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The international orientation
of academic entrepreneurship:
the role of relational, human and
psychological capital
Mercedes Villanueva-Flores, Dara Hern
andez-Roque and
Mariluz Fern
andez-Alles
Universidad de C
adiz, C
adiz, Spain, and
Mirta Diaz-Fernandez
Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain
Abstract
Purpose –Scholars have emphasized intellectual capital’s importance for universities in obtaining
competitive advantages and creating value. The purpose of this paper is to identify the influences of two
components of intellectual capital, relational and human capital at the international level, and psychological
capital on international orientation of academic entrepreneurs, and the mediating effects of international
relational and human capital.
Design/methodology/approach –On the basis of a literature review, a theoretical model is proposed to
explain the relationship between the studied variables. Our hypotheses are tested on a sample of 173 academic
spin-offs of Spanish universities using bootstrapping methodology.
Findings –The results show that the international market relational capital and international human capital
of academic entrepreneurs influence their international orientation, and that their psychological capital is
directly, and indirectly, related to international orientation through international human capital and
international market relational capital.
Practical implications –This study provides a better understanding of the antecedents of the international
orientation of academic entrepreneurs, which would provide an important contribution to the literature on
intellectual capital, academic entrepreneurship and internationalization. The achieved results highlight
important implications for training of academic entrepreneurs and for managers and management teams of
companies willing to enter, or even those already operating in, international markets.
Originality/value –In this study, the international orientation of academic entrepreneurs is explained
through the psychological capital that is studied jointly with two components of intellectual capital, relational
and human capital at the international level. Although some recent work has focused on the study of the
internationalization of academic spin-off, this line of research is still incipient.
Keywords International orientation, International relational and human capital, Psychological capital
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Knowledge transfer from universities to industry has become a strategic issue for
universities, the economy and society (Siegel et al., 2007;Caldera and Debande, 2010). One
way of transferring knowledge is through academic entrepreneurship, which refers to the
creation of companies by academics (academic spin-offs, ASOs). ASOs have been defined as
new companies that have been created to commercially exploit knowledge, technology or
research results that have been developed within a university (Pirnay et al., 2003;Evers et al.,
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
Funding: This work has been co-financed by the 2020-2023 ERDF Operational Programme and by the
Department of Economy, Knowledge, Business and University of the Regional Government of
Andalusia. Project reference: FEDER-UCA18-107689 titled “Analysis of the influence of the Andalusian,
Spanish and European entrepreneurial ecosystems on the internationalization process of Andalusian
academic spin-offs, and its impact on innovation results.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
https://www.emerald.com/insight/1469-1930.htm
Received 23 June 2021
Revised 27 October 2021
19 December 2021
8 February 2022
Accepted 15 March 2022
Journal of Intellectual Capital
© Emerald Publishing Limited
1469-1930
DOI 10.1108/JIC-06-2021-0157
2016). Studies on ASOs have increased over the years, as the creation of these companies
promoted economic and social development, employment and innovation (O’Shea et al., 2014;
Fern
andez-Alles and Ramos-Rodr
ıguez, 2021).
Academic entrepreneurs of ASOs, defined as scientists with an entrepreneurial
perspective to exploit their research results commercially, emerge as key protagonists
(Etzkowitz, 1998;Guo et al., 2019). They usually have a vocation for international markets,
due to their international experience derived from their training abroad, mobility and their
international research activity. Their networks of international relations with foreign
universities, colleagues and other R&D centers can provide resources for internationalization.
Therefore, ASOs also contribute to the internationalization of the economy (Rodr
ıguez-Gul
ıas
et al., 2016). Although works on academic entrepreneurship and internationalization have
increased, these are still scarce (Bj€
ornali and Aspelund, 2012;Bialek-Jaworska and
Gabryelczyk, 2016;Civera et al., 2019). In this context, the analysis of the international
orientation of academic entrepreneurs, and the impact of their intellectual and psychological
capital on this orientation, constitutes an opportunity.
Drawing on the works of Knight and Cavusgil (2004),Knight and Kim (2009) and Cho et al.
(2017), international orientation has been defined as a managerial vision and a proactive
organizational culture, which support the development and utilization of organizational
resources to achieve objectives in international markets. Previous studies have focused on
analyzing the impact of the international orientation on the international performance and
speed of entry of organizations into these markets (Machado et al., 2016). These works
highlight that international orientation is related to success in international markets
(Aspelund et al., 2007;Knight and Kim, 2009;Sorensen and Madsen, 2012;Baronchelli et al.,
2015;Moen et al., 2016). Therefore, the success of entrepreneurs will largely depend on their
ability to become competitive through international orientation (Ratten et al., 2007;Fre
ser
et al., 2020). In the literature on international entrepreneurship, relational and human capital
have been considered (Ng et al., 2012;Senik et al., 2014;Baum et al., 2015;Matricano, 2016;
Mariani et al., 2018;Passaro et al., 2018). In addition, there is a third capital, the study of which
is beginning to appear in this literature; this is psychological capital (Khilji et al., 2010;Dauth
and Tomczak, 2017;Mathews, 2017). Relational, human and psychological capital,
incorporate intangible resources provided by the people involved in an entrepreneurial
venture, especially those in the top management team (Envick, 2005). Relational capital
focuses on “who you know”, human capital refers to “what you know”and psychological
capital reflects the view of oneself, “who you are”(Goldsmith et al., 1997;Luthans and
Youssef, 2004;Envick, 2005). Thus, psychological capital could reflect a person’s view of his
or her ability to use relational and human capital successfully (Envick, 2005).
Although relational and human capital have been studied in the literature on
internationalization (Evers and O’Gorman, 2011;Ng et al., 2012;Laurell et al., 2013;Senik
et al., 2014;Baum et al., 2015;Baronchelli et al., 2015;Baier-Fuentes et al., 2018), and the
literature on entrepreneurship is beginning to analyze relational, human and psychological
capital together (Zhao et al., 2020), there are no papers that study these three capitals, as
antecedents of international orientation in the context of ASOs.
Therefore, based on academic entrepreneurship and international literature, the resource-
based view and network theory, the aim of this paper is to analyze, in the ASO context, the
effect of international relational, international human and psychological capital on the
international orientation of academic entrepreneurs and the role that international relational
and human capital play, in the relationship between psychological capital and international
orientation.
