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Geographic distribution: Scaphiopus bombifrons

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Michael V. Plummer at Harding University
Michael V. Plummer
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Herpetological Review
Volume 13
September 1982
Number 3
Contents
SSAR BUSINESS
BALLOT
Centerfold
1982 SSAR Grants in Herpetology
70
Authors sought for
CAAR
70
Silver Anniversary Posters Available
100
FEATURE ARTICLES
Striped pattern morphism in the prairie kingsnake,
Lampropeltis c. calligaster,
by S. Dyrkacz
70
Breeding of the green sea turtle,
Chelonia mydas,
on the Islas
Revillagigedo, Mexico, by B. Brattstrom
71
Courtship behavior of the queen snake,
Regina septemvittata,
by N. B. Ford
72
Plastic bags in the intestinal tracts of leatherback marine turtles,
by T. H. Fritts
72
TECHNIQUES
A time-efficient, low cost method for the laboratory rearing of frogs,
by J. S. Frost
73
New methods for measuring and tagging snakes, by J. A. Hudnall
97
NEWSNOTES
79
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
New Records
79
Second find of
Pseudemys rubriventris
at Ipswich, Massachusetts, and
refutation of the Naushon Island record, by T. E. Graham
82
Comments on the distribution of
Ambystoma talpoideum
(Holbrook)
in Tennessee, by W. H. Redmond,
et al
83
E
A checklist of the herpetofauna of Butte County, the Butte Sink and
1-9
Sutter Buttes, California, by M. Hayes and F. Cliff
85
HERPETOLOGICAL HUSBANDRY
Reproduction in captive Aruba Island rattlesnakes, by G. Carl
et al.
89
Predatory behavior of "nervous" rattlesnakes,
Crotalus durissus terrificus,
by D. Chiszar,
et al.
90
LIFE HISTORY NOTES
94
BOOK REVIEWS
Identification guide to Pennsylvania snakes, by C. J. McCoy;
reviewed by G. R. Pisani
89
Biomechanics: an approach to vertebrate biology, by C. Gans;
reviewed by J. T. Collins
98
Synopsis of the herpetofauna of Mexico, volume VI. Guide to the
Mexican turtles and bibliographic addendum III,
by H. B. Smith and R. B. Smith; reviewed by C. Ernst
98
South African Frogs, by N. I. Passmore and V. C. Carruthers;
reviewed by H. C. Seibert
99
Turtles: perspectives and research, ed. by M. Harless and H. Morlock;
reviewed by E. Kiviat
100
SOCIETIES
The Herpetologists' League
100
Published quarterly by the SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF AMPHIBIANS AND
REPTILES at Meseraull Printing, Inc., RFD 2, Lawrence, Kansas 66044. Steve
Meseraull, Printer. POSTMASTER: Send form 3579 to the editors. All rights
reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced without permission of the
editor(s).
Advertising:
The publisher reserves the right to refuse any advertisement. The
advertiser agrees to indemnify and protect the publisher from any claim, litigation
or expense resulting from the advertiser's unauthorized use of any name, photo-
graph, sketch or words protected by copyright or registered trademark.
Cover design by Leonard Grotta
1982 SSAR GRANTS-IN-
HERPETOLOGY
AWARDS
The Society for the Study of Amphibians
and Reptiles is pleased to announce the fol-
lowing awards in the 1982 Grants-In-Herpe-
tology Program:
GRADUATE STUDENT RESEARCH:
David M. Hillis, Museum of Natural His-
tory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence.
"A Quantitative Analysis of Hybrid Dys-
genesis Among Members of the
Rana
pipiens
Complex." $400.
HERPETOLOGICAL CONSERVATION:
Debra Dick, Department of Biological
Sciences, Florida International University,
Miami, Florida. "A Non-Fatal Immunolog-
ical Technique for Sexing Sea Turtles."
$370.
HERPETOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN ZOOS:
Susan M. Barnard, Department of Herpe-
tology, Atlanta Zoological Park. "Diag-
nostic Atlas of Reptile Intestinal Para-
sites." $300.
Richard -Hudson, Fort Worth Zoo, and
Bonnie Raphael, Dallas Zoo. "A Limited
Antibiotic Study in Turtles." $100.
REGIONAL HERPETOLOGICAL SOCIETY
PROGRAMS:
John Cebula, 345 W. Ethel Avenue, Lom-
bard, IL. "The Herpetology of DuPage
County, Illinois." $250.
Bob Belmore, Hope High School, Provi-
dence, Rhode Island. "The Status and Dis-
tribution of the Bog Turtle,
Clemmys
muhlenbergi,
in Massachusetts." $150.
SSAR extends its congratulations to all recip-
ients of awards and encourages the submis-
sion of proposals for next year's program.
SSAR also expresses its thanks to the 1982
Grants-In-Herpetology Committee, composed
of: Martin J. Rosenberg (Chairperson), Terry
E. Graham (Conservation Research), John B.
Iverson (Regional Herpetological Society
Projects), Linda Maxson (Graduate Student
Research), and Lyndon A. Mitchell (Herpeto-
logical Research in Zoos). •
AUTHORS SOLICITED FOR
SALIENTA ACCOUNTS
IN
CAAR
A number of species in the anuran fauna of
the United States have had no authors
assigned, or the assignments have been
relinquished by their prospective authors. If
you would care to volunteer to write the
Cata-
logue
account for one or more of the species
listed below, please contact the undersigned.
Accounts available are:
Bufo americanus, B.
boreas, B. cognatus, B. debilis, B. exsul, B.
microscaphus, B. punctatus; Hyla chrysosce-
lis, H. cinerea, H. crucifer, H. eximia, H.
regilla, H. versicolor; Hypopachus variolosus;
Pseudacris clarki, P. nigrita; Rana berlan-
dieri, R. catesbeiana, R. onca, R. pipiens, R.
utricularia ( sphenocephala); Syrrhophus
cystignathoides, S. guttilatus, S. marnocki.
A
number of accounts on the generic level are
open, too. Richard G. Zweifel, Salientia Edi-
tor, Catalogue of American Amphibians and
Reptiles, Department of Herpetology, Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History, New York,
NY 10024. •
STRIPED PATTERN
MORPHISM IN THE
PRAIRIE KINGSNAKE,
Lampropeltis c. calligaster
INTRODUCTION
Dorsal striping in normally blotched snakes
has been noted for several species. Klauber
(1936, 1939) described striped
Lampropeltis
getulus
and Riemer (1958) studied
Pituophis
melanoleucas.
Tryon (1979) described a par-
tially striped
Lampropeltis mexicana blairi
and Williams (1978) and Gehlbach (1962)
mentioned partially striped specimens of
Lampropeltis triangulum.
Contrary to Ashton (1973) several instan-
ces of striping in
Lampropeltis calligaster cal-
ligaster
are mentioned in the literature. Blan-
chard (1921), Schmidt and Davis (1941) and
Wright and Wright (1957) described ontoge-
netic pattern modification in the prairie
kingsnake wherein older individuals may have
faint longitudinal stripes in addition to the
usual blotches. Miller (1902) mentioned a
similar occurrence in
L. c. rhombomaculata.
Minton (1972), Smith (1961), Anderson (1965)
and Cox (1972) discussed dorsal striping in
prairie kingsnakes.
Specimens of
L. c. calligaster
mentioned in
the literature were examined (if possible) and
compared to several that were previously
unreported. Prairie kingsnakes were obtained
from the United States National Museum
(USNM), Chicago Academy of Sciences (CA),
Eastern Illinois University, Charleston and
the University of Kansas Museum of Natural
History (KU).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Striped prairie kingsnakes have been col-
lected from throughout the northern portion
of its range.
Blanchard (1921) described
a Lampropeltis
c. calligaster
from Jersey Co., Illinois which
exhibited the striping noted in darkened
specimens. This snake (USNM 61726) had
faint pattern, but did not possess any pro-
nounced striping. Minton (1972) mentioned
three striped specimens from Indiana and
Kentucky. Apparently none are extant (pers.
com
.).
Anderson (1965) described in detail three
striped hatchlings from DeKalb Co., Missouri
(KU 82198, 82199, 82200). They were hatched
in captivity along with nine normal litter-
mates. The mother was also patterned nor-
mally. Anderson (1965) also collected a sin-
gle hatchling in Clay Co., Missouri (KU 84136).
All hatchlings had well pronounced, but
incomplete striping.
Ashton (1973) described a single striped
hatchling (KU 154482) from a clutch of 13
eggs. Two others possessed slight aberra-
tions in pattern and the remaining ten were
normal. The female was collected in Osage
Co., Oklahoma during June, 1972 and was
patterned normally.
Smith (1961) mentioned a striped adult col-
lected near Springfield, Sangamon Co., Illi-
nois (CA 17198). Another adult, collected
east of Charleston, Coles Co., Illinois during
October, 1966, is uncatalogued in the collec-
tion of Eastern Illinois University, Charleston.
Both possess two dorsal stripes which start
immediately posterior to the parietals and
end just anterior to the vent. The stripes pass
through an occasional blotch, and laterally a
series of small blotches are fused to form an
incomplete stripe.
Four prairie kingsnakes were hatched from
a clutch of eight eggs laid by a normal female
collected in St. Clair, Co., Illinois (Cox, 1972).
Two had prominent dorsal stripes and two
were normal. Two hatchlings, one striped and
one normal, have been lost. The remaining
striped specimen has many fragmented ven-
trals, while its littermate is normal. The striped
specimen is being maintained alive for further
study.
Of the specimens examined, those with
prominent dorsal stripes are patterned sim-
ilarly. The stripes are approximately two to
four scales wide and are located one to two
scales on either side of the mid-dorsal line.
With one exception, scutellation is normal.
Vinegar (1974) described pattern modifica-
tion as a function of incubation temperature
in
Python molurus
and also noted gross
abnormalities in scutellation and morphol-
ogy. Bechtel and Bechtel (1978) discussed
the inheritance of dorsal striping in
Elaphe g.
guttata
and indicated that the striping was
probably due to recessive alleles. Either mode
is a possible cause for the striping in
Lampro-
peltis c. calligaster.
The consistency of the
pattern changes implies a genetic relationship.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Bruce Bury, Stephen Busack,
George lannarone, Ed Moll and Roy McAllis-
ter, Jr. for the loan of specimens, and C. J.
McCoy and Burt Monroe for inspection of
their respective collections. Also thanks are
due to Richard S. Funk and George R. Pisani
for critically reviewing the manuscript.
70
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
LITERATURE CITED
Anderson, P. 1965. The reptiles of Missouri.
Univ. Mo. Press, Columbia, 330 pp.
Ashton, R. E., Jr. 1973. A striped prairie
kingsnake
Lampropeltis calligaster
(Har-
lan). HISS News-J. 1(3):95-96.
Bechtel, H. B. and E. Bechtel. 1978. Heredity
of pattern mutation in the corn snake,
Elaphe g. guttata,
demonstrated in captive
breeding. Copeia 1978(4):719-721.
Blanchard, F. N. 1921. A revision of the king-
snakes: genus
Lampropeltis. U.
S. Natl.
Mus. Bull. 114:1-260.
Cox, B. 1972. Notes on aberrant pattern in
hatchling prairie kingsnakes
( Lampropel-
tis c. calligaster).
Bull. Chicago Herpetol.
Soc. 7(1-2):44-47.
Gehlbach, F. R. 1962. Aberrant western milk-
snake,
Lampropeltisdoliata
Linnaeus, from
New Mexico. Southwest. Nat. 7:270-272.
Klauber, L. M. 1936. The California kingsnake,
a case of pattern dimorphism. Herpetolog-
ica 1(1):18-27.
1939. A further study of pattern
dimorphism in the California kingsnake.
Bull. Zool. Soc. San Diego 15:3-23.
Minton, S. A. 1972. Amphibians and reptiles
of Indiana. Indiana Acad. Sci. Monogr.
3:1-346.
Miller, G. S., Jr. 1902. A fully adult specimen
of
Ophibolus rhombomaculatus.
Proc.
Biol. Soc. Wash. 15:36.
Riemer, W. J. 1958. Longitudinal striping as a
pattern modification in the snake
Pituo-
phis melanoleucas.
Nat. Hist. Misc., Chi-
cago Acad. Sci. No. 165:1-9. ,
Schmidt, K. P. and D. D. Davis. 1941. Field
book of snakes of the United States and
Canada. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York,
365 pp.
Smith, P. W. 1961. Amphibians and reptiles of
Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 28(1):1-298.
Tryon, B. W. 1979. An unusually patterned
specimen of the gray-banded kingsnake,
Lampropeltis mexicana alterna
(Brown).
Herpetol. Rev. 10(1):4-5.
Vinegar, A. 1974. Evolutionary implications of
temperature induced anomalies of devel-
opment in snake embryos. Herpetologica
30(1):72-74.
Wright, A. H. and A. A. Wright. 1957. Hand-
book of snakes. Vol. 1. Comstock Publ.
Assoc., Ithaca, New York, 564 pp.
Williams, K. L. 1978. Systematics and natural
history of the American milk snake,
Lam-
propeltis triangulum.
Milwaukee Pub. Mus.
Publ. Biol. Geol. 2:1-258.
STANLEY DYRKACZ
307 S. Hickory
McPherson, KS 67460
•
BREEDING OF THE
GREEN SEA TURTLE,
Chelonla mydas,
ON THE ISLAS
REVILLAGIGEDO,
MEXICO
Little is known about the biology of green
turtles,
Chelonia mydas,
on the Islas Revilla-
gigedo, Mexico. The islands are located 350
to 650 km south and southwest of Baja Cali-
fornia. A few expeditions have stopped at the
islands (Richards and Brattstrom, 1959) but
little has been reported on the breeding of the
sea turtles (Brattstrom, 1955). I have had an
opportunity of visiting the four islands in the
archepelago on numerous occasions during
geological and biological investigations of
Barcena Volcano, 1952, on San Benedicto
Island (Brattstrom, 1963; in press). I here
report (Table I) on breeding times and
numbers of turtles (or the presence of tracks
on beaches).
Green sea turtles nest only in one large bay
(Sulphur) on Clarion Island, and on two pla-
ces (Fig. 1) on Socorro Island (Playas Blan-
cas at Cape Henslow on the northwest corner
of the island and three beaches in the vicinity
of Academy Bay on the northern most portion
of the island). The breeding season started in
1978 about mid-April. In 1953 breeding had
obviously started earlier (March 18) and in
May, 1955 there were tracks on both Clarion
and Socorro. Mating has been observed in
May and November. This suggests a long
breeding and nesting season.
Diurnally, emerging sea turtles have a
precarious time getting from nests to the sea.
I have discovered young sea turtles in the
stomach of the Clarion Island Racer,
Masti-
cophis anthonyi,
and in the pellets of the Clar-
ion Island Burrowing Owl. I have also observed
the Socorro Red-tailed Hawk, which normally
eats mostly lizards, soaring over the beach at
Academy Bay as young turtles were emerging.
Fig.1.
Map of the Islas Revillagigedo, Mexico,
showing the location of beaches where nests
and tracks of green turtles were found on
Socorro Island.
TABLE I. Reproductive observations for
Green Sea Turtles,
Chelonla mydas, on The
Islas Revillagigedo, Mexico.
1953: March 18, Socorro, fresh tracks at
Playas Blancas
March 25, Clarion, fresh tracks at
Sulphur Bay
November 20, Socorro, fresh tracks
and young emerging, Academy Bay.
1955: May 3, Socorro, fresh tracks, at
Academy Bay
May 7, Clarion, fresh tracks, Sulphur
Bay, pair mating in bay in afternoon.
1971: November 8, 9, Clarion, about 30 old
tracks, one fresh track morning of
9th, mating observed in the bay and
young emerging, Academy Bay; 18
nests, at least four, less than 3 days
old, Playas Blancas.
1977: Socorro, estimates from 1978 obser-
vations indicate that there were 23
old nests at Playas Blancas and 47
on the three beaches at Academy
Bay. This is probably not a true
measure of total breeding at these
sites as later females would obliter-
ate earlier nests.
1978: April 11, Socorro, no fresh turtle nests
or tracks at Playas Blancas indicat-
ing no nesting here yet this year.
April 14, Socorro, seven fresh nests
and tracks on three beaches at
Academy Bay, all apparently made
in last two to three days; no older
tracks.
