhaustion than fathers. The number of hours of paid work does not predict parental burnout. Coparenting cooperation in this context can represent a protective factor against chronic stress.
... An integrated approach, which increases the setting of clearly defined and realistic expectations, a focus on what is achieved (instead of what isn't) as well as on parents' capacities to deal effectively with feelings of failure, has the potential to strengthen resilience in fundamental ways and to protect parents' against illbeing. Recent intervention research on parental burnout (Brianda et al., 2020) indeed showed promising results of an intervention guiding parents in decreasing their parenting stressors (including parental perfectionism) and increasing their parenting resources (including the strengthening of emotion regulation abilities). Future intervention research could investigate whether this intervention also has positive effects on experienced work-family conflict. ...
Work-family conflict and parental burnout are two important and often co-occurring indicators of psychological maladjustment related to the parenting role. Whereas both have been studied in largely different research areas, the present study forwards the assumption that their co-occurrence may be explained by shared dispositional factors such as parental perfectionism and emotional dysregulation (Malivoire et al., 2019). In particular, the present study adds to existing literature by (a) exploring the role of perfectionistic concerns in (the co-occurrence of) work-family conflict and parental burnout, (b) examining the role of emotional dysregulation as an intermediate variable in this link between perfectionism and parental maladjustment, and (c) addressing these research objectives for mothers (N = 116) and fathers (N = 102) separately, as well as their mutual influences using Actor-Partner Interdependence Modeling (APIM). The research goals are examined in families of adolescents, thereby addressing parental experiences during one of the most challenging periods of parenthood. The results based on both maternal and paternal self-report showed that perfectionistic concerns were related to both work-family conflict and parental burnout, with emotional dysregulation playing a significant intermediate role. In addition to these actor effects, the APIM results showed a significant partner-effect between paternal perfectionistic concerns and maternal work-family conflict, as well as between maternal perfectionistic concerns and paternal burnout. From an applied perspective, these findings suggest that interventions towards parents who struggle with work-family balance should not only focus on a more realistic and compassionate attitude towards themselves, but should also target emotion regulation, and enhance insight in transactional processes between partners.
A number of countries worldwide aim at developing parenting support programs designed to enhance positive parenting practices, and reduce violence against children to enable positive child development. This study aimed at assessing the efficacy of the Living and Growing Together ® parenting support program on parental sense of competence and positive parenting practices, well-being, self-kindness, and coherence between parental values and behaviors. The quantitative results, measured through online questionnaires showed that, compared to the control group, the Living and Growing Together ® participants reported increased parental sense of competence after the program, improved positive parenting practices, greater levels of well-being, self-kindness, and feeling of coherence between values and behaviors. The qualitative findings indicated that a majority of parents reported improved active listening abilities, emotional acceptance and understanding, use of play to enhance the relationship quality within the family, and finding creative solutions and alternatives to coercive child behavioral control. These results encourage further research on this program and its benefits on child development.
The present study assessed the effectiveness of informal mindfulness practice among parents in terms of parental burnout prevention and treatment. The objective was to test the new approach of informal mindfulness practice, the FOVEA program, implemented in daily activities rather than based on formal meditations. Indeed, traditional mindfulness programs (e.g., mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, MBSR) require a 45-min daily meditation practice which can be difficult to include in parents’ tight schedules, and even more for the parents suffering from or at risk of parental burnout. In contrast, the FOVEA program was designed to enhance the awareness of the present moment in ecological context mainly using the five senses and awareness of breath and body sensations. We tested the hypothesis that compared to the waitlist control group parents participating in the program would present a greater reduction of parental burnout scores following the intervention. The results revealed a statistically significant large effect of FOVEA intervention on parental burnout severity. There was a statistically significant decrease in parental burnout symptoms between T1 and T2 within the intervention group and no statistically significant difference in parental burnout within the waitlist control group. Thus, informal mindfulness practice seems to effectively prevent and reduce parental burnout.