Our results contribute to the literature in several ways. First, calls from several academics
for more research on the internationalization of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
have been answered (Coviello, 2006;Autio et al., 2011;Bianchi et al., 2017). Second, this study
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provides a better understanding of the antecedents of the international orientation of
academic entrepreneurs and the roles relational and human capital play in the model in the
relationship between psychological capital and international orientation, which would
provide an important contribution to the literature on intellectual capital, entrepreneurship
and internationalization. Third, this paper includes the relationship of psychological capital
with the international orientation of academic entrepreneurs, which has not been previously
analyzed. Moreover, psychological capital is studied jointly, with relational and human
capital at the international level. The call of some authors, who consider that empirical
research is needed to measure the aggregate effect of these of capitals (Envick, 2005), is thus
answered. The study also responds to calls for empirical research related to the
internationalization of ASOs (Evers et al., 2016).
The paper is structured as follows. First, the theoretical background that is the basis for
the hypotheses is outlined. After the description of the methodology, the results are
presented. Finally, discussion, conclusions, implications, limitations of the study and
proposals for future research are presented.
2. Literature review and hypotheses
2.1 International orientation
International orientation, drawing on the works of Knight and Cavusgil (2004),Knight and
Kim (2009) and Cho et al. (2017), has been defined as a managerial vision and a proactive
organizational culture, which supports the development and utilization of organizational
resources, to achieve objectives in international markets. Some investigations have
highlighted the importance of international orientation in internationalization (Machado
et al., 2016;Cho et al., 2017). International orientation leads to the efficient use of the
organization’s resources, since internationally oriented companies can allocate specific
resources that are essential for sales to be generated in international markets and enable the
efficient use of the company’s resources (Knight, 2000;De Brentani and Kleinschmidt, 2004;
Cho et al., 2017). Therefore, the international orientation of the entrepreneur and top
management teams becomes a key factor for the success of organizations in international
markets (Knight, 2001;Aspelund et al., 2007;Knight and Kim, 2009;Sorensen and Madsen,
2012;Baronchelli et al., 2015;Moen et al., 2016).
International orientation has different implications for the internationalization process.
Knight and Kim (2009) state that having an international entrepreneurial orientation implies
that the organization explores new opportunities, and has an aggressive and entrepreneurial
attitude toward international markets. Knight and Cavusgil (2004) used the term
international entrepreneurial orientation, reflecting on the innovative capacity and
proactivity of a company to reach foreign markets. The study by Moen et al. (2016), in line
with Knight’s study (2001), states that companies with a high international orientation are
those that actively seek international opportunities, see the world as their market, adapt their
products to international operations, communicate their international ambitions throughout
the organization and develop the necessary resources for international activity. Sorensen and
Madsen (2012) expound that international orientation leads to a greater capacity to interpret
key information on international markets. Cho et al. (2017) state that international orientation
leads to a greater knowledge of opportunities, potential customers and competitors in
international markets. In conclusion, international orientation is associated with
innovativeness, managerial vision and a proactive competitive posture. Thus, following
Baronchelli et al. (2015), for an organization to succeed internationally, the management team
must possess high levels of international orientation.
A large body of literature has analyzed the relationship between international orientation
of managers, or management teams, and different indicators of international performance,
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
such as exports and international presence. International orientation has been related to
company performance in international markets, highlighting that it is a consistent predictor
of export performance (Zou and Stan, 1998;Knight and Kim, 2009;Sorensen and Madsen,
2012;Moen et al., 2016). In the same line, other authors report that international orientation is
positively related to the export performance of SMEs (Javalgi et al., 2011). The international
orientation of companies and their managers allows them to gain knowledge that can lead to
improved efficiency which, in turn, allows the growth of international sales (Autio et al., 2000;
Cho et al., 2017).
In previous literature, the incidence of international orientation has been analyzed by
distinguishing two patterns of internationalization: gradual and born-global. According to
the gradual internationalization process, international orientation would positively affect the
speed of internationalization of companies (Knight and Cavusgil, 2004;Oviatt and
McDougall, 2005). A key factor of accelerated internationalization in SMEs, which is
considered an antecedent of this phenomenon, is the strong orientation of executives or
managers toward foreign markets (Zahra, 2005;Kyvik et al., 2013;Machado et al., 2016). With
respect to the born-global phenomenon, scarce literature has analyzed the effect of
international orientation, despite its importance (Escandon-Barbosa et al., 2019). According to
some empirical studies (Nummela et al., 2004;Danik and Kowalik, 2013;Machado et al., 2016;
Escandon-Barbosa et al., 2019), the vision and orientation of managers could explain this form
of entry into international markets. Knight and Cavusgil (2004) state that international
entrepreneurial orientation may be especially important for born-globals because it appears
to drive them to develop high-quality goods that are technologically advanced, and which are
associated with their international success. This is relevant to born-globals because it
appears to engender specific innovation-based strategies that, in turn, drive superior
international performance. Based on Escandon-Barbosa et al. (2019), international orientation
could be a predictor of early internationalization of born-global companies.
Against this background, and taking into account that the academic entrepreneur founder
of an ASO has a strong vocation to internationalize, either gradually or rapidly at the outset
(Andersson and Berggren, 2016;Fern
andez-Alles and Ramos-Rodr
ıguez, 2021), it seems
appropriate to study the antecedents of their international orientation. A specific analysis
should be made of the role played by the three intangible capitals, international relational and
human capital and psychological capital, and their relationship with the international
orientation of academic entrepreneurs.
2.2 The relational, human and psychological capital and international orientation
Academic entrepreneurs tend to have a vocation for internationalization, which explains not
only why they consider entering their ASOs into international markets as part of their growth
but also why many of them are born-global (Bj€
ornali and Aspelund, 2012). Some explanatory
reasons for their internationalization lie in the types of products and services marketed by
ASOs, and in the markets and sectors in which they are oriented (Fern
andez-Alles and
Ramos-Rodr
ıguez, 2021). However, the characteristics of the academic entrepreneur, in terms
of their intellectual capital, undoubtedly seem to be determinant in the international
expansion of ASOs. Thus, the international experience and training, and the networks of
international relations derived from their scientific activity, and the mobility of these
academics, could act as precursors of the orientation of the academic entrepreneur toward
international markets.
At the international level, the literature highlights that, in order to operate and succeed in
international markets, top managers of companies must possess a global mindset that
encompasses the three capitals: relational, human and psychological (Beechler and Javidan,
2007;Dauth and Tomczak, 2017).