1981: April 5, Socorro, 16 fresh turtle tracks
on the three beaches at Academy
Bay, 12 tracks about a week old; 96
old (last years) nest sites.
April 7, Socorro, no tracks on the
beaches at Playas Blancas, indicat-
ing no breeding on this beach yet
this year; 32 old nest sites.
LITERATURE CITED
Brattstrom, B. H. 1955. Notes on the herpe-
tology of the Revillagigedo Islands, Mex-
ico. Amer. Midl. Nat. 54:219-229.
Brattstrom, B. H. 1963. Barcena Volcano,
1952: Its effect on the fauna and flora of
San Benedicto Island, Mexico. IN: J. L.
Grissitt, Ed., Pacific Basin Biogeography.
Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, pp.
499-534.
Richards, A. F., and B. H. Brattstrom. 1959.
Bibliography, Cartography, Discovery, and
Exploration of the Islas Revillagigedo.
Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 4th Ser. 29:351-360.
BAYARD H. BRATTSTROM
Dept. of Biological Science
California State University
Fullerton, CA 92634
•
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
71
COURTSHIP BEHAVIOR
OF THE QUEEN SNAKE
Regina septemvittata
Studies of courtship and mating behavior
of snakes have only recently been conducted
carefully enough so that evolutionary aspects
of this activity can be examined. In particular,
Gillingham has used methods of frame by
frame analysis of movie films to make com-
parative studies of snake reproductive behav-
ior (Gillingham, 1979). His work has been
primarily with species exhibiting what Davis
(1936) defined as "coluber" type courtship.
Several other authors have examined the
reproductive patterns of the natricine snakes
(Blanchard and Blanchard, 1942; Pisani, 1976;
Mushinsky, 1979), but species differences
have not been discussed.
Regina
is known to
be a quite distinct genus of natricine snake,
particularly in several behavioral characteris-
tics,
i.e.
feeding behavior. Its reproductive
behavior might therefore also exhibit varia-
tion from the typical pattern. This report is the
first dealing with courtship activity of any
member of
Regina
and examines the mating
behavior of the Queen snake,
Regina septem-
vittata.
Male and female
Regina septemvittata were
collected in the springs of 1978 and 1979 from
southwestern Ohio. Within a few days of cap-
ture, these snakes were placed together in a
large aquarium (1.5m x 1/2m) containing a
gravel substrate. Courtship behavior of four
males was observed and filmed with a super 8
movie camera. The films were then analyzed
frame by frame for certain behavioral com-
ponents of courtship.
In most regards, male queen snakes showed
courtship behavior closely paralleling other
natricines. The male approached and tongue
flicked the female repeatedly. The male
mounted the female and proceeded to move
forward until aligned on her dorsum. At this
time the male queen snakes began a behavior
different from other colubrids. They pro-
ceeded to "bounce" dorsoventrally on the
female. This movement was a vertical oscilla-
A
B
C
Figure 1.
The sequence of movements in a
single "bounce" of a male queen snake,
Regina
septemvittata,
courting a female.
tion of the first 6 to 20 cm of the neck. It did
not involve any lateral sliding of the body but
in other regards did appear to be similar to the
writhe-bump seen by Gillingham in
Elaphe
(1979). Each bounce lasted 0.05 seconds and
the bounce rate alternated between 60 to
70/min. up to 91 to 115/min. The slower rate
involved higher dorsoventral movement (1 to
2 cm off the female, Fig. 1). The faster rate
occurred with oscillations in which the male
did not lose contact with the female's dorsum.
After a variable period of this behavior, the
males would begin the tail-search copulatory
attempts. As the typical natricine caudal-
cephalic waves were absent this suggests the
vertical oscillations substitute for this repro-
ductive cue.
Male activity while mounted on the female's
trunk appears to show more evolutionary
variability than do other stages of courtship.
Gillingham (1979), for example, compared
the variation in caudal-cephalic waves and
writhe-bumps in
Elaphe
occurring during this
period.
Regina septemvittata's
different tac-
tile behavior also supports this idea. It, there-
fore, seems likely that these species differen-
ces in tactile activity of males while aligned
on the female have evolutionary implications.
The most logical explanation is that they con-
vey species specific identification designed
to bring about female passivity. Examination
of the tactile-alignment behavior of both
closely related and evolutionarily distinct
species should give more insight into this
possibility.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank George Pisani and James Gilling-
ham for their comments on this manuscript.
LITERATURE CITED
Blanchard, F. N. and Blanchard, F. C. 1942.
Mating of the garter snake,
Thamnophis
sirtalis sirtalis
(Linnaeus). Papers, Michi-
gan Acad. Sci., Arts and Let., 27:215-234.
Davis, D. D. 1936. Courtship and mating
behavior in snakes. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.
Zool. Series 20:257-290.
Gillingham, J. C. 1979. Reproductive behav-
ior of the rat snakes of Eastern North
America, genus
Elaphe.
Copeia 1979(2):
319-331.
Mushinsky, H. R. 1979. Mating behavior of the
common water snake,
Nerodia sipedon
sipedon
(Reptilia, Serpentes, Colubridae)
in Eastern Pennsylvania. J. Herp. 13(1):
127-129.
Pisani, G. R. 1976. Comments of the court-
ship and mating mechanics of
Thamno-
phis
(Reptilia, Serpentes, Colubridae). J.
Herp. 10(2):139-142.
NEIL B. FORD
Department of Biology
The University of Texas at Tyler
Tyler, Texas 75701
•
PLASTIC BAGS IN THE
INTESTINAL TRACTS
OF LEATHERBACK
MARINE TURTLES
While collecting skeletal material of
Der-
mochelys coriacea at
a site in coastal Peru
where leatherback carcasses were discarded
by fishermen, I found evidence of plastic in
the intestinal tracts of these specimens to be
common. Plastic bags and film were noted in
19 of 140 (13%) specimens examined in
November 1980 near Pucusana, Depto. Lima,
Peru. The xeric climate of coastal Peru had
mummified many carcasses and slowed bio-
logical decomposition of tissues. Although
all specimens examined had been butchered
some considerable time before discovery
(perhaps more than 14 months earlier), the
intestines had been left in the carapaces and
had dried
in situ.
No attempt was made to
open or examine the entire digestive tract due
to the dried, rotted, and often incomplete
nature of the viscera. Consequently, all cases
where plastic was noted involved sizable
pieces of plastic which protruded or were
exposed from the intestine. In all cases the
plastic was noted to be within the lumen of
the digestive tract and in a twisted, elongate
form suggesting peristalic transport. Because
of the limiting conditions under which obser-
vations were made, the actual occurrence of
plastic in
Dermochelys
is probably much
higher than recorded.
Hays and Brown (1981) found plastic bags
in 9 of 39 (23%) specimens of
Chelonia mydas
captured near Pisco, Depto. Ica, Peru. Coast-
al Peru is an area of low human population
density. Consequently, the high incidence of
plastic bags in the intestinal tracts of marine
turtles is noteworthy.
Brongersma (1969; 1972) recorded plastic
materials in the intestinal tracts of two leather-
backs from European waters. Carr (in Corne-
lius, 1975) attributed a mass mortality of
Che-
lonia in Costa Rica to the ingestion of plastic
bags. Pritchard (1971) mentioned that plastic
is found in leatherback intestines. Carr
and
Pritchard did not detail their observations.
Mrosovsky (1981) recently reviewed data from
16 leatherback turtles, 7 of which (44%) con-
tained plastic. He also noted that 7 of 8 leather-
backs studied in France by Duron and Duron
(1980) had swallowed plastic. The informa-
tion on plastic bags in
Chelonia
and
Der-
mochelys
in Peru is important in confirming
the incidence in a specified number of animals.
Frazier (1980) noted that plastics are indigest-
ible and they may impact the gut. The green
turtles studied by Hays and Brown (in press)
and the leatherbacks described herein were
butchered animals which presumably were
captured alive. Therefore the plastics found
had not yet caused death. Thus, the inci-
dence of turtles dying because of plastics is
unknown. The possibility of death or malnu-
trition resulting from plastic bag impaction of
the gut should be carefully considered and
investigated in dead or distressed animals
from other sources. Marine turtles actively
feed on jellyfish, and plastic bags floating in
water potentially resemble jellyfish in color,
72
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
form, and texture. Therefore, it is possible
that plastics are consumed whenever en-
countered by foraging marine turtles. Since
plastic film products are used and disposed
of worldwide, the potential for effecting
marine organisms, including turtles, is great.
LITERATURE CITED
Brongersma, L. D. 1969. Miscellaneous notes
on turtles. II A-B Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad.
Wet., Amsterdam 72(1):76-102.
1972. European Atlantic turtles. Zoo-
logische Verhandelingen (121):1-318.
Cornelius, S. E. 1975. Marine turtle mortali-
ties along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica.
Copeia 1975:186-187.
Duron, M. and P. Duron. 1980. Title unknown.
Courrier de la Nature. 69:37-41. (Cited by
Mrosovsky 1981).
Frazier, J. 1980. Marine turtles and problems
in coastal management. Pages 23495-2411
in:
B. L. Edge (ed.) Proceedings of the
Second Symposium on Coastal and Ocean
Management Vol. III. 17-20 November
1980, Hollywood, Fla.
Hays de Brown, C. and W. M. Brown. 1981.
The status of sea turtles in the Southeast-
ern Pacific: Emphasis on Peru.
In:
Bjorn-
dal, K. (ed.) Proceedings of the World
Conference on Sea Turtle Conservation.
(In press).
Mrosovsky, N. 1981. Plastic jellyfish. Mar.
Tur. Newsletter. (17):5-7.
Pritchard, P. C. H. 1971. The leatherback or
leathery turtle. ICUN Monograph (1):1-39.
THOMAS H. FRITTS
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Denver Wildlife Research Center
Tulane University Museum of Natural History
Belle Chasse, Louisiana 70037
•
TECHNIQUES
A TIME-EFFICIENT,
LOW COST METHOD
FOR THE LABORATORY
REARING OF FROGS.
INTRODUCTION
There has long been a need for a reliable
method whereby laboratory populations of
anurans could be both maintained and per-
petuated at modest cost and with minimal
time expenditure. The availability of reliable
methods for the raising and maintenance of
anurans in a time-efficient operation and at
modest cost is important to biologists in
many disciplines. However, small scale frog
rearing operations are not common because
of several fundamental problems. These
include: design inadequacies of many com-
mercially available rearing tanks; lack of an
adequate food supply for transformed frogs;
labor intensive service operations; high oper-
ating costs; and contagious diseases. Large
scale operations (Nace, 1968) generally are
not practical for use by individual research
laboratories because they demand a consid-
erable investment of time and/or are prohibi-
tively expensive.
During the past several years, I have reared
modest numbers of frogs through one or
more generations. A review of the literature
on frog culture techniques (e.g., List, 1957;
Gulley, 1976) has proven to be helpful, as
have been the personal accounts of col-
leagues. The following report describes a
generalized procedure for frog rearing that
incorporates both the products of my own
efforts of the past several years, as well as
information obtained from other sources (G.
Nace and C. Richards, pers. comm.). In this
system, traditional problems associated with
food supply and diet, containment and dis-
ease, serviceability, and cost are minimized
by emphasizing simplicity without sacrificing
animal welfare considerations. By utilizing
the basic procedure and materials described
herein, it is possible to rear hundreds of adult
frogs annually from eggs at a modest cost
and with a minimal time expenditure. In the
present study, leopard frogs
(Rana pipiens,
R. blairi, R. sphenocephala, R. berlandieri, R.
magnaocularis, R. chiricahuensis, R. lorreri,
and the lowland form of Platz and Platz, 1973)
as well as
Hyla chrysoscelis, But° woodhousii,
Bombina orientalis,
and
Pachymedusa dac-
nicolor
were used. With minor modifications
the basic system should be suitable for many
other anuran species.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
The method relies on three major compo-
nents. The construction, preparation, and
operation of each component are described
below. Included with the description of each
component is a section detailing costs.
I. Cricket colony
Rearing boxes.
—
An individual cricket
rearing box is shown in Figure 1. Basically,
the box is constructed from a single 4 X 8 ft
sheet of one half inch plywood and miscel-
laneous hardware. The box incorporates a
light bulb heat source, ventilation holes, an
escape barrier, and a hinged access lid with
an inspection window. The individual com-
ponents and specifications required to con-
struct the basic box are provided in Fig. 1.
Figure 1.
Rearing procedure.
—
Crickets
(Acheta
domestica)
thrive under the appropriate
temperature and humidity conditions when
provided with adequate water and food.
Commercial pelletized rabbit feeds provide
an excellent food source for crickets of all
ages. Alternatively, chicken mash can be
used, but it is subject to mold. A 100 watt
incandescent light bulb will maintain an inner
box temperature of about 32-40° C when the
box is placed in a room at 20-25° C. In a
cooler room, a bulb or higher wattage or mul-
tiple bulbs can be used to bring the internal
box temperature to about 32-40° C. Alterna-
tively, the entire box can be placed in a high
temperature room. An escape barrier is
necessary to prevent the crickets from reach-
ing the lid area of the box. Construction of the
foil barrier is explained in Figure 1. The
cricket life cycle lasts about eight to 10 weeks
and is temperature-dependent. Therefore, the
colony should be started several weeks prior
to the anticipated need for crickets. The col-
ony can be operated efficiently using just
three cricket boxes. To start the colony, 1,000
adult crickets can be obtained from a com-
mercial supplier
(e.g.,
Fluker's Cricket Farm,
Inc., 2625 Beech Street, Baton Rouge, LA
70805). On arrival, the crickets and packing
material should be carefully emptied into a
rearing box. Spread one cup of feed on the
floor of the box. As an alternative, the food
can be placed on a paper plate. Use a plastic
poultry waterer (available at farm supply
stores) as a source of water for the crickets.
The waterer should be fitted with a sponge
"rubber" insert to prevent the crickets from
drowning. Figure 2 illustrates the design of
the insert. Fill a greenhouse seedling tray
(plastic) or similar container (measuring
about 30 X 30 X 7 cm deep) with damp peat
moss and place the tray against the wall in a
corner of the box near the light bulb. The
adult female crickets will promptly begin to
deposit eggs beneath the surface of the moss.
Do not permit the surface of the moss to dry
out and do not add water to the point of satu-
ration. Keep the tray in the box for about 48
hours in order to acquire several thousand
eggs. Cricket eggs are white, cylindrical
structures about three to four millimeters in
length. Next, place the egg tray in a second
cricket box (beneath light bulb) and cover
lightly with a sheet of newspaper. Do not
allow paper or other flammable materials
within several centimeters of the light bulb.
Check the eggs daily and add water if neces-
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
73
SYNOPSIS OF THE HERPETOFAUNA
OF MEXICO
HOBART M. SMITH & ROZELLA
B.
SMITH
Vol I—Analysis of the Literature on Mexican Axolotl. 272 pp. 1971.
(ISBN 0.910914-06-0)
$10.00
Vol. II—Analysis of the Literature Exclusive of the Axolotl. 398 pp. 1973.
(ISBN 0-910914-07.9)
$12.50
Vol. III—Source Analysis and Index for Mexican Reptiles. 997 pp. 1976.
(ISBN 0-910914-08-7)
$25.00
Vol. IV—Source Analysis and Index for Mexican Amphibians
254 pp.
1976. (ISBN 0-910914-09-5)
$12.50
Vol. V—Guide to Mexican Amphisboenians and Crocodilians.
Bibliographic Addendum II. 20 pl. 191 pp. 1977.
(ISBN 0-910914-10-9)
$12.50
Vol. VI—Guide to Mexican Turtles. Bibliographic Addendum III
64 pl. 46
Mops 1064 pp. 1980 (ISBN 0-910914-11-7)
$40.00
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This monograph covers all North American lizard families and gives complete
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Herp Review 13(3), 1982
Figure 2.
Preparation of the cricket waterer. Invert the waterer device on a piece of one inch
thick polyurethane foam (available at fabric stores). Press down firmly and cut the foam by
following the edge of the waterer with a sharp razor blade. Repeat this procedure in order to
make the inside cutout, this time using the bottle cap as a template. Wash the foam ring
insert thoroughly before use. Fill the bottle with tap water and prime the foam insert. Once
in operation, rinse (do not use detergent) the foam insert every other day. The adult crickets
will deposit eggs in the foam ring and these soon decay. Replace the insert about every two
months (or as conditions dictate).