الأهداف: هدفت الدراسة التعرف إلى المعاملة الوالدية الإيجابية وعلاقتها بالصحة النفسية للأطفال ذوي الإعاقة الجسدية في محافظة العاصمة عمان من وجهة نظر أولياء أمورهم. المنهجية: استخدمت الدراسة المنهج الوصفي الارتباطي. وتمثلت أدوات الدراسة في استبانتين: استبانة المعاملة الوالدية الإيجابية وتضمنت (20) فقرة، واستبانة الصحة النفسية للأطفال ذوي الإعاقة الجسدية وتضمنت (14) فقرة، تم التحقق من صدقهما وثباتهما. تم اختيار 150 ولي أمر من إجمالي 250 ولي أمر في مجتمع الدراسة، والذي يضم أولياء أمور أطفال ذوي الإعاقة الجسدية في أربعة مراكز متخصصة في العاصمة عمان. تشمل هذه المراكز: جمعية الحسين لرعاية وتأهيل ذوي التحديات الحركية، والجمعية الأردنية لرعاية المعوقين حركيًا، وجمعية شمس الأمل للمعاقين، ومركز الحاجة رفيقة لذوي الاحتياجات الخاصة. وقد تم اعتماد ثلاثة مستويات للحكم على النتائج وهي: الدرجة المرتفعة و يتراوح متوسطها الحسابي (3.68-5)، والدرجة المتوسطة (2.34-3.67)، والدرجة المنخفضة (1-2.33). النتائج: أظهرت نتائج الدراسة أن درجة المعاملة الوالدية الإيجابية لأطفال ذوي الإعاقة الجسدية في محافظة العاصمة عمّان من وجهة نظر أولياء أمورهم قد جاءت بدرجة مرتفعة بمتوسط حسابي بلغ (3.86)، ودرجة الصحة النفسية لديهم بدرجة متوسطة بمتوسط حسابي بلغ (3.42). كما توصلت النتائج إلى وجود علاقة ارتباطية موجبة ذات دلالة إحصائية بين درجة المعاملة الوالدية الإيجابية ودرجة الصحة النفسية للأطفال ذوي الإعاقة الجسدية في محافظة العاصمة عمان. الخلاصة: أوصت الدراسة ضرورة رفع الوالدين للروح المعنوية لطفلهم ذو الإعاقة الحركية من خلال الممارسات التحفيزية والتشجيعية، وتقبل أخطاءه مع توجيهه باستمرار، وضرورة جعل الطفل ذو الإعاقة الحركية يتقبل إعاقته من خلال تعزيز الوالدين للممارسات التي تجعله يشعر بأنه قادر على القيام بالعديد من الأنشطة والمهام على الرغم من إعاقته.
Parenting can be wonderful. However, it also can be stressful, and when parents lack the resources needed to handle stressors related to parenting, they may develop parental burnout. This condition is characterized by an overwhelming exhaustion related to one’s parental role, an emotional distancing from one’s children, and a sense of parental ineffectiveness. Researchers have begun to document the antecedents of parental burnout, but little is known about its consequences. Here we investigated the impact of parental burnout on escape ideation, parental neglect, and parental violence through two cross-lagged longitudinal studies (N1=918, N2=822) that involved the completion of online surveys three times over a year. Results indicated that parental burnout strongly increases escape ideation, as well as neglectful and violent behaviors towards one’s children (aggregated Cohen’s d = 1.31, 1.25 and 1.25 respectively). These findings show that parental burnout is a serious condition that urgently requires more attention.
BACKGROUND: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are used to evaluate social and psychological interventions and inform policy decisions about them. Accurate, complete, and transparent reports of social and psychological intervention RCTs are essential for understanding their design, conduct, results, and the implications of the findings. However, the reporting of RCTs of social and psychological interventions remains suboptimal. The CONSORT Statement has improved the reporting of RCTs in biomedicine. A similar high-quality guideline is needed for the behavioural and social sciences. Our objective was to develop an official extension of the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials 2010 Statement (CONSORT 2010) for reporting RCTs of social and psychological interventions: CONSORT-SPI 2018. METHODS: We followed best practices in developing the reporting guideline extension. First, we conducted a systematic review of existing reporting guidelines. We then conducted an online Delphi process including 384 international participants. In March 2014, we held a 3-day consensus meeting of 31 experts to determine the content of a checklist specifically targeting social and psychological intervention RCTs. Experts discussed previous research and methodological issues of particular relevance to social and psychological intervention RCTs. They then voted on proposed modifications or extensions of items from CONSORT 2010. RESULTS: The CONSORT-SPI 2018 checklist extends 9 of the 25 items from CONSORT 2010: background and objectives, trial design, participants, interventions, statistical methods, participant flow, baseline data, outcomes and estimation, and funding. In addition, participants added a new item related to stakeholder involvement, and they modified aspects of the flow diagram related to participant recruitment and retention. CONCLUSIONS: Authors should use CONSORT-SPI 2018 to improve reporting of their social and psychological intervention RCTs. Journals should revise editorial policies and procedures to require use of reporting guidelines by authors and peer reviewers to produce manuscripts that allow readers to appraise study quality, evaluate the applicability of findings to their contexts, and replicate effective interventions.