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Relational capital refers to the ability of actors to derive benefits by virtue of their
networks or other social structures, which can lead to improved organizational performance
(Zhao et al., 2020). Relationship networks, and interaction with individuals from other
cultures, both inside and outside the organization, are necessary for senior managers to have
an international orientation (Hiller and Hambrick, 2005;Li and Tang, 2010;Piaskowska and
Trojanowski, 2014). The work of Oviatt and McDougall (2005) shows that firms can acquire
knowledge about foreign markets by accessing networks formed by people with
international experience and expertise. There are numerous papers that analyze the
influence of relationship networks with internationalization and claim that these networks
positively impact the mode, speed and extent of internationalization (Laurell et al., 2013;Senik
et al., 2014;Baum et al., 2015;Sekliuckiene, 2017). Networks of relationships reduce
uncertainty and risk, facilitating access to international markets and providing financial
support and market learning support (Baum et al., 2015). They also enable the identification of
foreign partners (Shirokova and McDougall-Covin, 2012), commercial and political
knowledge (Schweizer et al., 2010), as well as the gaining of reputation, trust and
commitment, to be able to exploit opportunities in these markets (Shirokova and McDougall-
Covin, 2012;Sekliuckiene, 2017). Due to this, the so-called “network theory of
internationalization”arises, which states that companies immersed in a network of
relationships have a competitive advantage that enables them to enter foreign markets more
easily (Coviello and Munro, 1997;Holmlund and Kock, 1998). According to this theory,
internationalization is significantly influenced by the networks that firms possess, and, those
they are able to obtain (Antoldi et al., 2011;Kim, 2017). Therefore, according to this view, the
relationship networks of organizations, even in those with limited resources, can enable and
support internationalization processes (Wright et al., 2007;Kim, 2017). Some authors have
shown that the advantage of having a network of relationships could even make up for the
lack of experience in international markets (Gajowiak, 2013).
In the field of ASOs, the academic entrepreneur, due to training abroad, the multicultural
nature of their scientific and research activity, and their international mobility, usually has an
international network of collaboration within their research (Civera et al., 2019), which could
favor international entrepreneurship (Bj€
ornali and Aspelund, 2012;Evers et al., 2016) and
could lead the academic entrepreneur to maintain a managerial vision toward the
achievement of international objectives. Some authors (Civera et al., 2020) highlight the
importance of social networks from the academic entrepreneur’s closest circles for the entry
of ASOs into international markets. Mikhailova and Olsen (2016) show that international
scientific and university networks promote the internationalization of products. This would
seem to indicate that the academic entrepreneur’s networks of relationships, which emerged
from the university context, are relevant in internationalization processes. The networks of
the academic entrepreneur are classified into academic relationship networks and market
networks (Fern
andez-Alles et al., 2015). In relation to academic networks, the academic
entrepreneur maintains relationships with other foreign scientists, who were born or trained
in other countries. These collaborations, related to scientific activity, can have a positive
impact on the internationalization of their companies (Krabel et al., 2012;Libaers and Wang,
2012;Van Geenhuizen et al., 2015). Foreign academics may recognize entrepreneurial
opportunities that do not exist in their home countries (Krabel et al., 2012). In addition, foreign
academics may be more focused on obtaining resources for their research than on exploiting
their own inventions (Libaers and Wang, 2012). Relationships with foreign colleagues and
universities, and international R&D centers are common in these types of academic networks.
Regarding market networks, although the network of relationships with market agents that
these companies possess may be limited (Fern
andez-Alles et al., 2015), previous academic
collaboration with foreign universities and international R&D centers can foster strategic
alliances, customer relationships, access to distribution channels, finding solutions for new
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
product development, the possibility of monetizing R&D investments, know-how and
intellectual property that derive from the internationalization of these ASOs (Bialek-Jaworska
and Gabryelczyk, 2016) (see Figure 1).
Therefore, the international academic and market relational capital of the academic
entrepreneur could lead them to have a managerial vision and a proactive organizational
culture, which support the development and utilization of the resources of their company
toward the achievement of international objectives, i.e. having an international orientation.
The first hypothesis is proposed:
H1. There is a positive relationship between international relational capital (academic
and market) and international orientation in academic entrepreneurs.
According to the resource-based view, organizations possess rare and valuable resources that
become a source of competitive advantage (Stoian et al., 2011) and provide the basis for
internationalization strategies (Knight and Cavusgil, 2004;Hwang, 2010). These resources
can be both tangible and intangible. Within the intangible resources are the knowledge,
experience and characteristics of managers (Ruzzier et al., 2006;Kamakura et al., 2012;Kim,
2017). Therefore, among these resources are human and psychological capital.
Human capital refers to knowledge, skills or competencies, derived from education,
experience and specific identifiable skills (Luthans and Yo ussef, 2004;Zhao et al.,2020). In order
for top managers to have aninternational orientation, it is necessary to enhance human capital
through training and experience abroad (Hiller and Hambrick, 2005;Li and Tang, 2010;
Piaskowska and Trojanowski, 2014). Several papers have highlighted the impact on the
internationalization of their firms of the human capital of managers and entrepreneurs, their
training or educational level and their international experience (Dauth and Tomczak, 2017;
Volont
e and Gantenbein, 2016). International experience can be derived from work experience
resulting from international mobility, education or training abroad, or even from spending a
vacation period in other countries (Carpenter et al., 2003;Bj€
ornali and Aspelund, 2012).
Companies can increase the level of international orientation of their topmanagement teams, by
hiring members with international working experience or international educational experience
(Herrmann and Datta, 2005;Baronchelli et al., 2015). Other authors establish that international
experience endows the manager with a personality and perceptions that positively influence
international orientation so that international background and orientation would explain
internationalization (Herrmann and Datta, 2005).
In the field of ASOs, the academic entrepreneurship, and the teams that promote the
creation of ASOs, often obtain funding to be able to carry out their research through
international grants and research programs. On many occasions, these involve the
establishment of international collaboration and stays abroad that benefit their training
and expertise. This international training and experience can accelerate the
internationalization process, as it facilitates the recognition of entrepreneurial
opportunities, a greater innovative capacity and creativity that benefits the development
of new ideas in these markets (Van Geenhuizen et al., 2015;Bialek-Jaworska and Gabryelczyk,
2016;Civera et al., 2020). In addition, many of these entrepreneurs develop international
International Academic
Relational Capital
International
Orientation
International Market
Relational Capital
Figure 1.