Figure 3.
The tank systems used in rearing tadpoles (left) and transformed frogs (right).
Pieces of gravel or crushed stone used in tanks containing transformed animals should be
sufficiently large that they are not ingested by feeding frogs.
flow into the tank. A ballast jar containing
water will trap oil contaminating the air sup-
plied by some compressor systems. The
miniature compressor units sold by tropical
fish stores can also be used. Permit the tank
to "season" with the air supply operating for
two days, then
"seed" the tank with several
cubic centimeters of bottom debris from a
healthy pond.
Avoid the introduction of
obvious predators to the tank. The addition of
several snails at this time will contribute to a
clean tank system as the snails will consume
much of the food not used by the tadpoles.
Permit the tank to stand for one week with
aeration. Where necessary, several tanks can
be supported on a framework of 2 X 4's
against a wall. The room (or tank water
temperature) should be about 20-23° C. A
photoperiod of 12:12 was used for rearing
both tadpoles and transformed frogs. If
embryos or newly hatched tadpoles are to be
added to the tank, reduce the air flow through
the filter for the first two weeks of operation.
This will prevent the small tadpoles from
being drawn into the filter apparatus. Alterna-
tively, glue a fine mesh plastic screen across
the air filter intake to prevent entry of small
tadpoles. Although a 116 liter tank will sup-
port several hundred very small tadpoles,
after a few weeks, the number should be
reduced to about 25-40 individuals. Crowd-
ing results in poor growth and development
(Richards, 1962). It also contributes to dis-
ease problems. Add distilled or deionized
water (in small increments) to the tank to
compensate for evaporation and replace the
polyester filtering material about once each
month (or as conditions dictate).
Rabbit chow suspended in a mixture of
agar and gelatin was used to feed the tad-
poles. The formulation is as follows. Mix 750
cubic centimeters of rabbit chow in one liter
of boiling water until the pellets disaggregate.
To a second liter of boiling water, add 62
grams of agar while stirring and then add 41
grams of gelatin to the boiling agar-water.
Finally, add the hot chow-water mixture to
the agar-gelatin-water and stir thoroughly.
Pour the mixture into a shallow tray (2-3 cm
deep) and place in a refrigerator until it solidi-
fies. Then, cut the material into blocks using
the edge of a spatula. Place several blocks in
plastic sandwich bags and freeze. Thaw each
bag before use, break the individual blocks
into portions, and drop into the tank. This
formulation (adapted from one developed at
the Amphibian Facility, University of Michi-
gan) greatly reduces the chance that the tank
water will be fouled by bacterial growth
resulting from accidental overfeeding. It also
provides the tadpole food in a form that is
convenient. Feed the tadpoles every other
day using large enough portions per tank so
that a little remains about 24 hours after feed-
ing. None should remain in 36 hours. Remove
and discard any portion remaining in a tank
for more than 48 hours. When waste material
accumulates excessively in the crevices be-
tween pieces of stone, the tank should be
drained (by siphoning) and cleaned (rinsed
and refilled). This does not normally occur
more often than about every two to four
months.
Cost considerations. —
The initial invest-
ment in tanks, filters and related parapherna-
lia is modest in comparison to the expense of
buying commercially available setups de-
signed for rearing tadpoles. Tanks of the 116
liter size range in price from about $30.00-
$50.00 each. Glass top covers are about
$12.00-$15.00 per tank. Filters and air stones
add approximately $6.00-$8.00 per tank.
Gravel (or crushed stone) costs are not signif-
icant. Thus, the investment per tank can be as
little as $50.00-$70.00. The cost will be greater
if it is necessary to purchase compressors
and/or build a framework to support multiple
tanks. The estimated cost of chow, agar, and
gelatin needed to feed tadpoles from hatch-
ing through transformation (21/2-4 months) is
about $2.00 per 100 individuals. Replacement
cost for spun polyester (for use in filters) and
air stones is about $4.00 per tank per year of
operation. Servicing operations (Feeding, fil-
ter replacement, tank cleaning, etc.) average
about fifteen minutes per day (for 10 tanks).
111. Frog rearing system
Rearing tanks. —
The tanks used to rear
frogs from the time of metamorphosis through
maturity are a modification of the tadpole
tank system (refer to Figure 3). Prepare a tank
with a gravel bed as described previously.
(Pieces of gravel or crushed stone should be
of sufficiently large size to prevent ingestion
by feeding frogs). Add sufficient tadpole-tank
water to bring the water level to within about
two to four centimeters of the gravel surface.
In one corner, place an air stone beneath the
water level and cover with gravel. Most adult
anurans (e.g., leopard frogs) require a moist
environment; they do not need water in which
to swim. Place one or two large rectangular
pieces of cardboard, clay flower pot, or clay
tile over a depression formed in the gravel so
that the frogs will be able to crawl beneath
them. Position the top cover on the tank (keep
closed) and seal any large cracks with duct
tape. This is not only a safeguard against
escape by larger frogs; it is very important
that the tank environment be kept reasonably
76
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
humid at all times for moist-skinned anurans.
Rearing procedure. —
An aquarium, so
arranged, will support as many as 20-25 frogs
measuring four to six centimeters in snout-
vent length. Many more smaller frogs can be
kept successfully in tanks of this size. Very
large frogs should be limited to about 10 or
fewer per tank. Segregate frogs on the basis
of size. Relatively large frogs are cannibalistic
on their smaller tankmates. Replace the
cardboard in the tanks when it begins to foul
or decay. Add small increments of tap water
periodically to compensate for evaporation. If
the water level is too high or too low over an
extended period, leopard frogs will die. Feed
the frogs two or three times each week. Col-
lect crickets suitable to the size of the frogs
being fed. Feeding frogs with the largest
crickets that they can ingest will maximize the
mass productivity of the cricket colony. Newly
transformed leopard frogs can handle two or
three week old crickets easily.
To determine the number of crickets
necessary for a feeding, simply add to each
tank about five to eight crickets per frog. If
some crickets remain after 24 hours, cut back
feeding, and vice versa. Excessive numbers
of large crickets in tanks of recently trans-
formed frogs can be detrimental in that the
crickets sometimes feed on the frogs. Tanks
should be cleaned about every three to four
months. Simply remove the frogs, rinse the
tank thoroughly and reestablish the water
level.
This method has been used to 'rear many
leopard frogs through successive generations
in this laboratory. No vitamin or mineral sup-
plements of any sort were provided, however,
they might be useful. Such adjuncts to nor-
mal feeding can be sprinkled onto a container
of crickets before introduction to the frogs.
Do not handle frogs excessively. No evi-
dence of disease was noted in any of the frogs
reared (from eggs) using this method. How-
ever, some individual frogs that were handled
frequently developed inflammations on the
body surface and soon died. Other individu-
als in the same tanks were not affected. Do
not introduce wild-caught specimens into
tanks of laboratory-reared frogs unless the
natural specimens have been quarantined for
a month or more beforehand.
Cost considerations. —
The expense for
tanks and glass covers (see tadpole cost con-
siderations) is the only major cost pertinent
to rearing transformed frogs (cricket costs
were considered earlier). A plastic, small
animal cage, available from biological supply
houses, costing about $10.00 per unit is an
economical and useful substitute for conven-
tional glass aquaria. Air stones, air tubing and
gravel account for $2.00-$3.00 per tank annu-
ally. In this study, it was possible to rear the
transformed tadpoles using only two tanks in
addition to those containing tadpoles. Eight-
een tanks were stocked with recently hatched
tadpoles. The first of the tadpoles transformed
in about 10 weeks. These were toe-clipped for
identification and placed into two additional
(frog rearing) tanks. As more tadpoles trans-
formed, they too were placed in the nine-
teenth and twentieth tanks. Soon, several of
the tadpole aquaria were empty (of tadpoles).
These were drained and prepared for meta-
morphosing frogs. As transformed frogs were
utilized for experiments, tanks were freed for
starting more tadpoles. This procedure re-
duces costs considerably where it applies to a
specific protocol.
REMARKS
In the course of establishing the frog rear-
ing methodology described here, many var-
ied approaches were tried. This design was
judged the best because of simplicity, low
cost, and the convenience of having the
entire operation (cricket colony, tadpoles,
and frogs) at one location. Commercially
available frog rearing systems, although quite
attractive, are generally both expensive and
inflexible. Their design is often cumbersome
for servicing operations and they require fre-
quent cleaning and/or a continuous-flow
water and drain system. Most such container
designs are more appropriate for the short-
term holding of anurans than for a rearing
operation. Greenhouse frog rearing (see
methods section of Frost and Bagnara, 1977)
is: relatively expensive (initial investment);
unsuitable in many geographic regions (high
heating-cooling costs); and inconvenient
(tadpoles and crickets generally must be kept
elsewhere). Moreover, a greenhouse is diffi-
cult to subdivide in situations where there is a
need for segregation of specimens. The sys-
tem described in this report offers dependa-
bly high frog generation potential, relatively
modest cost, and minimal servicing opera-
tions. Access to specimens is uncomplicated
and segregation according to experimental
design is easily achieved.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank C. M. Richards
and G. W. Nace for sharing valuable tech-
niques developed at the Amphibian Facility,
The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
George M. Malacinski (and the Axolotl Col-
ony, Indiana University) provided some of the
equipment and facilities used in the study.
Portions of this project were undertaken while
the author was affiliated with the University of
Arizona, Tucson, and subsequently with
Indiana University, Bloomington. The author
would like to acknowledge the support pro-
vided by the Center for Biomedical Research
— The University of Kansas. This work was
incidental to studies for which support was
provided by grants (DEB-7620340, DEB-
7911561 and DEB-8108266) from the National
Science Foundation.
LITERATURE CITED
Cully, D. D., Jr. 1976. Culture and manage-
ment of the laboratory frog. Lab. Anim.
Sci. 26:30-36.
Frost, J. S., and J. T. Bagnara. 1977. An analy-
sis of reproductive isolation between
Rana
magnaocularis
and
Rana berlandieri for-
reri (Rana pipiens
complex). J. Exptl. Zool.
202:291-305.
List, J. C. 1957. An apparatus for rearing small
frogs. Herpetology 13:139-140.
Nace, G. W. 1968. The Amphibian Facility at
the University of Michigan. BioScience
18:767-775.
Platz, J. E., and A. L. Platz. 1973.
Rana pipiens
complex: Hemoglobin phenotypes of
sympatric and allopatric populations in
Arizona. Science 179:1334-1336.
Richards, C. M. 1962. The control of tadpole
growth by alga-like cells. Physiol. Zool.
35:285-296.
JOHN S. FROST
Museum of Natural History
Department of Systematics and Ecology
The University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas 66045
•
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Turtles; and Necropsy Techniques and Specimen Collection for Turtles.
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78
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
Submitted by
PHILIP A. COCHRAN,
Laboratory of Limnology, University of Wis-
consin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. •
SCAPHIOPUS BOMBIFRONS
(Plains Spade-
foot). USA: ARKANSAS: Pope Co: Holla Bend
National Wildlife Refuge, ca 6.4 km SE Dar-
danelle, T6N, R2OW, S24. 7 and 9 June 1978.
L. Shott and Arkansas Tech Univ. herpetol-
ogy class. Identified by M. V. Plummer. Veri-
fied by D. C. Forester. Collection of Glyn Tur-
nipseed (GDT 193, 194). First record for the
state. Nearest locality is near Muskogee,
Oklahoma, ca 240 km W (AMNH #59708-710;
J. H. Black, pers. comm.) Although primarily
limited to the Great Plains, the range of
S.
bombifrons
extends substantially to the east
on the floodplain of the Missouri River (John-
son, 1977. The Amphibians of Missouri, Univ.
Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist. Pub. Ed. Ser. No. 6).
Holla Bend is located within the Arkansas
River floodplain. These specimens could be
flood-borne waifs brought down the nearby
Arkansas River. However, the adult specimen
(SVL = 42 mm) and the 2 juveniles (SVL's 17
and 19 mm) suggest a local breeding popula-
tion. GDT 193 was previously reported as
S.
holbrooki
(Turnipseed, 1980. Geographic
distribution:
Scaphiopus holbrooki hurteri,
Herp. Rev. 11:1).
Submitted by
MICHAEL V. PLUMMER
and
GLYN TURNIPSEED,
Department of Biology,
Harding University, Searcy, Arkansas 72143
and Department of Biology, Arkansas Tech
University, Russellville, Arkansas 72801. •
SCAPHIOPUS COUCHI
(Couch's Spade-
foot). USA: TEXAS: Archer Co: 3.5 km W of
junction of FM 2650 on FM 1954.21 May 1982.
Rocky Ward. Verified by E. G. Zimmerman.
North Texas State University Herpetological
Collection (NTSUHC A-55). This is the first
record for the county which is at the northern
part of a hiatus in north central Texas (Raun
and Gehlbach, 1972. Amphibians and Rep-
tiles in Texas, Dallas Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. No.
2).
Submitted by
ROCKY WARD,
Department
of Biological Sciences, North Texas State
University, Denton, Texas 76203. •
TESTUDINES
CHRYSEMYS CONCINNA
(River Cooter).
USA: TEXAS: Rains Co: 8.7 km W of Emory on
Texas Rt. 35. 18 June 1982. C. T. McAllister.
Verified by R. Ward and E. G. Zimmerman.
North Texas State University Herpetological
Collection (NTSUHC R-683). This specimen
(a female with eggs) found DOR is a new
county record and appears to be another C.
c.
hieroglyphica
x
texana
intergrade (see Myers,
S. 1982. Geographic distribution:
Chrysemys
concinna.
SSAR Herp. Review 13 (1):24).
Intensive collecting in the North Sabine River
drainage and the zone presently separating
the ranges of these subspecies may reveal
populations for the adjacent counties and
east Texas distributional hiatus (Raun and
Gehlbach, 1972. Amphibians and Reptiles in
Texas, Dallas Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. No. 2;
Conant, R. 1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles
and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North
America, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston).
Submitted by
CHRIS T. MCALLISTER,
Department of Biological Sciences, North
Texas State University, Denton, Texas
76203. •
GRAPTEMYS GEOGRAPHICA
(Map Turtle).
USA: ARKANSAS: Pike Co: Caddo River at
U.S. Hwy. 70. 4 October 1969; 10 June 1970;
24 July 1973. R. McKown and J. Needham.
West Texas State University Museum of Nat-
ural History (WTSU 449, 1069, 1079, 1080,
1081, 1651, 1652, 1664, 1696). ARKANSAS:
Marion Co: Buffalo River near Rush. 2 August
1974;15 September 1974. M. Geishler. (WTSU
7026, 7027). Verified by F. C. Killebrew. New
county records. Caddo River specimens
extend range 110 km W and 110 km N of
nearest localities in Saline and Lafayette
Counties. (Dellinger and Black, 1938, Occas.
Papers Univ. Ark. Mus. 1, 47p; H. H. Schwardt,
1938, Ark. Exper. Station Bulletin No. 357,
47p.). Buffalo River specimens extend range
90 km W of nearest locality in Fulton County.
(H. G. Gowling, 1957, Occas. Papers Univ.
Ark. Mus. 3, 51p.).
Submitted by
F. C. KILLEBREW,
Depart-
ment of Biology, West Texas State University,
Canyon, Texas 79016. •
TRIONYX SPINIFERUS
(Spiny Softshell Tur-
tle). USA: WISCONSIN: Sawyer Co: Hayward
Lake, an impoundment of the Namekagon
River (T41N, R9W, Sec. 27). 25 May 1982.
Philip A. Cochran and Frank Pratt (Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources). Univer-
sity of Wisconsin-Madison, Zoological Mu-
seum (UWZH 22505). One of two females col-
lected in an unbaited fyke net, along with
several
Chelydra serpentina
and many
Chrysemys picta.
This is the first published
record for Sawyer County (Vogt, R. C. 1981.
Natural history of amphibians and reptiles of
Wisconsin. Milwaukee Public Museum, Mil-
waukee, 205 pp.). The specimen was col-
lected at a locality farther north than any Wis-
consin specimens examined by Vogt (1981),
although he considered as valid records from
two localities in Douglas County farther north.
A series of artificial impoundments of the
Namekagon River may have facilitated a
northward range extension or increased
population levels of T.
spiniferus
during his-
torical times through the creation of a variety
of large riverine habitats, although direct
movements may be impeded.