Until recently, research conducted on parental exhaustion was exclusively concerned with parents of sick children. However, situations where exhaustion occurs as a result of being physically and emotionally overwhelmed by one’s parental role in the absence of a child’s condition is gaining increasing interest. The aim of our study was to give voice to exhausted mothers, in order to get a better understanding of what it means to be exhausted in relation with one’s parental role, from the perspective of those who have experienced it. We referred to phenomenological interpretative analysis for methods of data collection and data analysis, and included five mothers who were each interviewed twice. Our analysis revealed a superordinate theme of fear, which was central in every aspect of the mothers’ accounts of their experiences, from the fear to not be a good enough mother to the fear related to unlearning control and experiencing discontinuity of one’s sense of self. Our results call for the development of specific interventions to prevent, anticipate, or treat the phenomenon of exhaustion in parents, so as to help them and their children cope better with these situations of extreme vulnerability, which are often reinforced by senses of guilt, shame, and loneliness.
Parental burnout is a specific syndrome resulting from enduring exposure to chronic parenting stress. But why do some parents burn out while others, facing the same stressors, do not? The main aim of this paper was to propose a theory of parental burnout capable of predicting who is at risk of burnout, explaining why a particular parent burned out and why at that specific point in time, and providing directions for intervention. The secondary goal was to operationalize this theory in a tool that would be easy to use for both researchers and clinicians. The results of this two-wave longitudinal study conducted on 923 parents suggest that the Balance between Risks and Resources (BR²) theory proposed here is a relevant framework to predict and explain parental burnout. More specifically, the results show that (1) the BR² instrument reliably measures parents' balance between risks (parental stress-enhancing factors) and resources (parental stress-alleviating factors), (2) there is a strong linear relationship between BR² score and parental burnout, (3) parental burnout results from a chronic imbalance of risks over resources, (4) BR² predicts parental burnout better than job burnout and (5) among the risk and resource factors measured in BR², risks and resources non-specific to parenting (e.g., low stress-management abilities, perfectionism) equally predict parental and job burnout, while risks and resources specific to parenting (e.g., childrearing practices, coparenting) uniquely predict parental burnout.
So far, the conceptualization and measurement of parental burnout have been deduced from those of job burnout. As a result, it is unclear whether current measures of parental burnout constitute the best representation of the parental burnout construct/syndrome: the possibility cannot be excluded that some dimensions ought to be added, which would change the structure and definition of parental burnout. In this study, the conceptualization and measurement of parental burnout were approached using an inductive method, in which the parental burnout phenomenon was (re)constructed based solely on the testimonies of burned-out parents. Items extracted from their testimonies were presented to a sample of French-speaking and English-speaking parents (N = 901) and submitted to factor analyses. An identifiable parental burnout syndrome including four dimensions was found (exhaustion in one's parental role, contrast with previous parental self, feelings of being fed up with one's parental role and emotional distancing from one's children). The resulting instrument, the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) presents good validity. Factorial invariance across gender and languages was also found. Finally, the results of this study replicate previous findings that psychological traits of the parents, parenting factors, and family functioning account for more variance in parental burnout than sociodemographic factors.
Clinicians, institutions, and policy makers use results from randomized controlled trials to make decisions regarding therapeutic interventions for their patients and populations. Knowing the effect the intervention has on patients in clinical trials is critical for making both individual patient as well as population-based decisions. However, patients in clinical trials do not always adhere to the protocol. Excluding patients from the analysis who violated the research protocol (did not get their intended treatment) can have significant implications that impact the results and analysis of a study.
Intention-to-treat analysis is a method for analyzing results in a prospective randomized study where all participants who are randomized are included in the statistical analysis and analyzed according to the group they were originally assigned, regardless of what treatment (if any) they received. This method allows the investigator (or consumer of the medical literature) to draw accurate (unbiased) conclusions regarding the effectiveness of an intervention. This method preserves the benefits of randomization, which cannot be assumed when using other methods of analysis.