Hypothesis 1
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transfer activities, such as patents, which give them credibility in international markets,
enhancing their entry into these markets when they decide to start a business (Bialek-
Jaworska and Gabryelczyk, 2016). Similarly, scientists with more international experience
obtain higher productivity, in terms of publications and patents, which increases their
credibility in international markets (Civera et al., 2020). This prior international experience
could even compensate for both the lack of training in international business and the absence
of business management experience in these markets (Fern
andez-Alles and Ramos-
Rodr
ıguez, 2021) (see Figure 2).
Consequently, the international human capital of the academic entrepreneur could lead to a
managerial vision and a proactive organizational culture, which supports the development and
utilization of the resources of their companies toward the achievement of international objectives,
i.e. having an international orientation. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H2. There is a positive relationship between international human capital and
international orientation in academic entrepreneurs.
Regarding the third capital, psychological capital, some authors have argued that individual
characteristics play a fundamental role in entrepreneurship (Turkina and Thai, 2015;Kim and
Noh, 2016;Daou et al., 2019;Steinbrink et al.,2020) and in the decision-making processes of
internationalization (Wally and Baum, 1994;Oviatt et al.,2004;Saghebi et al.,2019). Among these
individual characteristics are: respect for cultural differences; willingness to face, learn and adapt
to other cultures; knowing how to recognize different points of view; but there are also other
characteristics, such as self-confidence, optimism, hope and resilience (Dauth et al., 2017). These
latter characteristics make up the so-called psychological capital, which is defined as a positive
state of development of the individual that includes having confidence (self-confidence) to put in
the necessary effort to carry out challenging tasks; having a positive state (optimism) about
present and future success; persevering toward goals (hope) and, when necessary, reorienting the
way to achieve them; and, finally, facing and adapting (resilience) to new situations, when
problems and adversities arise, in order to achieve success (Luthans et al., 2007a). Psychological
capital has been studied in its relationship with entrepreneurial success and entrepreneurial
intention (Luthans et al., 2007b;Wright and Cropanzano, 2007;Baluku et al., 2016;Zou et al., 2016;
Kim, 2017;Zhao et al., 2020). This capital produces strong entrepreneurial motivation, which
positively affects the entrepreneurial decision-making process (Baron et al., 2016;Zhao et al.,
2020). For entrepreneurs, psychological capital is a determining factor in entrepreneurship, so
even when entrepreneurs face a shortage of relational and human capital, they rely on themselves
to get the job done, i.e. on their psychological capital (Hmieleski and Carr, 2008;Zhao et al., 2020).
Some theoretical works refer to the importance of this capital in the internationalization of
companies (Khilji et al., 2010;Dauth and Tomczak, 2017;Mathews, 2017). These works highlight
that the personal characteristics of the manager or entrepreneur, among which are their
psychological capital, have been related to the mindset, culture and global leadership and,
therefore, to the internationalization of organizations. Likewise, the dimensions of psychological
capital can positively influence entrepreneurship and entry into international markets. Since the
entrepreneur must exhibit high levels of self-efficacy (Prodan and Drnovsek, 2010), for the sake of
International Training
Human Capital
International
Orientation
International Experience
Human Capital
Figure 2.
Hypothesis 2
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
entrepreneurship and entering new markets, they must maintain persistence (hope) (Avey et al.,
2008)andoptimism(Cardon et al., 2013;Kolb and Wagner, 2015), during critical and challenging
moments of the entrepreneurial process, and must cope with, and adapt to, obstacles (resilience)
that arise within international markets (Beechler and Javidan, 2007) (see Figure 3).
Following on from these approaches, and from the absence of studies that focus on the
psychological capital of the academic entrepreneur, it is suggested that the psychological
capital of the academic entrepreneur is important in international markets. They require: self-
efficacy to face the challenges that arise in these markets; optimism and high levels of hope
that motivate them to seek alternatives and believe in a successful outcome regardless of the
magnitude of the challenge; and, resilience, to cope with, and adapt to, the obstacles that arise
in these markets. Therefore, the psychological capital of the academic entrepreneur could
influence their orientation toward international markets. This capital could lead them to have
a managerial vision and a proactive organizational culture, which supports the development
and utilization of their companies’resources toward the achievement of international
objectives. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H3. There is a positive relationship between psychological capital and international
orientation in academic entrepreneurs.
2.3 Mediating role of international relational and human capital
In the literature on entrepreneurship, the traditional capitals, relational and human capital are
beginning to be analyzed, together with the new emerging capital, psychological capital (Envick,
2005;Baluku et al.,2016;Zhao et al., 2020). The three capitals, relational, human and psychological
capital, are significant predictors of entrepreneurial success (Baluku et al., 2016). Envick (2005)
shows that psychological capital could reflect a person’s view of their ability to use relational and
human capital successfully, i.e. the ability to use traditional capitals productively. The
psychological factors were strongly associated with relational capital outcomes (Steinfield et al.,
2008), that is, psychological capital can enable individuals to get along with colleagues more
optimistically and form a larger relational network. Similarly, it has been empirically shown that
psychological capital has a positive and significant influence on relational and human capital
(Iyigun and Owen, 1998;Zhao et al., 2020). A developed psychological capital leads to the
achievement of better relationships with others, in a successful manner, thus enabling a broad
and stable network of relationships to be achieved, thereby improving their relational capital. In
addition, psychological capital allows greater self-control and perseverance to acquire the
necessary knowledge for a given business, thus improving their human capital (Zhao et al., 2020).
Other authors (Tamer et al.,2014) showed that the dimensions of psychological capital, resilience
and self-efficacy, have a strong relationship with relational capital, and also stated that self-
efficacy is positively related to human capital. Envick (2005) states that the entrepreneur with
developed psychological capital is able to mobilize and obtain relational and human capital
effectively, for the success of their enterprises (see Figure 4).
Therefore, we consider that the psychological capital of the academic entrepreneur could
influence their ability to acquire relational and human capital, at the international level. So, the
following hypothesis is proposed:
H4. There is a positive relationship between psychological capital and international
relational and human capital.
Along the same lines, Zhao et al. (2020) have empirically demonstrated the mediating role of
relational and human capital, in the relationship between psychological capital and
Psychological
Capital
International
Orientation
Figure 3.