Submitted by
PHILIP A. COCHRAN,
Laboratory of Limnology, University of Wis-
consin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706.
•
SAURIA
ANOLIS SAGREI
(Brown Anole). USA: VIR-
GINIA: James City Co: 6 km NW Williams-
burg at Lightfoot. 14 December 1978. W. R.
Hoilman and L. H. Westermann. Verified by J.
C. Mitchell. National Museum of Natural His-
tory (USNM 225102). Found on a potted
Schefflera
plant in the greenhouse of the Wil-
liamsburg Pottery Shop. This specimen
(male, 40mm SVL) rafted northward on pot-
ted plants believed to have originated on
Estero, Lee County, Florida. This is probably
an isolated occurrence and establishment of
a breeding disjunct population in this area is
unlikely.
This record confirms that
A.
sagrei
can dis-
perse long distances by rafting aboard orna-
mental plants (Godley, et al., 1981. Herp. Rev.
12(3):84-86) and suggests that dispersal may
be more widespread than previously recog-
nized. Are there disjunct populations outside
peninsula Florida?
Submitted by
JOSEPH C. MITCHELL,
Department of Biology, University of Rich-
mond, Richmond, Virginia 23173. •
CHAMELEO HOHNELI.
KENYA: Nairobi Dis-
trict; Nairobi; Milimani Street. 15 June 1981.
Steve M. Reilly. Verified by R. C. Drewes, Cali-
fornia Academy of Sciences (CAS 153631-32,
153724). First record for Nairobi where it is
found in sympatry with
Chameleo jacksoni.
Submitted by
STEVE M. REILLY,
Depart-
ment of Zoology, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale, Illinois 62901. •
CNEMIDOPHORUS GULARIS GULARIS
(Texas spotted whiptail). USA: TEXAS: Bris-
coe Co: Caprock Canyons State Park, Lake
Theo archeological site (41 BI 70). Shrubby
savannah between scarp woodland and prairie
on dissected terrace above Lake Theo
(Holmes Creek), elevation 800 msl. 24 March
1982. 1400 CST. Clear, warm (29°C). R. W.
Neck. Verified by F. E. Potter, Jr. Record fills
part of gap between southward center of dis-
tribution and northern extreme populations
in adjacent counties of Texas Panhandle.
Specimen placed in Texas Memorial Museum
(TNHC-48869).
Submitted by
RAYMOND W. NECK,
Texas
Parks and Wildlife Department, 4200 Smith
School Road, Austin, Texas 78744. •
COLEONYX ELEGANS NEMORALIS
(Colima
Banded Gecko) MEXICO: JALISCO: 14.4 km
(by Mex. Hwy 80) N Barra de Navidad. 30
October 1974 (2140 hrs). J. R. Ottley. Verified
by W. W. Tanner. Brigham Young University
(BYU 41299). First record for state. Extends
range approximately 120 km from the locality
"Hacienda Paso del Rio, Colima" given by
Klauber (1945, Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat.
Hist., 10:133-216; also see Dixon, 1970,
Coleonyx,
Catalogue of American Amphibi-
ans and Reptiles, p. 95.1)
Submitted by
JOHN R. OTTLEY,
Herpeto-
logical Research Area, 149 MLBM, Brigham
Young University, Provo, Utah 84602. •
OPHISAURUS ATTENUATUS
(Slender Glass
Lizard). USA: TEXAS: Clay Co: 3.2 km NW
Lake Arrowhead State Park on FM 1954. 21
May 1982. Rocky Ward. Verified by E. G.
Zimmerman. North Texas State University
Herpetological Collection (NTSUHC R-684).
This is the first record for the county which
forms part of a hiatus between Wichita, Archer
80
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
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DESERT TORTOISE
WILDLIFE
IMPRESSIONS
P.O. BOX 11440
EUGENE, OR 97440
and Young Counties to the west and the dis-
tribution of this species in eastern Texas
(Raun and Gehlbach, 1972. Amphibians and
Reptiles in Texas, Dallas Mus. Nat. His. Bull.
No. 2).
Submitted by
ROCKY WARD,
Department
of Biological Sciences, North Texas State
University, Denton, Texas 76203. •
SERPENTES
BOA CONSTRICTOR IMPERATOR
(Boa
Constrictor). MEXICO: SONORA: Near Tetu-
chie (sometimes spelled Tetuachi), 16 km
south of Arispe (sometimes spelled Arizpe).
Elev. approximately 750 m. 30° 15' N, 110° 15'
W. 7 June 1979. William H. Baltosser. Photo
verification (Univ. Kansas Museum of Natural
History Color Slide #s 7094-7095), photos
verified by Joseph T. Collins. Dead in sandy
wash surrounded by non-native tree tobacco
(Nicotiana glauca);
presumably killed by
something other than human, no footprints in
area surrounding snake, only small unidentifi-
able depressions in sand. Apparent predation
on neck, approximately 30 cm of flesh stripped
from area just behind head, head and rest of
snake basically intact. Remains measuring
approximately 110 cm not collected, several
photographs obtained (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1.
Closeup of head and neck region
showing apparent signs of predation.
Figure 2.
Overall view of snake showing
severed head-neck region along with the rest
of the body.
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
81
To my knowledge, this represents the northern-
most locality of occurrence for this species
which ranges from Tamaulipas and Sonora
southward along both coasts, including Yuc-
atan, to South America (Smith and Taylor,
1966. Herpetology of Mexico: Annotated
checklists and keys to amphibians and rep-
tiles. Reprint, Eric Lundberg, Ashton, Mary-
land. pp. 24-25). Formerly, the northernmost
record for this species in Sonora was reported
to be 78 km north of Hermosillo (Zweifel and
Norris, 1955. American Midl. Nat. 54:230-
249). Pope (Pope, 1973. The Giant Snakes:
The natural history of the boa constrictor, the
anaconda, and the largest pythons. Alfred A.
Knopf, New York, New York. pp. 25-27) stated
that the northernmost place where this spe-
cies has been found in Sonora was within 240
km of the Arizona border. According to Bogert
and Oliver (Bogert and Oliver, 1945. Bull.
American Mus. Nat. Hist. 83:297-426), from
time to time there have been unverified reports
of this snake in southern Arizona, but since
none were found far from human habitations,
it was not certain whether these were native,
or accidental importations. The Tetuchie
record reported here places the species within
120 km of the Arizona border and approxi-
mately 95 km northeast of the previous north-
ern record.
Submitted by
WILLIAM H. BALTOSSER,
Box 3AF Department of Biology, New Mexico
State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico
88003. •
LEPTOTYPHLOPS DULCIS
(Texas Blind
Snake). USA: COLORADO: Baca Co: 36 km
S, 19 km W Pritchett, Furnish Canyon, T34S
R5OW SE1/4 Sec. 32, 1433 m. 31 May 1982. B.
Lapin and G. Hammerson. Identified by G.
Hammerson, verified by H. M. Smith. Univ.
Colorado Mus., Boulder, UCM 54216 (com-
plete shed skin). First documented record for
the state. Freshly shed skin found under rock
on SW-facing slope. Locality is 10 km N, 8 km
W of Oklahoma Panhandle record (Webb,
1970, Reptiles of Oklahoma, Univ. of Okla-
homa Press, Norman).
Submitted by
BETH P. LAPIN,
Colorado
Natural Heritage Inventory, 1550 Lincoln
#110, Denver, Colorado 80203, and
GEOF-
FREY A. HAMMERSON,
Department of En-
vironmental, Population, and Organismic
Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder,
Colorado 80309. •
LEPTOTYPHLOPS DULCIS DISSECTUS
(New Mexico Blind Snake). USA: KANSAS:
Sumner Co: collected
ca.
2 km SW Caldwell,
Sec. 15-16, R3W, T35S on 15 May 1982 by K.
J. Irwin. Verified by J. T. Collins. University of
Kansas Museum of Natural History (KU
192197). First record for Sumner County,
extends the known range
ca.
70 km E of near-
est Kansas record (Collins, 1982, Amphibians
and reptiles in Kansas), and ca. 105 km N of
northeasternmost Oklahoma record (Webb,
1970, Reptiles of Oklahoma). The specimen is
the most northeastern record for the species.
Taken under sandstone rock on west-facing
slope of hillside. Associated species of
amphibians and reptiles:
Gastrophryne oli-
vacea, Terra pene ornata, Cnemidophorus
sexlineatus, Holbrookia maculata, Diadophis
punctatus, Lampropeltis getulus, Sonora semi-
annulata,
and
Tantilla nigriceps.
Submitted by
KELLY J. IRWIN,
2218 West
Second Street, Topeka, Kansas 66606. •
TRIMORPHODON UPSILON (Broad
-
banded
Lyre Snake) MEXICO: SONORA: 32 km (by
Mex. Hwy. 2) E Caborca (DOR). 15 April 1961.
J. W. Heinrichs. Identified by J. R. Ottley.
Brigham Young University (BYU 21178).
Extends the range approximately 470 km
northward from the Alamos-Guirocoba area
of southern Sonora. The specimen, an adult
female (571 mm total length), has 22 dorsal
blotches which, though lower than the min-
imum given by Smith (1941, Proc. U. S. Natl.
Mus. 91:149-168), are within the range Zwei-
fel and Norris (1955, Amer. Midland Nat. 54:
230-249) reported for specimens from Gui-
rocoba. Prior to this discovery this species
had only been taken in subtropical habitats,
several specimens (BYU 36807-36808,41160)
having been found in the desert scrub/thorn
forest transition between Navojoa and Ala-
mos. In addition to the specimen of T.
upsilon
reported here, the tree frog
Hyla wrightorum,
which is generally associated with mountain
valleys, has been taken near Caborca at Trin-
cheras (AMNH 53033). The discovery of these
species in the same region of the Sonoran
Desert suggests that these specimens may
represent relictual populations, isolated dur-
ing expansion of the desert during the retreat
of Pleistocene glaciers. The stomach of BYU
21178 contains a partially digested sand lizard
(Callisaurus draconoides).
Submitted by
JOHN R. OTTLEY,
Herpeto-
logical Research Area, 149 MLBM, Life
Science Museum, Brigham Young University,
Provo, Utah 84602. •
TR OPIDOCLONION LINEATUM (Lined
Snake). USA: TEXAS: Clay Co: 4.0 km NW
Lake Arrowhead State Park on FM 1954. 21
May 1982. Rocky Ward. Verified by T. L. King.
North Texas State University Herpetological
Collection (NTSUHC R-685). This is the first
record for this county and fills the hiatus
between Wichita and Archer Counties on the
west and Montague County on the east (Raun
and Gehlbach, 1972. Amphibians and Rep-
tiles in Texas, Dallas Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. No.
2).
Submitted by
ROCKY WARD,
Department
of Biological Sciences, North Texas State
University, Denton, Texas 76203. •
SECOND FIND OF
PSEUDEMYS
RUBRIVENTRIS
AT
IPSWICH,
MASSACHUSETTS,
AND REFUTATION OF
THE NAUSHON ISLAND
RECORD
Waters (1962) described the find of
Pseu-
demys rubriventris
skeletal remains in an
Indian shell heap at Ipswich, Essex County,
Massachusetts originally reported by Bullen
(1949). Waters proposed that this, and other
evidence, supported his suggestion that this
species was at one time continuously distrib-
uted along the coastal plain upon the for-
merly emergent continental shelf. He went on
to speculate that Essex County populations
may have been extirpated by former human
inhabitants of area. In fact, Bullen (1949) did
indicate the red-belly shell fragments (identi-
fied by Dr. Loveridge at the MCZ) were Indian
food remains. Waters (1962) also stated that a
dead specimen of
P. rubriventris
was found
on Naushon Island, Dukes County, Massa-
chusetts in 1944 (MCZ 46965).
On 23 July 1981 George Gavutis and Mike
Bauer found the shell of an unfamiliar turtle
near shore in Stage Island Pool at the south-
ern end of Plum Island, Ipswich, Essex
County, Massachusetts on the Parker River
National Wildlife Refuge. Both Gavutis and
Bauer work at the Refuge and had never seen
anything like this specimen before. I subse-
quently identified it as
Pseudemys rubriven-
tris
and deposited it in the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology (MCZ 162300). Their find
was within 2 km of the Clark Pond site at
Great Neck (Bullen, 1949). Later, I examined
the Clark Pond specimen at the Peabody
Foundation Museum at Phillips Andover
Academy and asked Dr. Walter Auffen berg to
look at it as well. He and I concluded that this
material does include
P. rubriventris
(a sub-
adult) and
Terrapene
peripheral bones.
The exciting possibility exists that a colony
of
P. rubriventris
has survived undetected in
Ipswich since at least 1500 Y.B.P. (the proba-
ble age of the Clark Pond artifacts according
to Dr. R. S. MacNeish of the Peabody Founda-
tion). Previous rumors of large basking tur-
tles near the Ipswich River Audubon Sanctu-
ary, Topsfield, Massachusetts (Dr. J. D. Lazell,
personal communication)
suggests the pos-
sible occurrence of these animals at least 15
km upriver from Plum Island Sound. Shell
dimensions of MCZ 162300 are: carapace
length = 284.5 mm, plastron length = 264 mm,
and shell height = 124 mm. This specimen, an
adult female, has a nuchal underlap ratio
comparable to those of a set of 37 Plymouth
red-bellies I recently examined. Some of its
carapacial scutes are intact and the second
costals bear the moderately forked distinct
light transverse bar which is typical of Ply-
mouth County
rubriventris.
The shell is not
scarred, nor does it show evidence of irregu-
lar growth which might otherwise indicate
captive rearing. It appears the specimen was
82
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
a wild endemic that died during the winter of
1981.
After examining the Naushon specimen
(MCZ 46965) I became suspicious of its iden-
tification; its proportions and markings were
not at all like those of nearly 200 Massachu-
setts red-bellies I have handled in the last
three years. Dr. Walter Auffenberg examined
this specimen at my request and he agrees
with me completely that it is not
Pseudemys
rubriventris.
He stated that its markings,
streamlining, low profile, bone thickness, and
carapacial flaring are more similar to
P. con-
cinna
or
P. floridana.
He was not sure exactly
which of these it is, but he said it is definitely
not a Florida turtle. It is probable that this
individual was introduced to Naushon Island
after initial tenure as someone's pet. Two of
my assistants and I have unsuccessfully
scoped and trapped the waters of Naushon
during the past three summers; we also talked
with Naushon residents. No one interviewed
had ever seen a red-bellied turtle on the
Island, and at least two of the people we met
were good naturalists quite familiar with the
Island's turtle fauna. Lacking hard evidence
to the contrary, I must conclude that P.
rubri-
ventris
does not presently inhabit Naushon;
and it quite possibly never did.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I commend Mssrs. Gavutis and Bauer for
having the presence of mind to retrieve the
shell, and I thank Roger Hogan, OES special-
ist for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, for
calling their discovery to my attention. Dr.
Auffenberg's generous and prompt accom-
modation of my urgent requests for assist-
ance is deeply appreciated.4Jose Rosado of
the MCZ and Dr. R. S. MacNeish of the Pea-
body Foundation for Archaeology obligingly
afforded me access to the aforementioned
material in their collections.
LITERATURE CITED
Bullen, R. 1949. Excavations in northeastern
Massachusetts. Papers of the Peabody
Foundation, Volume
I,
Number 3.
Waters, J. 1962. Former distribution of the
red-bellied turtle in the northeast. Copeia
1962:649-651.
TERRY E. GRAHAM
Department of Natural and Earth Sciences
Worcester State College
Worcester, Massachusetts 01602
(Page charges paid by author)
•
COMMENTS ON THE
DISTRIBUTION OF
AMBYSTOMA
TALPOIDEUM
(HOLBROOK) IN
TENNESSEE
Published range maps (Shoup 1964, Conant
1975) typically depict
Ambystoma talpoideum
as an animal of the Coastal Plain Physiogra-
phic Province in the southeastern United
States, with several populations known from
Appalachian provinces in Alabama, Georgia,
North Carolina, and Tennessee. Shoup (1964)
speculated that most of the non-Coastal Plain
populations are continuous with west Ten-
nessee Coastal Plain populations by way of
the Cumberland and Tennessee River drain-
ages. Although shown as continuous on his
range map, populations in western North
Carolina and eastern Tennessee were consi-
dered by Shoup to be disjunct. In contrast,
Conant (1975) considered most non-Coastal
Plain populations disjunct from the continu-
ous Coastal Plain range of the species. Shoup
(1964) stated that the distribution of
A. tal-
poideum
is in need of study, and his range
map shows central Tennessee as an area
requiring further study.