The risk of bias is increased whenever treatment groups are not analyzed according to the group to which they were originally assigned. If an intervention is truly effective (truth), an intention-to-treat analysis will provide an unbiased estimate of the efficacy of the intervention at the level of adherence in the study. This article will review the “intention-to-treat” principle and its converse, “per-protocol” analysis, and illustrate how using the wrong method of analysis can lead to a significantly biased assessment of the effectiveness of an intervention.
Parental burnout is a specific syndrome resulting from enduring exposure to chronic parenting stress. It encompasses three dimensions: an overwhelming exhaustion related to one’s parental role, an emotional distancing with one’s children and a sense of ineffectiveness in one’s parental role. This study aims to facilitate further identification of antecedents/risk factors for parental burnout in order to inform prevention and intervention practices. In a sample of 1723 french-speaking parents, we examined the relationship between parental burnout and 38 factors belonging to five categories: sociodemographics, particularities of the child, stable traits of the parent, parenting and family-functioning. In 862 parents, we first examined how far these theoretically relevant risk factors correlate with burnout. We then examined their relative weight in predicting burnout and the amount of total explained variance. We kept only the significant factors to draw a preliminary model of risk factors for burnout and tested this model on another sample of 861 parents. The results suggested that parental burnout is a multi-determined syndrome mainly predicted by three sets of factors: parent’s stable traits, parenting and family-functioning.
Background:
Hair cortisol analysis is increasingly being appreciated and applied in both research and medicine, aiding endocrinologists with diagnosis.
Content:
We provide an overview of hair cortisol research in general and an update on methodological considerations including the incorporation of cortisol into hair, hair growth rates, and sampling procedures, mincing vs. grinding of samples during preparation for extraction, various extraction protocols, and quantification techniques. We compare the clinical utility and application of hair cortisol with traditional methods of measurement while acknowledging the limitations of analysis including variations in hair growth parameters. We explore the value of hair cortisol in cases of Cushing syndrome (particularly Cyclical Cushing), Adrenal insufficiency (including Addison's disease), therapy monitoring, cardiovascular disease, stress, and mental illness.
Summary:
Hair cortisol provides a unique objective biomarker for the analysis of endogenous cortisol levels for not only clinical diagnostic purposes but also in research. The use of hair cortisol has great potential for advancing patient care.
Recent years have seen major developments in psychotherapy research that suggest the need to address critical methodological issues. These recommendations, developed by an international group of researchers, do not replace those for randomized controlled trials, but rather supplement strategies that need to be taken into account when considering psychological treatments. The limitations of traditional taxonomy and assessment methods are outlined, with suggestions for consideration of staging methods. Active psychotherapy control groups are recommended, and adaptive and dismantling study designs offer important opportunities. The treatments that are used, and particularly their specific ingredients, need to be described in detail for both the experimental and the control groups. Assessment should be performed blind before and after treatment and at long-term follow-up. A combination of observer- and self-rated measures is recommended. Side effects of psychotherapy should be evaluated using appropriate methods. Finally, the number of participants who deteriorate after treatment should be noted according to the methods that were used to define response or remission.
Parental burnout is a specific syndrome resulting from enduring exposure to chronic parenting stress. It encompasses three dimensions: an overwhelming exhaustion related to one's parental role, an emotional distancing from one's children and a sense of ineffectiveness in one's parental role. This study aims to facilitate further identification of the consequences of parental burnout for the parents themselves, their spouses and their child(ren). In a sample of 1551 parents, we examined the relationship between parental burnout and seven possible consequences: escapism and suicidal thoughts, addictions, sleep disorders, marital conflicts, a partner estrangement mindset, and neglect and violence towards one's child(ren). We examined (1) to what extent parental and job burnout related to each of these possible consequences and (2) whether parental burnout is specifically related to neglectful and violent behaviour towards one's child(ren). The results suggest that parental burnout has a statistically similar effect to job burnout on addictions and sleep problems, a stronger effect on couples' conflicts and partner estrangement mindset and a specific effect on child-related outcomes (neglect and violence) and escape and suicidal ideation. These results emphasize the importance of accurately diagnosing this syndrome.