Hypothesis 3
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entrepreneurial intention. Consequently, taking into account the established approaches on
the relationship between the three capitals and with international orientation, it is suggested
that international relational and international human capital could play a mediating role in
the relationship between psychological capital and international orientation. Thus,
psychological capital could influence international orientation, both directly and indirectly,
through relational and human capital. Therefore, it is proposed that the academic
entrepreneur with a developed psychological capital, i.e. optimistic, with self-confidence,
hope and resilience, could have a greater capacity to acquire relational and human capital at
the international level, which could lead to an international orientation. Therefore, it is
considered here that psychological capital promotes the development of relational and
human capital at the international level, and, consequently, would influence international
orientation. This leads to the following hypotheses (see Figures 5 and 6):
H5. International relational capital (market and academic) mediates the relationship
between psychological capital and international orientation in academic entrepreneurs.
H6. International human capital mediates the relationship between psychological capital
and international orientation in academic entrepreneurs.
In summary, the hypothesized relationships between the study variables are jointly presented in
Figure 7.
Psychological
Capital
International Market
Relational Capital
International Academic
Relational Capital
International Training
Human Capital
International Experience
Human Capital
Psychological
Capital
International
Orientation
International Training
Human Capital
International Experience
Human Capital
Psychological
Capital
International
Orientation
International Academic
Relational Capital
International Market
Relational Capital
Figure 4.
Hypothesis 4
Figure 6.
Hypothesis 6
Figure 5.
Hypothesis 5
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
3. Methodology
3.1 Sample
In order to build the ASO database, the Spanish Universities’Research Results Transfer Offices
Network (RedOTRI) provided the information through the Technology Transfer Offices (TTOs)
included in this network. The email, telephone, name, year of constitution and the sector of
activity of each of the ASOs were obtained from the managers of the TTOs. The population of
this study consisted of the founding academic entrepreneurs of the628 Spanish ASOs created by
Spanish universities, during the period 2003–2018. A questionnaire was sent to each of the
academic entrepreneurs and included questions about academic entrepreneurs’psychological
capital, international relational and human capital and about their international orientation. We
obtained a total of 173 valid responses (response rate: 27.6%). Therefore, the sample can be
assumed to be representative of the total population of Spanish ASOs.
3.2 Measures
In order to estimate the proposed theoretical model, we identified and measured the following
variables related with the academic entrepreneur: international relational capital, international
human capital, psychological capital and international orientation, as well as two control
variables, firm age and activity sector. In particular, international orientation is the dependent
variable, psychological capital the independent variable, while international relational capital
and international human capital are the mediating variables of our model. In addition, all the
variables considered in this research were measured, based on previous research.
3.2.1 International relational capital. To measure this variable, the classification of agents by
Fern
andez-Alles et al. (2015) and Sousa-Ginel et al. (2017,2021) was used. Academic relational
capital refers to the academic entrepreneur’s relationships with academic agents, at the
international level. The different items referred to the frequency of academic entrepreneurs’
relationships with international academic agents. The academic agents include international
university institutions (incubators, other academics, university chairs and research centers),
international university TTOs and other international academic agents not included in the two
International
Relational
Capital
Psychological
y
g
Capital
p
International
Orientation
n
n
H
H
4
H
H
1
H
H
3
H
H
5
Control Var
iables
Age
g
Sector
r
International
Human
n
n
Capital
H
H
2
H
H
4
H
H
H
6
6
Figure 7.
Conceptual model
JIC
previous agents. Market relational capital refers to the academic entrepreneur’s relationships
with market agents, at the international level. The different items referred to the frequency of
academic entrepreneurs’relationships with international market agents. International market
agents include government institutions, industry agents (competitors, customers and suppliers),
technology parks, venture capital and financial agents. To measure international relational
capital, two indicators were used, one for academic relational capital and the other for market
relational capital. The first is measured with three items, an example of which is, “Indicate the
frequency of contacts with international university TTOs”. The second indicator is measured
with 5 items, e.g. “Indicate the frequency of contacts with international governmental
institutions”. In both cases, the international academic relational capital and international
market relational capital items were measured, using a 5-point Likert scale (1 5less than one
contact per month; 5 5several contacts per day). From this information, the mean value was
calculated, as has been done by several authors (Smith et al.,2005;Sousa-Ginel et al., 2017).
3.2.2 International human capital. This variable refers to knowledge, skills or competencies,
derived from education and experience of the academic entrepreneur in international markets
(Luthans and Youssef, 2004;Zhao et al., 2020). It was measured using four items, two items for
international experience and two items for international training, from Sambharya (1996),
Carpenter et al. (2003) and Bj€
ornali and Aspelund (2012). To do so, the academic entrepreneur
was asked about their experience and training at the international level. Example of items are:
“Indicate the extent to which you have previous experience working in international markets”
or “Indicate the extent to which you have received training abroad”.
3.2.3 Psychological capital. Psychological capital was measured using eight items from
Walumbwa et al. (2011) and Luthans et al. (2007c). Example of items related to self-confidence,
hope, optimism and resilience are: “I feel confident in setting goals and objectives in my area
of work”,“I see myself as a successful person in my job”,“At work, I tend to see the positive
side of things”and “When I have a setback at work, I have no problem recovering”.
3.2.4 International orientation. The scale for international orientation was adapted from
Knight and Cavusgil (2004) and Machado et al. (2016). Four items were employed to measure
international orientation, conveying academic entrepreneurial mindset, attitude and resource
allocation, with regard to international activities. Example of items are: “I tend to visualize the world
as a single market”,“I use human and other resources to achieve goals in international markets”.
The items of the scales were measured using a 5-point Likert scale (1 5very low degree,
55very high degree).
3.2.5 Control variables. Activity sector and firm age were used as control variables
(Franco-Leal et al., 2016;Kim, 2017). The age variable was measured as the natural logarithm
of the firm’s age. To measure the activity sector, five activity sectors were selected, and sector
1 was chosen as the reference category, which was not included in the analysis. The rest of the
categories were introduced as dummy variables.
3.3 Validity and reliability of the scales
In this study, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used in order to assure validity and
reliability of the scales, using EQS 6.4 program. The reliability and validity of the measurement
scales was ensured by performing a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The results obtained in
the CFA (Table 1) show that a single factor is obtained for psychological capital (t54.62). In the
case of international human capital, two factors are obtained: one referring to the international
experience of human capital (t55.55) and the other referring to the international training of
human capital l (t52.14). Finally, a single factor is obtained for international
orientation (t54.72).