Since Shoup (1964) and Conant (1975),
additional data on Tennessee populations
have been acquired. The objectives of this
paper are to update and describe further (1)
distribution of
A. talpoideum
in Tennessee,
(2) habitats being utilized, and (3) areas in
need of further study.
Eighty-four specimens from 26 collecting
sites were examined from Austin Peay State
University (APSU), Carnegie Museum of
Natural History (CMNH), Field Museum of
Natural History (FMNH), Louisiana State
University Museum of Zoology (LSUMZ),
Memphis State University Museum of Zool-
ogy (MSUMZ), Tennessee Technological
University (TTU), U.S. National Museum
(USNM), University of Tennessee Vertebrate
Zoology Collection, Knoxville (UTKVZC), and
The University of Tennessee, Martin (UTM).
The distribution of
A. talpoideum
in Ten-
nessee, as determined in this study, is shown
in Fig. 1. Populations are known from the
Coastal Plain, northern portions of Western
Highland Rim, eastern edge of Eastern High-
land Rim, Cumberland Plateau west of the
Sequatchie Valley, and the extreme southern
end of the Unaka Mountains (Fig. 1). In
agreement with Shoup (1964) and Conant
(1975) we believe Tennessee populations in
the Unaka Mountains to be disjunct and pos-
sibly continuous with the western North
Carolina populations reported by Braswell
and Murdock (1979). Shoup (1964) consi-
dered all middle Tennessee populations to be
continuous with those in west Tennessee. In
contrast, Conant (1975) illustrated the range
of
A. talpoideum
in eastern middle Tennessee
as two disjunct entities. Based on locality
data gathered for this study, Cumberland Pla-
teau and Eastern Highland Rim populations
in middle Tennessee are considered to form a
single, continuous geographic unit which is
thought to be disjunct. However, these popu-
lations are possibly continuous with the pop-
ulation reported by Mount (1975) from Jack-
son County, Alabama. In concurrence with
Shoup (1964) and Conant (1975), we believe
populations in the northern portion of the
Western Highland Rim to be continuous with
those in the west Tennessee Coastal Plain.
Further fieldwork is needed to determine the
extent of distribution in the Eastern Highland
Rim and the possibility of the species occur-
ring continuously across north central
Tennessee.
Previous descriptions of suitable habitat
for
A. talpoideum
in Tennessee have been
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Nearly 700 taxa are assigned to 93 genera.
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Herp Review 13(3), 1982
83
Fig.1.
Distribution of
A. talpoideum
and outline of physiographic features of Tennessee as
modified from Miller (19'74). Solid circles: localities from which specimens were examined
and may denote more than one collecting site. Solid triangle: literature record believed
valid. Solid squares: county literature records — locality data lacking. Question marks:
areas in need of further investigation. Area A denotes the Coastal Plain, B -Western
Highland Rim, C - Central Basin, D -Eastern Highland Rim, E - Cumberland Plateau, F -
Sequatchie Valley, G - Valley and Ridge, and H - Unaka Mountains.
extremely brief: Endsley (1954) took one
specimen "in the river bottom near Hender-
son"; Gentry (1955) found individuals in
"small ponds" in Henry and Overton Coun-
ties; Brigham et al. (1967) collected
A. talpoi-
deum
"from a road adjacent to Booger
Swamp, a flooded woodland" in Putnam
County; and Scott and Snyder (1968) "ob-
served the species breeding in a woodland
pond" in Montgomery County. Clearly, more
information is needed for adequate portrayal
of the conditions under which the species
exists near the northern limits of its distribu-
tion. Based on recent field studies by the
authors, A. C. Echternacht, and students at
The University of Tennessee, the following
habitat data are presented. All wetland types
mentioned are those proposed and described
by Carter and Burbank (1978). On the West-
ern Highland Rim, the species has been
found mainly in forested swamps and on one
occasion (David H. Snyder pers. comm.) in a
lower bottom-land hardwood forest surround-
ing an abandoned river channel. On the
Eastern Highland Rim and Cumberland Pla-
teau, forested swamps, shrub swamps, and
dead woody swamps were found to be fre-
quent environs of the species. In Van Buren
County, individuals were taken near strip
mine ponds.
Specimens Examined
DYER CO.: Maxey, (2 specimens) - USNM
28391-28392. FRANKLIN CO.: Mingo Swamp,
2.3 km (airline) south of Broadview, 15 July
1978, (2) - UTKVZC 04136, 04603. GRUNDY
CO.: small swamp approximately 2.3 km south
of Tracy, 14 July 1978, (1) - UTKVZC 04587.
HARDEMAN CO.: small pond on U.S. High-
way 64, west of Whiteville, spring 1942, (1)
-LSUMZ uncatalogued. HENRY CO.: wood-
land pond 11.2 km east of Paris on U.S. High-
way 79, 29 December 1946, (2) - CMNH
26560-26561, (1) - LSUMZ uncatalogued,
February 1947, (2) - CMNH 27571-27572; 9.6
km east of Paris, 13 February 1949, (3) -
CMNH 28976-28978. MONROE CO.: 2.4 km
east of Ironsburg, 4 December 1945, (1) -
FMNH 84593. MONTGOMERY CO.: sink pond
along Dunlop Lane, 2.4 km (airline) northeast
of St. _Bethlehem, 11 February 1966, (13) -
APSU 1959, (2) -APSU 1968, (8) -APSU 1971,
26 February 1966, (1) - APSU 1960, 28 Febru-
ary 1966, (1) - APSU 1957; flatwoods area at
Webb Road, 3.04 km west of Port Royal Road,
30 May 1979, (1) - APSU 2823. PUTNAM CO.:
Booger Swamp, 4.8 km east of Cookeville, 12
February 1966, (1) - TTU 354, 27 March 1966,
(2) - TTU 397, 10 April 1967, (3) - TTU 665,
667-668, 2 May 1967, (2) - TTU 666, 18 July
1967, (1) - TTU 725, 7 April 1971, (1) - TTU
780, 27 April 1971, (1) - TTU 805, 7 May 1971,
(1)- TTU 882; edge of City Lake, 6 May 1967,
(1) - TTU 661; 6.4 km east of Cookeville on
U.S. Highway 70, 12 April 1967, (2) -TTU 664;
south side of Monterey Lake, 5 May 1967, (1)
-TTU uncatalogued. ROBERTSON CO.:
northern end of The Swamps, approximately
6.4 km north-northeast of Springfield, 29
June 1979, (2) - APSU 2824; eastern side of
The Swamps, approximately 6.4 km north-
northeast of Springfield, 22 February 1980,
(1) - APSU uncatalogued. SHELBY CO.: farm
pond, Cordova, 3 April 1971, (1) - MSUMZ
uncatalogued; T. 0. Fuller State Park below
bluff east of railroad tracks, 8 October 1978,
(8) - MSUMZ uncatalogued. STEWART CO.:
State Highway 120, 1.2 km north of U.S.
Highway 79, 2 April 1968, (1) - APSU 1016.
VAN BUREN CO.: State Highway 111, 1.36
km north of Van Buren and Sequatchie County
line, 12 April 1979, (1) - UTKVZC 04426; State
Highway 111, 4.4 km north of Van Buren and
Sequatchie County line, 12 April 1979, (1)
-UTKVZC 04425; State Highway 30, 7.68 km
west-northwest of Van Buren and Bledsoe
County line, 12 April 1979, (1) - UTKVZC
04418; State Highway 111, 6.08 km south of
junction with Archie Rhinehart Parkway, 16
May 1980, (1) - UTKVZC 06485; State High-
way 111, 8.96 km south of junction with
Archie Rhinehart Parkway, 16 May 1980, (5)
-UTKVZC 06491-06495; county road to Falls
Creek Falls State Park, approximately 0.16
km east of junction with State Highway 111,
(1) - UTKVZC 04586. WEAKLEY CO.: south-
ern edge of Martin near Westview High
School, 22 May 1971, (1) - UTM uncata-
logued, 2 April 1978, (1) - UTM uncatalogued,
21 April 1978, (1) - UTM uncatalogued.
WHITE CO.: swamp, 2.96 km (airline) north-
east of Macedonia Community, 17 May 1980,
(1) - UTKVZC 06519.
Literature Records
CHESTER CO.: Forked Deer River Bottoms
near Henderson (Endsley 1954). DYER CO.:
Maxey (Blanchard 1922). HENDERSON CO.:
Henderson County (Hon 1970). HENRY CO.:
Henry County (Gentry 1955, Hon 1970).
MONROE CO.: near I ronsburg (Huheey and
Stupka 1967). MONTGOMERY CO.: Mont-
gomery County (Scott and Snyder 1968, Hon
1970). OVERTON CO.: Overton County
(Gentry 1955, Hon 1970). POLK CO.: Polk
County (Dreyer and Norwood 1973). PUT-
NAM CO.: Booger Swamp, 4.8 km east of
Cookeville (Brigham, et al. 1967).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For access to specimens deposited in their
collections and their comments, the authors
are grateful to A. C. Echternacht (UTKVZC),
J. S. Jacob (MSUMZ), 0. R. Jordan (TTU),
Hymen Marx (FMNH), C. J. McCoy (CMNH),
William Nelson (UTM), D. A. Rossman
(LSUMZ), D. H. Snyder (APSU), and George
Zug (USNM).
LITERATURE CITED
Blanchard, F. N. 1922. The amphibians and
reptiles of western Tennessee. Univ. Mich-
igan Occ. Papers Mus. of Zool. (17):1-18.
Braswell, A. L. and N. M. Murdock. 1979. New
records of the salamanders
Ambystoma
talpoideum
(Holbrook) and
Hemidactylium
scutatum (Schlegel) in North Carolina
(Amphibia: Ambystomatidae and Pletho-
dontidae). Brimleyana 1:1-14.
Brigham, W. U., A. Gnilka, and R. W. Dim-
mick. 1967. A record of the mole sala-
mander,
Ambystoma talpoideum
from
Middle Tennessee. Jour. Tennessee Acad.
Sci. 42(1):28.
Carter, V. and J. H. Burbank. 1978. Wetland
classification system for the Tennessee
Valley region. Tennessee Valley Author-
ity, Div. Forestry, Fisheries, and Wildlife
Development. Tech. Note No. B24. 36 pp.
Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to the reptiles
and amphibians of eastern and central
North America. Houghton Mifflin Co.,
Boston. xviii + 429 pp.
Dreyer, P. and L. Norwood. 1973. The occur-
rence of
Ambystoma talpoideum
(neotenic
form) in Polk County, Tennessee. Jour.
Tennessee Acad. Sci. 48(4):151 (Abstr.).
Endsley, J. R. 1954. An annotated listing of a
herpetological collection mainly from
Tennessee. Jour. Tennessee Acad. Sci.
29(1):36-41.
Gentry, G. 1955. An annotated checklist of
the amphibians and reptiles of Tennessee.
Jour. Tennessee Acad. Sci. 30(2):168-176.
Hon, W. 1970. Salamanders.
In:
Amphibians
and reptiles of Tennessee. Tenn. Game
and Fish Comm., Nashville. pp. 10-14.
Huheey, J. E. and A. Stupka. 1967. Amphibi-
ans and reptiles of Great Smoky Moun-
tains National Park. Univ. of Tennessee
Press, Knoxville. ix + 98 pp.
Miller, R. A. 1974. The geologic history of
Tennessee. Tennessee Div. Geol. Bull. 74.
63 pp.
Mount, R. A. 1975. The reptiles and amphibi-
ans of Alabama. Auburn Univ. Agr. Exp.
Stn. vii + 347 pp.
Scott, A. F. and D. H. Snyder. 1968. The
amphibians and reptiles of Montgomery
County, Tennessee. Jour. Tennessee
Acad. Sci. 43(3):79-84.
Shoup, R. C. 1964.
Ambystoma talpoideum.
Cat. Amer. Amphib. Rept.:8.1-8.2.
84
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
WILLIAM H. REDMOND
Office of Natural Resources
Tennessee Valley Authority
Norris, Tennessee 37828
A. FLOYD SCOTT
and
DEBBIE ROBERTS
Department of Biology
Austin Peay State University
Clarksville, Tennessee 37040
•
A CHECKLIST OF THE
HERPETOFAUNA OF
BUTTE COUNTY,
THE BUTTE SINK
AND SUTTER BUTTES,
CALIFORNIA
This checklist summarizes some 3,000 rep-
tile and amphibian records from various
museums and contributors, in addition to
over 2,000 personal observations made over
five years (1973-1978). A detailed publication
on the herpetofauna of this region is in prepa-
ration, but this checklist may be useful to
workers and agencies until that manuscript is
published (Hayes, MS in prep.).
Each species listed is vouchered by at least
one museum specimen or recognizable pho-
tograph. Photographs are color slides depos-
ited both at California State University, Chico
and in the senior author's personal collection.
The area covered includes all of Butte County
and portions of Glenn, Colusa and Sutter
Counties in the Butte Sink, bordered by the
Sacramento River and Sutter Buttes.
Although this summary outlines the actual
herpetofauna existing within this region, it
does not pretend to be complete, but pro-
vides baseline data for future work. The
region presents numerous herpetological
problems, since much of it has been poorly
explored. Among species unrepresented is
the plethodontid salamander
Hydromantes,
whose occurrence is suggested in foothill
limestone outcrops in the Lime Saddle region
of Butte County. Recent discoveries of coast-
al plant disjuncts, such as Licorice Fern
(Polypodium glycyrrhiza),
suggest that dis-
junct populations of amphibians such as
Dicamptodon ensatus, Ascaphus truei
and
Aneides flavipunctatus
may be discovered.
Further, the Sutter Buttes pose interesting
distributional problems, such as the presence
of
Cnemidophorus tigris
and the absence of
Masticophis lateralis,
two species closely
associated with chaparral vegetation in
northern California. Many such problems
may be solved by additional field work. It is
hoped that future workers will append exist-
ing distributional data, since a thorough
understanding of an organism's distribution
is of essential value in augmenting the knowl-
edge of its biogeography, ecology and evolu-
tion.
Major classification categories are those of
Goin and Goin (1971) for amphibians and
Romer (1956, 1966) for reptiles. Brame (1967)
was followed for subordinal groupings of
salamanders, and Dowling (1975) was fol-
lowed for snake classification to the subfamil-
ial level. Tribal classification of colubrids was
omitted because these categories have not
been well defined and are largely in a state of
flux at this time (A. Savitsky, pers. comm.).
Common and scientific names follow "Stand-
ard Common and Current Scientific Names
for North American Amphibians and Rep-
tiles" by Collins
et al.
(1978). Brief comments
on distribution are restricted to the checklist
area cited.
Class AMPHIBIA - Amphibians
Superorder LEPOSPONDYLI
Order CAUDATA (URODELA) -
Salamanders
Suborder AMBYSTOMATOI DEA
Family AMBYSTOMATIDAE -
Mole Salamanders
1)
Ambystoma californiense -
California
Tiger Salamander
Recorded at a single location in a somewhat
alkaline vernal pool at Grey Lodge wildlife
refuge in southwestern Butte County.
2)
Ambystoma macrodactylum sigillatum
-Southern Long-toed Salamander
Recorded from lakes, ponds and meadows in
the higher reaches of the drainages of Butte
Creek and the Little West Branch of the
Feather River in northwestern Butte County.
All localities are above 1300 m (4330 ft).
Family PLETHODONTIDAE - Lungless
Salamanders
3)
Ensatina eschscholtzi platensis -
Sierra
Nevada Ensatina
Recorded from most of Butte County over
600 m (2000 ft), but occuring in shaded
canyons down to 400 m (1330 ft). The lower
limit of its distribution approximates the lower
limit of the distribution of Ponderosa Pine
(Pinus ponderosa).
4)
Batrachoseps attenuatus -
California
Slender Salamander
Found largely in foothill woodland and chap-
arral areas below 600 m (2000 ft). Its distribu-
tion corresponds closely with that of the Inte-
rior Live Oak (Quercus wislizenii).
It is
unrecorded north of Rock Creek in Butte
County and has not yet been found in adja-
cent Tehama County. This species occasion-
ally extends onto the valley floor via well-
developed fingers of riparian woodland. It is
recorded in the Sutter Buttes. Only rarely
sympatric with
Ensatina,
it can be found
coexisting with
Ensatina at the lower fringe of
yellow pine forest.