The reliability and validity of the scales were analyzed, following the procedure proposed
by Fornell and Larcker (1981). As can be seen (Table 2), the composite reliability is greater
than 0.7 in all cases, so the reliability of the scales is guaranteed. On the other hand, the
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
Psychological
capital
International
experience
human capital
International
training
human capital
International
orientation
Student’s
t-test
I feel confident in
representing my work
area in meetings with
members of the
management team
0.587 5.57
I feel confident in
setting objectives and
goals in my area of
work
0.706 4.52
Right now I see myself
as being pretty
successful at work
0.754 6.91
If I should find myself
in a jam at work, I
could think of many
ways to get out of it
0.88 4.25
When I have a setback
at work, it is easy for
me to recover and
move on
0.77 6.38
I usually take stressful
things at work in my
stride
0.599 7.33
I always look on the
bright side of things
regarding my job
0.603 6.20
Indicate the extent to
which you have
previous experience
working in
international markets
0.819 2.98
Indicate the extent to
which you have
previous experience in
the main sector in
which your company
operates in
international markets
0.617 7.24
Indicate the extent to
which you have
received training
abroad (Master,
Doctoral degree,
Foreign Stays)
0.477 9.89
Indicate the extent to
which you have
received business
training abroad
0.893 3.03
I tend to see the world
as our firm’s
marketplace
0.683 6.53
(continued )
Table 1.
CFA (standardized
solution)
JIC
average variance extracted (AVE) is, in all cases, greater than 0.5. So, it can be affirmed that
convergent validity is assured.
The results in Table 3 show that the square roots of the AVE, the data of the main
diagonal, are in all cases higher than the correlations between the variables in this study.
Therefore, discriminant validity is assured.
Psychological
capital
International
experience
human capital
International
training
human capital
International
orientation
Student’s
t-test
The organizational
culture (management’s
collective value
system) is conducive
to active exploration of
new business
opportunities abroad
0.907 2.59
I continuously
communicate to
employees that the
company’s mission is
to succeed in
international markets
0.929 2.66
I use human and other
resources to achieve
our goal in
international markets
0.903 4.12
Note(s): Goodness of fit:
χ
2
5110.8743; p50.05248; BB-NFI 50.911; BB-NNFI 50.961; CFI 50.971;
RMSEA 50.053 Table 1.
Composite reliability AVE
Psychological capital 0.87279168 0.50023081
International experience human capital 0.68505988 0.52586961
International training human capital 0.65812266 0.51249464
International orientation 0.91900854 0.74197342
Psychological
capital
International
experience human
capital
International
training human
capital
International
orientation
Psychological capital 0.5259
International
experience human
capital
0.4186 0.5125
International training
human capital
0.0812 0.1529 0.5002
International
orientation
0.2391 0.1989 0.0681 0.7420
Note(s): The values in the diagonal are the AVE of each factor. The rest of the numbers correspond to the
existing squared correlations between factors
Table 2.
Reliability and
convergent validity
Table 3.
Discriminant validity
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
4. Results
The proposed model is represented in Figure 8, in which it is proposed that psychological
capital exerts a direct influence on international orientation, and that this relationship is
mediated by international relational and international human capital. In order to test the
proposed hypotheses, we used the bootstrapping methodology, suggested by Zhao et al.
(2010) and the method by Preacher and Hayes (2008) to assess the mediating effects.
Bootstrapping is a statistical technique that focuses on the resampling of data within a
random sample. Its main use is to find an approximation to the distribution of the analyzed
variable. Bootstrapping allows the bias within the analysis to be reduced or, in other words, to
approximate the variance by randomly resampling the initial sample, rather than the
population. This makes it easier to build statistical models by creating confidence intervals
and hypothesis tests. The procedure on which bootstrapping is based is the creation of a large
number of samples, by repositioning the data, taking an initial population sample as a
reference. One of the advantages of bootstrapping resampling is that it has simplified
statistical methods because it has replaced the construction of classical and highly complex
mathematical models with calculations using specific software. This has improved
applicability and/or access to other fields or studies. Specifically, the test of linear
mediation was performed applying bootstrapping methodology, using PROCESS for SPSS.
PROCESS is a macro for SPSS software that allows the estimation of direct and indirect
effects in single and multiple mediator models (parallel and serial), two- and three-way
interactions in moderation models, along with simple slopes and regions of significance for
probing interactions, and conditional indirect effects in moderated mediation models with
single or multiple mediators or moderators (Hayes, 2013,2015). Specifically, in this study,
Model #4 was performed, measuring the mediation effects of international relational capital
and international human capital.
Table 4 shows the unstandardized ordinary least squares regression coefficients with
confidence interval (standard error in parentheses).
c´
(M) InternaƟonal
Academic RelaƟonal
Capital
(X) Psychological
Capital
(Y) InternaƟonal
OrientaƟon
(M) InternaƟonal
Training Human
Capital
(M) InternaƟonal
Experience
Human Capital
(M) InternaƟonal
Market RelaƟonal
Capital
a1
a4
a2
a3
b4
b3
b2
b1
(U) Control Var: age, acƟvity sector
Figure 8.
Statistical model
JIC
Paths
Model 1
DV: International academic
relational capital (M
1
)
Model 2
DV: International market
relational capital (M
2
)
Model 3
DV: International training
human capital (M
3
)
Model 4
DV: International
experience human capital (M
4
)
Model 5
DV international:
Orientation (Y)
β(se) 95%CI β(se) 95%CI β(se) 95%CI β(se) 95%CI β(se) 95%CI
Psychological capital a1, a2,
a3, a4
0.221** (0.087) (0.048, 0.394) 0.238** (0.078) (0.083, 0.394) 0.426** (0.119) (0.189, 0.662) 0.401** (0.130) (0.144, 0.659)
International
experience human
capital
b1 227** (0.061) (0.106, 0.348)
International training
human capital
b2 0.144** (0.066) (0.014, 0.275)
International academic
relational capital
b30.029 (0.104) (0.235, 0.175)
International market
relational capital
b4 0.316** (0.116) (0.086, 0.545)
Psychological capital c00.285** (0.105) (0.078, 0.491)
Age U1 0.005 (0.018) (0.031, 0.041)
Activity sector U20.054 (0.034) (0.122, 0.014)
R
2
0.0443 0.0571 0.0761 0.0737 0.0566
F2.6128** 3.4129** 4.6400** 4.4818** 3.3816**
Note(s): **p< 0.01; DV: Dependent Variable
Table 4.
Mediation test results
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
Model 5, in Table 4, shows the regression coefficients when the dependent variable is
international orientation.
The results give support to several of the proposed hypotheses. Hypothesis H1 proposes a
positive relationship between academic and market relational capitals and international
orientation. Our results show that such a relationship only exists between market relational
capital and international orientation. Specifically, partial support was found for H1 (Figure 9),
which establishes a relationship between international orientation and relational capital and,
as can be observed (Model 5 in Table 4), market relational capital shows a positive and
significant coefficient, but academic relational capital is not significant.
On the other hand, hypothesis H2 proposes a positive relationship between international
training and expertise human capital and international orientation. In this case, full support
was found for hypothesis H2 because both coefficients for international training and
expertise of human capital are significant (Figure 10, Model 5 in Table 4).
Hypothesis H3 proposed a positive relationship between psychological capital and
international orientation. As can be observed (Model 5 in Table 4), the coefficient is significant
(Figure 11). Thus, support was found for hypothesis H3.
Concerning control variables, the results show no significant coefficients, for either age or
activity sector.
Hypothesis H4 proposes a positive relationship between psychological capital and
academic and market relational capital as well as international training and expertise human
capital. As can be seen in Table 4, Models 1, 2, 3 and 4 represent regression coefficients when
the dependent variables are mediator variables, that is, international academic relational
capital, international market relational capital, international training of human capital and
international expertise of human capital, respectively. These results point out that full
support is found for hypothesis H4 (Figure 12).
Lastly, the bootstrap approach suggested by Zhao et al. (2010) is employed to assess the
mediating effects, with the bootstrap sample set to 5,000 and the confidence level to 95%.
Hypothesis H5 (Figure 13) proposes a mediating role for international market and academic
relational capital, in the relationship between psychological capital and international
orientation. On the other hand, Hypothesis H6 (Figure 14) proposes a mediating role for
international relational and international human capital, in the relationship between
international orientation and psychological capital. Table 5 shows the indirect effect of
mediating variables on the relationship between international orientation and psychological
capital. These results point out that there are indirect effects from international market
relational capital (Boot LLCI-BOOT ULCI interval: 0.0229; 0.1579), international training of
human capital (Boot LLCI-BOOT ULCI interval: 0.0096; 0.1481) and international expertise of
human capital (Boot LLCI-BOOT ULCI interval: 0.0265; 0.1995). These three confidence
intervals do not include 0, indicating that the indirect effects were significant, and that the
mediations were established. So, partial support was found for H5 and full support for H6.
5. Discussion
The international vocation of ASOs has led us to study the background of the orientation
toward international markets of the academic entrepreneurs who founded these companies.
Specifically, the objective of this research is to analyze the effect of international relational,
international human and psychological capital, on the international orientation of academic
entrepreneurs, and the role relational and human capital play in the relationship, between
psychological capital and international orientation. The results obtained totally support
Hypotheses 2,3,4and 6, and partially support Hypotheses 1 and 5.
The results obtained from our empirical research allow us to affirm that both international
market relational capital and international human capital, directly and significantly influence
the international orientation of the academic entrepreneur. This result is in line with works
JIC
that have stated that relational and human capital could lead to international orientation and
internationalization of firms (Herrmann and Datta, 2005;Laurell et al., 2013;Senik et al., 2014;
Baum et al., 2015;Baronchelli et al., 2015;Chen et al., 2017;Sekliuckiene, 2017;Baier-Fuentes
et al., 2018). Therefore, the relationships that explain the international orientation of academic
entrepreneurs are the networks established at the international level, with industry,
technology parks, venture capital and financial agents. It seems logical that, in order to have a
managerial vision and a proactive organizational culture that supports the development and
utilization of the resources of these units toward the achievement of international objectives,
contacts with market agents are more necessary than relationships with academics. Contrary
to expectations, relational capital at the academic level does not influence international
orientation directly. However, it could affect international orientation indirectly. As some
Psychological
Capital
International
Orientation
0.285**
International Training
Human Capital
International
Orientation
International Experience
Human Capital
0.144**
0.227**
International Academic
Relational Capital
International
Orientation
International Market
Relational Capital
– 0.029 (ns)
0.316**
Psychological
Capital
International Market
Relational Capital
International Academic
Relational Capital
International Training
Human Capital
International Experience
Human Capital
0.221**
0.238**
0.426**
0.401**
Figure 11.
Results of hypothesis
testing H3
Figure 10.
Results of hypothesis
testing H2
Figure 9.
Results of hypothesis
testing H1
Figure 12.
Results of hypothesis
testing H4
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
authors have stated, it may be that academic relational capital could favor gaining market
relational capital (Bialek-Jaworska and Gabryelczyk, 2016). Therefore, collaboration with
academic agents, such as foreign universities, foreign colleagues and other international
R&D centers, could promote the realization of strategic alliances abroad, access to
international distribution channels and the obtaining of relationships with potential
customers of global markets.
Moreover, the results showed a direct and significant relationship between psychological
capital and international orientation. Specifically, academic entrepreneurs who are optimistic,
hopeful, resilient and self-efficient will have a higher orientation toward international
markets. This result is noteworthy, taking into account that the direct influence of
psychological capital on international orientation has not received attention in previous
studies on the academic entrepreneur population.
Also, psychological capital directly influences international relational capital and
international human capital. Academic entrepreneurs with developed psychological capital
will improve their relational and human capital. This evidence is consistent with prior studies
on entrepreneurship (Envick, 2005;Zhao et al., 2020). Therefore, developed psychological
capital in academic entrepreneurs allows them to obtain a larger network of relationships,
thus improving their relational capital, with both academic and market agents, at the
international level. Similarly, the psychological capital of academic entrepreneurs leads to the
acquisition of knowledge and experience in international markets, improving their
international human capital. This finding is also important, considering that the empirical
relationship between these capitals has received scant attention in the intellectual capital,
international and academic entrepreneurship literature.
Finally, an important result of our study is obtained by including relational capital and
international human capital as mediating variables, since the results obtained show that both
Effect Boot SE Boot LLCI Boot ULCI
International experience human capital 0.0913 0.0436 0.0265 0.1995
International training human capital 0.0615 0.0340 0.0096 0.1481
International academic relational capital 0.0066 0.0193 0.0493 0.0304
International market relational capital 0.0753 0.0331 0.0229 0.1579
Psychological
Capital
International
Orientation
International Training
Human Capital
International Experience
Human Capital
0.426**
0.401**
0.144**
0.227**
Psychological
Capital
International
Orientation
International Academic
Relational Capital
International Market
Relational Capital
0.221**
0.238**
–0.029 (ns)
0.316**
Table 5.
Indirect effect
Figure 14.
Results of hypothesis
testing H6
Figure 13.