Suborder SALAMANDROIDEA
Family SALAMANDRIDAE - Newts
5)
Taricha granulosa granulosa -
Northern
Roughskin Newt
Recorded in the drainage of the Little West
Branch of the Feather River and all drainages
northward above 500 m (1670 ft).
6)
Taricha torosa sierrae - Sierra Newt
Found in virtually all drainages below 800 m
(2660 ft), but is largely absent where drain-
ages span the valley floor. This species exists
in sympatry with T.
granulosa
in the drain-
ages of Butte Creek and the Little West
Branch of the Feather River between 500 m
(1670 ft) and 800 m (2660 ft). It is not recorded
in the Sutter Buttes.
Superorder SALIENTIA
Order ANURA - Frogs and Toads
Suborder ANOMOCOELA
Family PELOBATIDAE - Spadefoot Toads
7)
Scaphiopus hammondi -
Western
Spadefoot
Known from higher terrace-type vernal pools
and ephemeral drainages on the valley floor
between the Pentz area and Honcut in Butte
County. All localities are between 30 m (100
ft) and 100 m (330 ft).
Suborder PROCOELA
Family BUFONIDAE - Toads
8)
Bufo boreas halophilus -
California Toad
But° boreas halophilus
X
boreas
(interg rade)
Virtually ubiquitous throughout the checklist
area at all elevations. I nterg rades
(B. b. halo-
philus
X
boreas)
are found in the region of
Chico and northward. It is absent above 1800
m (6000 ft) because of lack of breeding
habitat.
Family HYLIDAE - Treefrogs
9)
Hyla regilla deserticola -
Pacific Treefrog
Virtually ubiquitous throughout the checklist
area at all elevations. This species is also
absent above 1800 m (6000 ft) because of lack
of breeding habitat.
Suborder DIPLASIOCOELA
Family RAN IDAE - True Frogs
10)
Rana aurora draytoni -
California Red-
legged Frog
Known only from 2 locations, 2 deep-water
springs in the vicinity of Bidwell Bar at
approximately 300 m (1000 ft) of elevation.
11)
Rana boylei -
Foothill Yellow-legged Frog
Found in most drainages from the valley edge
at 90 m (300 ft) to slightly over 1500 m (5000
ft). It is absent from the valley floor, but
occurs in the Sutter Buttes.
12)
Rana cascadae -
Cascades Frog
Found in the higher reaches of the Little West
Branch of the Feather River and similar
drainages to the north over 1300 m (4330 ft). A
single anomalous location on the Anderson
Fork places this species at 230 m (770 ft) in a
stream through a chaparral location. The
locality of this specimen is suspect as no
further individuals have been found.
13)
Rana catesbeiana -
Bullfrog
The only established introduced species in
the area covered by the checklist. It is ubiqui-
tous at virtually all permanent water locations
in the valley and the lowest foothill reaches of
streams. This species is also found at isolated
outposts at higher elevations (i.e. Kunkle
Reservoir, Concow Lake).
14)
Rana muscosa -
Mountain Yellow-legged
Frog
Found in the higher reaches of Butte County
drainages over 1300 m (4330 ft). It is sympat-
ric with
R. cascadae
at virtually all known
locations. Sympatry with both
R. boylei
and
R. cascadae
is recorded at a single location
on the Little West Branch of the Feather River.
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
85
Class REPTILIA - Reptiles
Subclass ANAPSIDA
Order CHELONIA (TESTUDI NES,
TESTUDINATA) - Turtles
Suborder CRYPTODIRA
Superfamily TESTUDINOI DEA
Family TESTUDINIDAE
Subfamily EMYDINAE - Pond Turtles
15)
Clemmys marmorata marmorata
-Northwestern Pond Turtle
Occurs in most ponds, reservoirs and low
gradient drainages below 1000 m (3330 ft).
Subclass LEPIDOSAURIA
Order SQUAMATA - Lizards and Snakes
Suborder LACERTILIA (SAURIA) - Lizards
Infraorder IGUANIA
Family IGUAN I DAE - Iguanid Lizards
16)
Sceloporus occidentalis occidentalis
-Northwestern Fence Lizard
Ubiquitous throughout the checklist area
below 1900 m (6330 ft). Its distribution
becomes increasingly spotty with increased
elevation.
17)
Sceloporus graciosus graciosus
-Northern Sagebrush Lizard
Found from the highest point in Butte County
at Humboldt Peak, 2127 m (7082 ft), down to
170 m (570 ft). The distribution of this species
becomes extremely spotty below 300 m (1000
ft). This species is frequently sympatric with
S. occidentalis.
It occurs in the Sutter Buttes
above 150 m (500 ft).
18)
Phrynosoma coronatum frontale
-California Horned Lizard
Occurs at a few isolated outposts in low
grassland and open woodland sites in the vi-
cinity of Oroville and below Paradise. These
localities range from 120 m (400 ft) to 450 m
(1500 ft).
Infraorder ANGUINOMORPHA
Superfamily ANGUOIDEA
Family ANGUIDAE
Subfamily GERRHONOTINAE -
Alligator Lizards
19)
Gerrhonotus multicarinatus
multicarinatus -
California Alligator Lizard
Found virtually throughout the checklist area
below 1000 m (3330 ft).
20)
Gerrhonotus coeruleus palmeri
-
Sierra Alligator Lizard
Gerrhonotus coeruleus palmeri
X
shastensis
(intergrade)
Recorded virtually throughout the checklist
area above 900 m (3000 ft). It is absent in
regions of dense Red Fir
(Abies magnifica)
forest. Sympatry with G.
multicarinatus
is
recorded only in Butte Creek canyon. The
northeastern portion of the county is an area
of intergradation between
G. c. shastensis
and
G.
c.
palmeri.
Individuals referable to the
palmeri
subspecies are found from the Mid-
dle Fork of the Feather River and southward.
Infraorder SCINCOMORPHA
Family SCINCIDAE - Skinks
21)
Eumeces skiltonianus skiltonianus
-Western Skink
Found in scattered sites throughout the
checklist area below 1500 m (5000 ft). On the
valley floor it is often restricted to the riparian
woodland belts.
Family TEIIDAE - Whiptails
22)
Cnemidophorus tigris mundus
-California Whiptail
Scattered isolates are found in regions of
chaparral and mixed chaparral-foothill wood-
land associations between 200 m (670 ft) and
650 m (2160 ft) in Butte County. This species
also occurs in the Sutter Buttes between 140
m (470 ft) and 550 m (1830 ft) in isolated
pockets.
Suborder SERPENTES (OPHIDIA) - Snakes
Infraorder ALETHINOPHI DIA
Superfamily BOOIDEA
Family BOIDAE - Boas and Pythons
Subfamily ERYCINAE
23)
Charina bottae bottae
-
Pacific Rubber Boa
At scattered locations in open coniferous
forest above 600 m (2000 ft). It occurs also in
shaded canyons down to 400 m (1330 ft).
Superfamily CAENOPHIDIA
(COLUBROIDEA)
Family COLUBRIDAE - Colubrid Snakes
Subfamily COLUBRINAE -
Colubrine Colubrids
24)
Coluber constrictor mormon
-
Western Yellowbelly Racer
Found throughout the checklist area, absent
only from heavily shaded coniferous forest.
This species becomes very infrequent above
1800 m (6000 ft).
25)
Lampropeltis getulus californiae
-California Kingsnake
Recorded from the valley floor up to 700 m
(2330 ft) within the checklist area. Infrequent
above 600 m (2000 ft), its distribution corres-
ponds closely with the proximity of available
free water.
26)
Lampropeltis zonata multicincta
-Sierra Mountain Kingsnake
Found primarily between 400 m (1330 ft) and
1300 m (4330 ft), infrequently up to 1500 m
(5000 ft). In protected canyons, this species is
found as low as 350 m (1170 ft). Although it
has been recorded in close proximity with
L.
getulus (ca.
1 kilometer (.6 mile) ), true sym-
patry is unrecorded for the checklist area.
This species is also unrecorded from the
drainages north of Butte Creek and is absent
from the Sutter Buttes.
27)
Masticophis flagellum ruddocki
-
San Joaquin Coachwhip
Recorded only from the Sutter Buttes between
30 m (100 ft) and 150 m (500 ft).
28)
Masticophis lateralis lateralis
-
California Striped Racer
Closely associated with chaparral and brushy
vegetation between 100 m (330 ft) and 650 m
(2160 ft). It is unrecorded from the Sutter
Buttes.
29)
Pituophis melanoleucus catenifer
-Pacific Gopher Snake
Found at all elevations below 1800 m (6000
ft). This species is absent from heavily shaded
coniferous forest and becomes infrequent
above 1700 m (5660 ft).
30)
Rhinocheilus lecontei lecontei
-
Western Longnose Snake
Recorded only from the Sutter Buttes between
30 m (100 ft) and 150 m (500 ft). The existing
records are from localities with loose sandy-
loam substrates.
Subfamily NATRICINAE - Natricine Colubrids
31)
Thamnophis sirtalis fitchii
-
Valley Garter Snake
Found at all elevations below 1800 m (6000
ft). This species would probably extend its
range to the highest point in the county at
2127 m (7082 ft), but requisite habitat is
absent above 1800 m. Its distribution closely
corresponds to lentic sites with emergent
vegetation providing cover.
32)
Thamnophis couchi couchi
-
Sierra Garter Snake
Found at elevations from 100 m (330 ft) to
near 1700 m (5660 ft) within the checklist
area. This species, like T.
sirtalis,
would
probably extend its range higher in elevation
if requisite habitat existed. Closely associated
with rocky stream courses, this subspecies of
T. couchi
is absent from the valley floor por-
tion of the checklist area. It is unrecorded
from the Sutter Buttes.
Thamnophis couchi gigas
-
Giant Garter Snake
Restricted to the valley floor freshwater marsh
habitats, primarily below 40 m (130 ft). The
interface region between the
gigas
and
cou-
chi
subspecies lies at the valley-foothill edge
between 40 m and 100 m (330 ft). The degree
to which these two subspecies intergrade is
incompletely known.
33)
Thamnophis elegans elegans
-
Mountain Garter Snake
Found from the lowest foothill slope at 60 m
(200 ft) to the highest elevations within the
checklist area (Humboldt Peak at 2127 m
(7082 ft) ). Infrequent above 2000 m (6660 ft),
it is absent from the valley floor and unre-
corded in the Sutter Buttes.
Subfamily XENODONTINAE -
Xenodontine Colubrids
34)
Contia tenuis -
Sharp-tailed Snake
Found from the low foothill slope at 60 m (200
ft) to 700 m (2300 ft). This species is very
infrequent above 700 m. Its distribution is
spotty and local, corresponding well with the
availability of loose surface cover. It is also
unrecorded from the Sutter Buttes.
35)
Diadophis punctatus pulchellus
-
Coralbelly Ringneck Snake
Found on the foothill slope from 60 m (200 ft)
up to possibly 1000 m (3330 ft). The upper
limit of distribution is poorly known. It is
found much less frequently above 700 m
(2300 ft). Its distribution corresponds well
with the distribution of Big Leaf Maple
(Acer
macrophyllum) and
California Bay
(Umbellu-
laria californica)
within the elevation range
cited. Recorded from the Sutter Buttes, it is
generally absent from the valley floor. A sin-
gle record exists for Grey Lodge, but this is
undocumented by further collections. Nota-
bly, true sympatry with
Contia tenuis
has not
been recorded for the checklist area.
36)
Hypsiglena torquata nuchalata
-California Night Snake
Found on the lower foothill slope between 60
m (200 ft) and 300 m (1000 ft). Distribution of
this species correlates well with the presence
of Blue Oak
(Quercus doug/asii)
on an at
least partially rocky substrate. It is unrecorded
from the Sutter Buttes.
Family Viperidae - Vipers and Pit Vipers
Subfamily Crotalinae - Pit Vipers
86
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
Societas Europaea Herpetologica
Amphibia-Reptilia
REPRODUCTION IN
CAPTIVE
ARUBA ISLAND
RATTLESNAKES,
Crotalus unicolor
Application for Membership
Please address to
Dr Franz Tiedemann SEH
Nat ur histor isches Museum
Postfach 417
A 1014 Wien Austria
Name
Address
Date
Signature
Membership fees DM 70 00
annually (mcluding the sub-
scription to AMPHIBIA
- REPTILIA)
Order Form
(Non Members)
............ Year s subscription of
AMPHIBIA - REPTILIA (4 issues)
DM 108 00
Name
Address
Date
Signature
To
Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft
Postfach 1107
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14'ith current ex(*Itaticic
SH I (t)sts a
►
proxi
►
n
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te
BOOK REVIEW
Identification Guide to Pennsylvania Snakes
by C. J. McCoy, Jr.; Illustrated by Michael
Antonoplos. Price $1.50 + 25i postage (PA
residents add 9(D sales tax). Available from
Benedum Resource Project, Section of Edu-
cation, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, PA
15213.
This booklet, similar in format to guides
covering Kansas and Florida herps, provides
novices with quick, accurate identification of
Pennsylvania snakes. More limited in scope
than the Kansas or Florida guides, the book is
well laid out and introduced to the user. The
drawings of species are adequate for most
final identifications (PA is blessed with a
snake fauna consisting of relatively few and
fairly distinct species) and the addition of
range maps is an asset. While a couple of the
introductory statements could incorrectly be
taken as applying to snakes in general, rather
than to Pennsylvania species, I found nothing
to fault the publication and recommend it
highly to Pennsylvanians and residents of
adjacent states.
GEORGE R. PISANI
University of Kansas
•
Herpetological
Husbandry
This section of
Herpetological Review
deals spe-
cifically with the husbandry of captive reptiles and
amphibians. Articles concerning any aspect of suc-
cessful exhibit design, techniques for maintenance
and breeding, egg incubation, and rearing of the
young are acceptable based on the success of the
husbandry program, the quality of written work, and
the overall value of the presented material to the
herpetological community. Reproductive articles
should stress the actual methods and specimen
manipulation involved but may also include obser-
vations of behavior, growth, and statistical data. Of
particular interest are reports describing consist-
ently successful, long term programs which deal
with large numbers of a single species or genus.
Longer husbandry manuscripts should be divided
into appropriate sections including Literature Cited.
Black and white photos and line drawings are
acceptable. All manuscripts will be reviewed by the
Section Editor, and frequently by another individual
within the particular area of expertise. Reports
which do not deal with herpetological husbandry
per se
(for example, the description of eggs and
young from a wild-caught gravid female) will be
forwarded to the Editor for consideration as a Fea-
ture Article. In order to reduce publication time,
husbandry articles should be sent directly to the
Section Editor, Bern W. Tryon, Houston Zoological
Gardens, Houston, Texas 77001.
The Aruba Island rattlesnake Crotalus uni-
color,
is probably derived from a generalized
Crotalus durissus
stock and is found only on
Aruba Island off the coast of Venezuela. The
species is considered rare by the Interna-
tional Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN). Kauffeld and
Gloyd (1939) reported some data on a captive-
born litter from a wildbred female. Klauber
(1972) reported some data on C.
unicolor
born at San Diego Zoo. From 1973 through
1980 nine live litters and one stillborn litter
were born at the Houston Zoological Gardens.
A pair of C. unicolor
(Male A, Female A)
collected on Aruba Island were received on
27 May 1969 from a dealer. Male C was
received from a dealer on 21 June 1976 and
Female B was obtained from the Gladys Porter
Zoo sometime previous to 4 May 1976. Col-
lection data are not available for these last
two specimens. Subsequent births at the
Houston Zoological Gardens produced Male
B and Female D on 2 June 1975, Male Don 6
June 1973 and Female C on 6 September
1973.
Some specimens were exhibited in a glass-
fronted enclosure (80 X 90 X 140 cm) with a
gravel substrate. Large rocks and plastic
plants provided cover. Light was from four 20
W Vita-lites (Duro-test Corp.). Temperature
averaged 28° C and the relative humidity was
ca.
85 percent. Specimens off exhibit were
kept in various size aquaria with paper sub-
strate and hide boxes. Vita-lites were not
used for these specimens. Temperature aver-
aged 28° C with a relative humidity of ca. 75
percent.
All specimens were maintained under a
14L:1OD photoperiod throughout the year.