Results of hypothesis
testing H5
JIC
market relational capital and international human capital explain the relationship between
psychological capital and international orientation in ASOs. Consequently, at the
international level, the psychological capital of the academic entrepreneur leads to greater
market relational capital and greater human capital, leading to the international orientation of
academic entrepreneurs. These results are novel, as the mediating role of these capitals, in the
relationship between psychological capital and international orientation of the academic
entrepreneur, has not received attention in previous studies.
6. Conclusions
This paper presents an attempt at achieving improved understanding of the entrepreneur’s
orientation toward international markets. As has been shown in previous studies, orientation
toward international markets allows for the recognition of opportunities and potential
customers, sales growth and the development of new products in these markets. Therefore,
taking into account that the literature shows that international orientation of the entrepreneur
is an important factor for the success of organizations in international markets, the main
conclusion of this paper is that psychological capital, relational market capital and human
capital of the academic entrepreneur are essential factors for academic entrepreneurs to have
an orientation toward international markets. Therefore, these three intangible resources,
human capital (what you are), relational market capital (who you know) and psychological
capital (who you are), should be considered key resources in international entrepreneurship.
A conclusion related to the impact of the psychological capital is noteworthy because the
psychological capital not only directly influences the entrepreneur’s orientation toward
international markets but also does so indirectly through their market relational capital and
human capital. Therefore, psychological capital, i.e. entrepreneurs with high levels of
optimism, self-efficacy, hope and resilience, enables the achievement of better relationships
with others, more successfully, thus enabling a broad and stable network of relationships to
be achieved, thereby improving their relational capital. In addition, psychological capital
allows knowledge and experience for international business to be obtained, improving their
human capital.
This paper contributes to the network theory and literature of intellectual capital, academic
entrepreneurship and internationalization. In relation tonetwork theory, our results contribute
to the analysis of the relationship networks of academic entrepreneurs in ASO outcomes,
differentiating between market networks and academic networks. Paradoxically, the market
networks are the ones that directly affect the international orientation of the entrepreneurs,
despite the fact that they have a denser network of relationships with nearby academic agents.
On the other hand, the literature on entrepreneurship and internationalization is enriched
by this research, by shedding more light on those variables that would promote the
internationalization of ASOs which, by their very nature, and that of their founders, are born
with an orientation toward global markets. Finally, with regard to the literature on
intellectual capital, it seems clear that the profile of the entrepreneur, in terms of human,
relational and psychological capital, seems to be determinant for the international projection
of the businesses founded by them.
6.1 Implications
Our findings reveal several practical implications. First, the achieved results highlight
important implications for public policies oriented to the training of entrepreneurial potential.
It is evident in the literature that psychological capital, self-confidence, hope, optimism and
resilience are states that imply behaviors, thoughts and actions that can be learned and
developed in people (Bandura, 1997;Masten, 2001;Envick, 2005;Luthans et al., 2007d;
Academic
entrepreneur
and Internation-
alization
Luthans et al., 2015;Hizam-Hanafiah et al., 2017). Therefore, universities can play an
important role through training courses for entrepreneurs, which should take into account the
development of programs that encourage or enhance the psychological capital of potential
entrepreneurs, or even academic entrepreneurs who have created an ASO. This could lead
them to have an international orientation in their enterprises and improve their relational and
human capital, internationally. As the literature shows, short training interventions, such as
psychological capital intervention, may be used to develop participants’psychological capital
(Luthans et al., 2010). In this same line, the literature shows that entrepreneurial training,
provides individuals with a sense of independence, self-confidence and autonomy (Do Paço
et al., 2015). Consequently, through courses on entrepreneurship, one of the dimensions of
psychological capital, self-confidence, can also be improved in the case of the potential
entrepreneur. Second, TTOs, as units that mediate the relationships of the academic
entrepreneur with the market, provide key resources, such as, assistance, consulting and
training (Fern
andez-Alles et al., 2015;Di
anez-Gonz
alez et al., 2020), could also be decisive for
the academic entrepreneur’s orientation toward international markets. In this sense, TTOs
could assist academic entrepreneurs in recognizing international opportunities, in assessing
the international commercial potential of research, in promoting training of academics in
accessing foreign markets, in advising academics by sharing past experiences of the
international ASOs they have assisted, in supporting the building of the credibility of ASOs
in international markets, or in making their international market networks available to
academics, which all seem to be key for the internationalization of these companies. Third,
this article might also be of interest for managers and management teams of companies
willing to enter, or even those already operating in, international markets. Such companies
should take into account the importance of having personnel with developed psychological
capital in their management teams, and with relational and human capital at the international
level that allows them to have, or maintain, an orientation toward international markets.
Fourth, practical implications at the political level can be considered. Programs developed at
a political level, aimed at promoting entrepreneurship in universities and, in this case, in
academics, can take into account the psychological capital variable, as a filter in the selection
of participating personnel. This would achieve a better placement of resources in times when
resources are scarce, and which could be directed to the training of potential entrepreneurs
who not only create their own companies but also influence their international orientation,
leading them to develop in international markets.
In summary, given the central role that is attributed today in universities, to
entrepreneurship and the creation of ASOs, the results could be used for the design of
measures enhancing psychological capital, relational and human capital at the international
level to enable these entrepreneurs to be oriented toward international markets.
6.2 Limitations and future research directions
In addition to contributions presented here, a limitation must be shown. The population
considered is one limitation of this study since it has focused on ASOs in Spain. Other studies
need to be conducted, in different countries, to allow a comparison of the results. On the other
hand, future studies might analyze whether there are gender differences in psychological
capital and its relationship with the international orientation of academic entrepreneurs,
since, as the literature on entrepreneurship has shown (Villanueva-Flores et al., 2021), gender
differences are found in psychological capital and in the relationship between psychological
capital and entrepreneurial intention. In addition, longitudinal studies and qualitative work
could be carried out with entrepreneurs immersed in both national and international markets,
to study whether these intangible resources develop over time and to analyze the reasons for
their development. It could even be interesting to analyze the interrelationship among these
capitals, since a more developed relational and human capital could influence the self-
JIC
confidence of the entrepreneur, enhancing their psychological capital. Therefore, by
collecting longitudinal data, this study could be enriched. Lastly, empirical researches are still
needed to measure the aggregate effect of these three forms of capital. For example, futures
works might study the relationship of these three capitals, relational, human and
psychological, in the recognition of opportunities in both national and international markets.
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Corresponding author
Mirta Diaz-Fernandez can be contacted at: mdiafer@upo.es
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Academic
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