Water was available
ad libitum
and adult
specimens were fed mice every 14-21 days.
The specimens were occasionally separated
and reintroduced and periodically misted
with water in attempts to induce reproduction.
Specimens were weighed on a triple-beam
balance and lengths were obtained using the
squeeze box technique (Quinn and Jones,
1974).
Copulation was observed on only two
occasions, 16 October 1978 (Male C, Female
D) and 17 Septmeber 1980, (Male B, female
unknown); however, courtship behavior has
been variously recorded from 26 July to 21
October. The duration of copulation for the
17 September observation was between 7.5 to
10.0 hrs. The 16 October occurrence was not
timed. Klauber (1972) reported copulation
occuring on 14 and 21 September in captive
C.
unicolor
at the San Diego Zoo. No year was
given.
Dates of birth, number of young and their
measurements are given in Table 1. Birth
dates varied from 27 April to 6 September
with births occuring most often in May and
June (seven of nine cases). Klauber (1972)
reported 5 April, 13 May, 5 and 27 June as
The SEH was founded in 1979 by herpetologists
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rak's for the West (;errnatt Mark, memt x'rship
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Herp Review 13(3), 1982
89
TABLE 1. Data for newborn
Crofalus unicolor.
Parents
Date
# of
young
Total length(mm)
ti(range)
Tall length(mm)
i(range)
Welght(g)
i(range)
Female A
Male A
9/6/73
5
A
A
6/9/74
4
A
A
6/2/75
5
A
5/23/77
4
283'
21'
A
5/13/78
3
276(269-290)
19(17-22)
13.6(12.5-15.0)
Female B
Male A
5/4/76
3
Female C
Male D
4/27/78
4
271(260-282)
21(19-26)
13.6(13.0-14.0)
Female D
Male B
6/17/79
2
285(280-290) 14.1(13.0-15.2)
D
B
5/16/80
2
235(231-239)
20(19-20)
11.9(11.6-12.1)
'Only one
young measured
dates of birth for C.
unicolor
at the San Diego
Zoo. It was not stated if all births were the
result of captive copulation.
At the Houston Zoo, the number of live
young in nine litters was 2-5 (R=3.6). If the
number of stillborn are included to compute
potential litter size the number is 3-5 (R=4.3),
and if the number of infertile eggs expelled is
then added the number is 3-8 (i=4.6). The
above data include the 2 May 1979 birth of five
stillborn and three infertile eggs to Female A.
Kauffeld and Gloyd (1939) reported a wild-
bred female that gave birth to five young that
were stillborn or died shortly after birth. The
female died after parturition and contained
seven more dead young for a total of 12,
which is seven more than the maximum
number of live and stillborn for a single birth
in this study. Klauber (1972) reported litters
of six, seven, nine and 15 young, which is
from one to ten more than the maximum
number of live and stillborn young reported
for a single birth in this study. Based on our
data from Female A, age did not appear to be
a factor in litter size. In fact, she had progres-
sively fewer young in 1977 and 1978, and on
13 May 1979 she gave birth to five stillborn.
She also expelled single infertile eggs in
1974, 1977 and 1978 and three in 1979 along
with the five stillborn. This seems to indicate a
reduction in reproductive potential with in-
creasing age. Female A was apparently mature
(based on size) when received in 1969 and
must have been at least 11 years old in 1979.
Size of the female can not be shown to be a
factor in litter size since Female D was 746
mm in total length when she produced two
live young and one stillborn, while the speci-
men of Kauffeld and Gloyd (1939) was 758
mm, only 12 mm longer. Klauber (1972) gave
no length for a mature female. Measurements
are not available for any other females at the
Houston Zoo at the time of parturition.
The total length of all new-born that were
measured during this study was 231-290 mm
(R=269; N=12) while the total length of all still-
born young measured was 211-295 mm
(R=243; N=10). The two smallest newborn
were 231 and 239 mm total length and may
have been premature since they both died of
yolk impaction and unabsorbed yolk sac 3-4
wks after birth. The measurements reported
by Kauffeld and Gloyd (1939) of three new-
born (187-205 mm; R-198 mm) apparently
indicate a premature birth, since the mea-
sured specimens and all others born at the
same time or recovered from the dead mother
were dead, or died, shortly after birth. Klauber
(1972) reported two lengths for newborn C.
unicolor.
The smallest specimen measured
230 mm, the average of an unspecified number
of young was 235 mm. Assumedly, these
measurements represent C.
unicolor
born at
the San Diego Zoo. The tail lengths of all
measured live-born young at the Houston
Zoo was 17.0-25.5 mm (7=20.0; N=10) and the
weight was 9.2-15.1 g (R=13.0; N=12). Kauf-
feld and Gloyd (1939) and Klauber (1972) did
not report specimen weights.
The coloration and pattern of newborn and
juveniles was as reported by Kauffeld and
Gloyd (1939) and Klauber (1972).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to the staff of the Depart-
ment of Herpetology, Houston Zoological
Gardens for assistance during this study.
LITERATURE CITED
Kauffeld, C. F. and H. K. Gloyd. 1939. Notes
on the Aruba rattlesnake, Crotalus uni-
color.
Herpetologica 1(6):156-160.
Klauber, L. M. 1972. Rattlesnakes: Their Hab-
its, Life Histories and Influence on Man-
kind. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley and Los
Angeles, Vols. I and II, 2nd ed. xxxx 740
pp.
Quinn, H. and J. P. Jones. 1974. Squeeze box
technique for measuring snakes. Herp.
Review 5(2):35.
GARY CARL*
KARL H. PETERSON
and
ROBERT M. HUBBARD
Department of Herpetology
Houston Zoological Gardens
P.O. Box 1562
Houston, TX 77001
'Present Address:
Department of Herpetology
Fort Worth Zoological Park
Fort Worth, TX 76110
•
PREDATORY BEHAVIOR
OF "NERVOUS"
RATTLESNAKES,
Crotalus durissus
terrificus
It has previously been reported that striking
prey induces high rates of tongue flicking in
rattlesnakes (Chiszar, Radcliffe, and Scudder,
1977; Chiszar, Radcliffe, and Smith, 1978)
and cantils (Chiszar, Simonsen, Radcliffe,
and Smith, 1979). Further, it has been argued
that strike-induced tongue flicking (also called
chemosensory searching) is a modal action
pattern which normally brings the snake into
the vicinity of its now dead prey so that swal-
lowing behavior can be released by cues aris-
ing from the carcass (see Burghardt, 1970, for
a review of the literature on chemical cue
utilization by reptiles). Accordingly, when a
predatory strike occurs, chemosensory search-
ing should be released and the rest of the
predatory chain should unfold. Often a rattle-
snake which has consistently refused food
can be instigated to eat if it can be made to
exhibit chemosensory searching consequent
to striking a prey object even for defensive
reasons. This strengthens our belief that
strike-induced chemosensory searching is a
modal action pattern and that the predatory
sequence is a response chain in which execu-
tion of each element predisposes the snake to
engage in the next element. Although strong
sequential dependencies exist between some
components of the response chain (Dulle-
meijer, 1961; Duvall et al., 1978), variations in
the usual temporal ordering of components
are known to occur and even to be character-
istic of individual snakes. For example, some
specimens will exhibit chemosensory search-
ing and ingestion without first striking prey
(Klauber, 1956; Patten and Banta, 1980).
Accordingly, it seems most appropriate to
regard rattlesnake predatory behavior as an
open reaction chain as opposed to a closed or
fixed program (Mayr, 1974).
Some rattlesnakes are especially defensive
and exhibit ritualized threatening behaviors
because of very slight movements of keepers
or their equipment. Even if striking prey acts
to induce chemosensory searching in such a
snake, the animal's attentional priorities may
override this effect. Defensive behaviors
rather than chemosensory searching may
occur, or, a mixture of both behaviors may
emerge. The present experiment was designed
to evaluate this possibility.
METHOD AND MATERIAL
Subjects were six specimens of
Crotalus
durissus terrificus.
The animals were approx-
imately three yr. old and had been in captivity
for 21/2 yrs. Three of these snakes were
extremely defensive, exhibiting coiling, rat-
tling, and head hiding upon being approached
by experimenters. The other three animals
showed such responses only upon strong
provocation and usually exhibited investiga-
tory behavior (Chiszar et al., 1976) when
experimenters approached the cages (see
also Armstrong and Murphy, 1979).
Each snake was observed in two condi-
tions. In Condition A a mouse was suspended
into the snake's cage for three s and held just
out of striking range. Condition B was exactly
like Condition A except the snake was allowed
to strike the mouse at the end of three s. In
both cases the mouse was removed at once,
and immediately a perforated plastic box
containing a different, envenomated, dead
mouse was placed into the cage approxi-
mately 20 cm from the snake. This procedure
has two advantages as compared to testing
90
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
60 -
50 -
40
E
30
ift
I
.
20 -
Nondefensive
5n01,0$
Defensive
ralgiju
t
Condition B
(strike)
Condition A
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Successive Minutes
Fig. 1.
Mean number of tongue flicks emitted
Condition A
(no strike)
WOODCARVINGS FROM 8 FOOT
KOMODO DRAGON (180M) TO 2 INCH
HATCHLING LEATHERBACK (22c4
AS SEEN AT SSAR/HL MEETINGS SINCE 1979.
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Herp Review 13(3), 1982
91
snakes with the mouse used in the initial
presentation: (1) Since in Condition A the
snakes did not have an opportunity to strike,
any envenomated mouse used in the subse-
quent test of chemosensory searching must
be struck by a different snake. By using mice
envenomated by different (but conspecific)
snakes in all tests (including Condition B), we
hold this factor constant, otherwise source of
envenomation would be confounded with our
two experimental conditions; (2) By having
an envenomated mouse ready prior to all
tests we are able to begin the chemosensory
searching observations immediately after the
three s mouse presentations. This eliminates
any confounding delays that would be occa-
sioned by waiting for mice to die in Condition
B.
All tongue flicks emitted by the snakes
were recorded for five min following intro-
duction of the dead mouse. The two condi-
tions were administered on successive days
and snakes had been fasted for two mo prior
to these tests.
RESULTS
Figure 1 presents mean number of tongue
flicks emitted by the defensive and nondefen-
sive snakes in each of the test conditions. It is
obvious that striking induced chemosensory
searching in both groups (F= 38.21, df = 1/4, P
< .01).
The defensive snakes showed a much smaller
chemosensory searching effect after striking
than the nondefensive snakes; in fact, the lin-
ear and quadratic components of the strike
and no-strike functions were significantly
smaller in the former than in the latter animals
(F = 3.90, df = 2/16, P < .05).
DISCUSSION
That striking induced chemosensory search-
ing even in the defensive snakes is evidence
of the reliability of this phenomenon. How-
ever, the reduced magnitude of the effect of
striking in the defensive snakes required
by three nondefensive and three defensive
specimens of C.
d. terrificus
during five suc-
cessive minutes after seeing a mouse (Condi-
tion A) and after seeing and striking a mouse
(Condition B).
explanation, assuming that the present find-
ing based on small samples can be regarded
as a characteristic difference between defen-
sive and nondefensive rattlesnakes. Our view
is that defensive snakes have lower thresh-
olds for activation of ritualized threat re-
sponses and that the occurrence of these
responses interferes with the simultaneous
occurrence of predatory behavior, including
the emission of high rates of tongue flicking.
In support of this idea it should be said that
after the tests described in this paper, all
snakes were offered the mouse they had
struck at the start of Condition B. The three
nondefensive snakes accepted their prey
immediately and all had finished swallowing
within 10 min. The defensive snakes began to
eat only after the experimenters left the room,
and they finished swallowing after 40 min.
Probably the latter snakes would not eat as
long as a person was in the laboratory, indi-
cating that (1) these snakes responded de-
fensively to stimuli that were ignored by the
nondefensive snakes, and (2) striking prey
did not produce a complete shift in attention
from threat-eliciting to feeding-related cues.
The last point is especially interesting for
three reasons. First, we had previously be-
lieved that striking prey was an unconditional
releaser of chemosensory searching; this view
must now be modified. Second, in our expe-
rience some defensive rattlesnakes have been
switched completely into chemosensory
searching by striking; these snakes would
then swallow a dead mouse immediately
upon encountering it, even if human observers
remained nearby. Accordingly, it may be
theoretically important to learn what distin-
guishes those defensive snakes that are
induced to feed by striking a mouse from
those that are not. Third, we believe it opera-
tionally useful to assume that when a rattle-
snake strikes a mouse a search image (Croze,
1971; Dawkins, 1971, Tinbergen, 1960) is
formed in the snake's central nervous system.
The search image is conceptualized as a neu-
ral representation of an envenomated dead
mouse, and its function is to provide the basis
for the snake's ability to trail and locate the
rodent carcass (Chiszar et al., in press). In
essence, asserting the existence of a search
image is tantamount to saying that the snake
"knows what it is looking for." The search
image is akin to a memory trace, and, as such,
it is subject to decay over time. Our results
indicate that the search image remains avail-
able for at least 30 min in most rattlesnakes,
and considerably longer in some individuals
(Scudder, in prep; Radcliffe and Chiszar, in
prep). If we assume that allowing a snake to
strike a mouse results in defensive reactions
(because of the keeper's presence) and the
activation of a predatory search image, we
can hypothesize that the duration of defen-
sive behavior will be a critical parameter. If
the defensive reactions, which preclude most
aspects of feeding behavior, outlast the search
image, the snake may cause itself to lose the
representation of its now dead prey. Since
this representation appears to be a necessary
condition for trailing and swallowing (Chis-
zar et al., 1977; Duvall et al., 1978), its loss
may preclude ingestion. This may explain
why some particularly defensive snakes never
or rarely eat in captivity, even when they can
be induced to strike a prey item.
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Herp Review 13(3), 1982
r
LITERATURE CITED
Armstrong, B. L. and J. B. Murphy. 1979. The
natural history of mexican rattlesnakes.
Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist., Spec. Publ.
5:1-88.
Burghardt, G. M. 1970. Chemical perception
in reptiles. In J. W. Johnston, D. G. Moul-
ton, and A. Turk (Eds.), Communication
by chemical signals. Appleton-Century-
Crofts. New York. Pp. 241-308.
Chiszar, D., T. Carter, L. Knight, L. Simonsen,
and S. Taylor. 1976. Investigatory behav-
ior in the plains garter snake
(Thamnophis
radix) and
several additional species. Anim.
Learn. Beh. 4:273-278.
Chiszar, D., D. Duvall, K. Scudder, and C. W.
Radcliffe. In press. Simultaneous and
successive discriminations between en-
venomated and nonenvenomated mice by
rattlesnakes
(Crotalus durissus
and C.
vir-
idis).
Behay. Neural Biol.
Chiszar, D., C. W. Radcliffe and K. M. Scudder.
1977. Analysis of the behavioral sequence
emitted by rattlesnakes during feeding
episodes. I. Striking and chemosensory
searching. Behay. Biol. 21:418-425.
Chiszar, D., C. W. Radcliffe and H. M. Smith.
1978. Chemosensory searching for
wounded prey by rattlesnakes is released
by striking: a replication report. Herp. Rev.
9:54-56.
Chiszar, D., L. Simonsen, C. W. Radcliffe and
H. M. Smith. 1979. Rate of tongue flicking
by cottonmouths
(Agkistrodon piscivorus)
during prolonged exposure to various food
odors, and strike-induced chemosensory
searching by the cantil
(Agkistrodon bili-
neatus).
Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci. 82:49-54.
Croze, A. 1971. Searching image in carrion
crows. Zeitschrift kir Tierpsychol. Suppl.
5:1-86.
Dawkins, M. 1971. Perceptual changes in
chicks: Another look at the "search image"
concept. Anim. Behay. 19:556-574.
Dullemeijer, P. 1961. Some remarks on the
feeding behaviour of rattlesnakes. Koninki.
Nederl. Acad. van Wetenschappen, Serie
C. 64:383-396.
Duvall, D., D. Chiszar, J. Trupiano, and C. W.
Radcliffe. 1978. Preference for enven-
omated rodent prey by rattlesnakes. Bull.
Psychon. Soc. 11:7-8.
Klauber, L. M. 1956. Rattlesnakes - their hab-
its, life histories, and influence on man-
kind. Univ. Calif. Press. Berkeley, Calif.,
Vol. 1, Pp. 644-645.
Mayr, E. 1974. Behavior programs and evolu-
tionary strategies. Amer. Sci. 62:650-
659.
Patten, R. B. and B. H. Banta. 1980. A rattle-
snake,
Crotalus ruber,
feeds on a road-
killed animal. J. Herpetol. 14:111-112.
Radcliffe, C. W. and D. Chiszar. In prepara-
tion. Rattlesnake feeding behavior: Dura-
tion of the chemosensory searching effect
of a predatory strike.
Scudder, K. M. In preparation. Strike induced
chemosensory searching in rattlesnakes.
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado,
Dept. of E.P.O. Biology.
Tinbergen, L. 1960. The natural control of
insects in pinewoods. 1. Factors influenc-
ing the intensity of predation by song-
birds. Archives Neerlandaises de Zoolo-
gie. 13:265-343.
DAVID CHISZAR
Dept. of Psychology
University of Colorado
Boulder, Colo. 80309
CHARLES W. RADCLIFFE
Denver Zoological Gardens
City Park
Denver, Colorado 80205
HOBART M. SMITH
Dept. of E.P.O. Biology
University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado 80309
•
STANDARD COMMON AND CURRENT SCIENTIFIC NAMES FOR
NORTH AMERICAN AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES
(Second Edition)
By Joseph T. Collins, Roger Conant, James E. Huheey,
James L. Knight, Eric M. Rundquist and Hobart M. Smith
Available in summer 1982. The first edition of this reference, issued in 1978 as SSAR
Herpetological Circular
No. 7, quickly became a
standard reference for herpetologists, biologists, zoos, museums, conservation organizations, wildlife societies, book publishers, and
Federal and state wildlife agencies. This second, revised edition is an up-date listing over 1300 common and scientific names for species
and subspecies of North American (north of Mexico) salamanders, frogs and toads, crocodilians, turtles, lizards, and snakes. New
features in this edition (not in the 1978 version) are an appendix of Hawaiian amphibians and reptiles, the inclusion of the names of
describers for all genera, species and subspecies, and the addition of a table comparing the number of currently recognized subspecies
with those listed in earlier publications. The SSAR Committee on Common and Scientific Names (shown above) considered over 50
proposed changes for this edition, the majority of which were adopted.
TO ORDER SSAR HERPETOLOGICAL CIRCULAR NO. 12* .... $3.00 Payment
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Journal of
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and the
Facsimile Reprints in Herpetology
series.
•
Herpetological Circulars are no longer distributed free to SSAR members; individuals desiring copies of this and future numbers should
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Herp Review 13(3), 1982
93
Table I.
Blood parasites found in some amphibians and reptiles from Amazonian Peru.
LIFE HISTORY
NOTES
LIFE HISTORY NOTES
is analagous to
Geographic Distribution. Individual notes are
to concern only one species, and authors are
requested to choose a keyword which
BEST
describes the nature of their note
(e.g.,
Reproduction, Longevity, Coloration, Morph-
ology,
etc.).
Figures are permissible to illus-
trate any data, but should
REPLACE
words
rather than embellish them. The section's
intent is to convey information rather than
demonstrate prose. Articles will still be re-
viewed and edited prior to acceptance.
General format is: SCIENTIFIC NAME in
caps (Common Name in parentheses — use
Collins,
et
a/. 1978. STANDARD COMMON
AND CURRENT SCIENTIFIC NAMES FOR
NORTH AMERICAN AMPHIBIANS AND REP-
TILES, for North American forms). KEYWORD
in caps. Data on the animal (references may
be
briefly
cited in text —
DO NOT
include
complete literature reviews — use summary
articles wherever possible). Place of deposi-
tion or intended deposition of specimen(s)
and catalog number(s). Then, skip a line and
close with Submitted by (Name(s) in caps)
(addresses). Recommended citation for items
appearing in this section is as for Geographic
Distribution notes.
AMPHIBIA/REPTILIA.
HEMOPARASITES.
During the MPM Kuehn-Amazon Expedi-
tion (Oct.-Dec. 1974) 102 amphibians and
reptiles were surveyed for hemoparasites.
Samples were obtained at four different loca-
tions in Amazonian Peru; near Centro Union
(CU), Iquitos (I), Mishana (M) and Yanamono
(Y) (see Dixon and Soini. 1975. Milwaukee
Pub. Mus. Contrib. Biol. Geol. No. 4:1-58.)
Because customs policies were in a political
flux we were unable to utilize scientific materi-
als shipped into Peru. The study was com-
pleted with whatever materials obtainable
and the quality of the slides permitted a relia-
ble decision only on positive blood smears.
Blood was obtained by heart puncture or a
caudal or limb stab with a disposable scalpel.
Blood smears were air-dried, fixed in methanol
and stored for later examination. Because,
there is so little information concerning the
distribution of many amphibian and reptile
parasites (Ayala. 1978. J. Protozool. 25(1):87-
100.), especially from Amazonia (Guerrero
and Ayala. 1977. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao
Paulo 19(5):283-288.) we present the results
of the survey (Table I).
Funding for the MPM-Kuehn Amazon Ex-
pedition was provided primarily by the James
H. Kuehn Research Fund, with supplemental
funding via Friends of the Museum and Max
Allen's Zoological Gardens. Dr. James R.
Dixon, Sherman and Marge Ketcham, Robert
Henderson, Janice Mahlberg and Pekka Soini
assisted in various ways. Dr. William Duellman
identified the hylid frogs.
Species (useable blood films)
Amphibians
Frogs
Bufonidae
Bufo marinus
(3)
Bufo typhonius
(17)
Dendrobatidae
Colostethus marchesianus
(1)
Hylidae
Hyla lanciformis
(4)
Hyla marmorata
(1)
Osteocephalus taurinus
(1)
Reptiles
Lizards
Gekkonidae
Gonatodes humeralis
(6)
Teiidae
Ameiva ameiva
(5)
Prionodactylus argulus (1)
Snakes
Colubridae
lmantodes lentiferus
(1)
Leptodeira annulata
(1)
Crocodilians
Alligatoridae
Caiman crocodilus
(2)
Submitted by
MAX A. NICKERSON
Head
-Vertebrate Division Milwaukee Public Museum
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233 and
STEVE
AYALA
Seccibn de Parasitologia
a Facultad de
Medicina Universidad del Valle AA2188 Cali,
Columbia. •
GYMNOPHIONA
T'YPHLONECTES COMPRESSICAUDUS
(Aquatic Caecilian).
REPRODUCTION.
Typhlonectes
is known to be viviparous, but
little published information on captive repro-
duction is available. Breeding habits of T.
compressicaudus
have been described in
detail (Murphy
et
a/., 1977, Copeia: 66-69),
and a single young was produced at Cincin-
nati Zoo in 1970 (D. Jardine, pers. comm.)
and died after approximately six weeks.
On 22 March 1981, the Oklahoma City Zoo
obtained a female T.
compressicaudus,
which
was housed in an aquarium with a male
already in the collection. On 24 April 1981, the
male died. No mating was observed during
the brief interim they were together, and it is
conceivable that the female arrived at the zoo
in gravid condition. In late September, a few
small protuberances were noticed along the
flanks of the female, and during the evening
of 2-3 October she gave birth to four young.
These measured approximately 11, 12, 12,
and 14 cm total length. The smallest retained
the oviductal gill sac until midday, 4 October;
the others shed this member shortly after
parturition, prior to being discovered. All
neonates were slate-black in colour, slightly
lighter along the lateral grooves, and re-
sembled thinner versions of the adult.
The young were transferred to an aquarium
provided with undergravel filtration, several
large, smooth rocks, and a layer of fine,
Site
Hemogregarines (1)
M
Hemogregarines (3)
M
Trypanosomes (2)
Trypanosomes (1) (3 forms)
M
Trypanosomes (1)
M
Dactylosoma
(1)
M
Hemogregarines? (1)
M
Plasmodium gonatodi
(1)
CU
Plasmodium
sp. (3)
M
Hemogregarines (1)
Microfilaria (1)
Pirhaemocyton
(Virus) (1)
Hemogregarine (1)
Hemogregarines (1)
Y
Hemogregarines (1)
coarse gravel. Water temperature ranged from
21.5-22° C. The first feeding of chopped
earthworms was readily accepted; subse-
quently, they have taken whole young earth-
worms and tubifex worms. Each caecilian
shed the entire skin six days after birth, and a
second shedding followed by the 16th day.
The smallest specimen died in March 1982,
and the other young were placed on public
exhibit. They have since accepted young
crickets, small snails and finely chopped
horsemeat.
Prior to parturition, the female showed no
unusual behavior and fed regularly on earth-
worms, snails and horsemeat. She escaped
the week after giving birth and has since been
assumed dead. While it is possible mating
occurred at the zoo, it was not observed. Had
the female arrived gravid, gestation of the
young would have been at least six months.
Submitted by
ROBERT GEORGE SPRACK-
LAND,
416 NW 94th Street, Oklahoma City,
OK 73114, U.S.A. •
CROCODILIA
ALLIGATOR SINENSIS
(Chinese alligator).
REPRODUCTION/AGING.
A female
A. sinen-
sis
was received 28 September 1937 by the
National Zoological Park from the National
Geographic-Smithsonian Institution Expedi-
tion to the East Indies. On 22 March 1976, she
was sent to the Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge,
Grand Chenier, Louisiana, for inclusion in a
New York Zoological Park breeding program
(Behler, J. 1977. Herp. Rev. 8(4):124-125). In
August 1980, this female laid 21 eggs from
which eight hatchlings were produced. This
is the oldest, known-age crocodilian to suc-
cessfully reproduce. The female is still alive in
a breeding situation.
Hemoparasites (no. infected)
94
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
Submitted by
MICHAEL L. DAVENPORT,
Department of Herpetology, National Zoo-
logical Park, Washington, D.C. 20008 •
CROCODYLUS CATAPHRACTUS
(Slender-
snouted crocodile).
REPRODUCTION/AGE-
ING.
A "young adult" female C.
cataphractus
was received 7 August 1940 by the National
Zoological Park from the Smithsonian-Fire-
stone Expedition to Liberia. On 23 July 1980,
she laid 18 eggs while on breeding loan to
Metrozoo, Miami, Florida. Thirteen eggs were
fertile; one egg hatched but the hatchling
died within several days. The female is still
alive in a breeding situation.
Though the literature is contradictory (Neil,
W. T. 1971. The Last of the Ruling Reptiles ....
pp. 1-486; Yadav, R. N. 1979. Int. Zoo. Yearb.
19:66-68; Yangprapakorn, U.
et al.
1971. IUCN
Publ. n.s. suppl. 32:98-101), the majority of
authors and this note indicate that old cro-
codilians are capable of successful reproduc-
tion and should not be discounted from cap-
tive breeding programs.
This has been written through the coopera-
tion of John Behler and Peter Brazaitis of the
New York Zoological Park, Ted Joanen and
Larry McNease of the Rockefeller Wildlife
Refuge, and William Zeigler of Metrozoo.
Submitted by
MICHAEL L. DAVENPORT,
Department of Herpetology, National Zoo-
logical Park, Washington, D.C. 20008 •
SAURIA
HOLBROOKIA MACULATA
(Lesser Earless
Lizard).
COLORATION.
A small sample of
Holbrookia maculata
was collected from
slopes of the east shore of Parker Canyon
Lake, Huachuca Mountains, Cochise County,
Arizona on 6-8 June, 1972. The habitat is at an
elevation of about 1560 m. The sample con-
sists of two males and four females, one of the
latter being essentially patternless (Figure 1).
The dorsal color of this specimen (UCM
54206) is a uniform grayish-brown. There is a
diffuse longitudinal stripe on each side, gray
in color, which replaces the faint lateroventral
bars exhibited by the other females. The
specimen differs in color from representa-
tives of H. m. ruthveni,
the Bleached Earless
Lizard, in retention of the usual intensity of
pattern background pigmentation. The ven-
tral color of all specimens is white.
The correct subspecific identity is in doubt,
although a short-tailed form is indicated. The
tail/total length ratios for individuals with
intact tails = males: 45 and 49%; females: 44,
45, and 48%. Smith's (1946, Handbook of
lizards. Comstock., p. 115) key provides an
identity of
H. m. approximans,
but the speci-
mens lack the small, light dorsal spots that
appear to characterize individuals of this
subspecies. In addition, the specimens have
supraocular-frontal scale contact, a charac-
ter used by Smith and Taylor (1950, An anno-
tated checklist and key to the reptiles of Mex-
ico exclusive of the snakes. U.S. Nat. Mus.
Bull. 199., p. 82) to distinguish
H. m. elegans
from
H. m. approximans.
Because
H. m. ele-
gans
is not known to occur in the U.S., a
positive allocation of the specimens to sub-
species is not warranted.
I thank Dr. Hobart M. Smith for the photo-
graph used in Figure 1. The sample has been
deposited in the herpetological collection of
the University of Colorado Museum (UCM
54206-54211).
Submitted by
HARRY L. TAYLOR,
Depart-
ment of Biology, Regis College, Denver,
Colorado 80221. •
XANTUSIA RIVERSIANA
(Island Night
Lizard).
COLORATION.
Xantusia riversiana
lives on only three islands off the coast of
southern California (Santa Barbara, San
Clemente and San Nicholas Islands). Bezy
et
al.
(1980. pp. 565-583
in:
The California
Islands, Dennis M. Power, ed., Santa Barbara
Mus. of Nat. Hist.) compared
X. riversiana
on
all three islands with respect to electrophor-
etic differences, karyotypes, scalation, colora-
tion, body size, clutch size, and variability.
Color patterns in
X. riversiana
were described
as highly variable including uniform, striped
and mottled patterns. Bezy
et
a/. noted that
the mottled pattern occurs on all three islands
while the striped pattern occurs on only San
Clemente and San Nicholas Islands and the
uniform pattern is present on only San Nicho-
las Island.
In the course of an ecological study on
Santa Barbara Island, we have captured five
lizards which had the striped pattern (Figure
1). These individuals represent 3.3% of the
154 lizards marked thus far. Perhaps this
pattern was overlooked if, as suggested by
Bezy
et
al., the pattern is found only in local
pockets.
Submitted by
GARY M. FELLERS
National
Park Service 450 Golden Gate Ave. San Fran-
cisco, CA 94102 and
CHARLES A. DROST
Channel Islands National Park 1901 Spin-
naker Dr. Ventura, CA 93001. •
SERPENTES
AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS
(Cotton-
mouth).
HYBRIDIZATION.
In an account of
hybridization within Reptilia, Porter (1973.
Herpetology, W. B. Sanders Co., Philadel-
phia) noted that "compared to the Amphibia,
reptiles seem to hybridize very infrequently."
He then proceeded to summarize the reported
instances of hybridization between reptiles
(P. 441). Among them were several involving
crotaline snakes, including an intergeneric
cross. He cited no records of hybridization
between species of
Agkistrodon,
however,
nor have we found any. Following is a general
account of such an instance.
On October 14, 1979, the junior author
noted copulation involving a male copper-
head,
Agkistrodon contortrix,
and a female
cottonmouth, A. piscivorus,
in his posses-
sion. The snakes were in copula for at least 45
min. The copperhead was collected in Talla-
poosa Co., Alabama, and the cottonmouth in
Collier Co., Florida, where the incident took
place. They had been in captivity together for
approximately 3 years.
The cottonmouth gave birth to 6 young dur-
ing the first week of the following August
(1980). Examination of the neonates, all of
which seemed perfectly healthy and normal,
revealed their obviously hybrid nature. Mea-
surements were not taken, but all were within
the usual size ranges of neonatal
Agkistrodon.
Two of the snakes refused to eat and ulti-
mately died. The remaining 4 took mice and
remained active and healthy until June, 1981.
In early August, 1981, two more died, after a
lengthy period of repeatedly regurgitating
their food. The junior author, and amateur,
was unaware of the importance of preserving
the dead snakes and discarded them. Of the
remaining two, one was presented to a physi-
cian in Gainesville, Florida and the other to
the senior author. The latter (Fig. 1) is pres-
ently (1 June 1982) active, feeding well, and in
apparent good health in the Auburn Univer-
sity Museum.
The snake's dorsum has 23 scale rows at
midbody and is intermediate in color pattern,
although it resembles that of a cottonmouth
somewhat more than that of a copperhead.
The shape and color of the head and the
pattern on the belly more closely resemble
those of a copperhead. The presence or
absence of a loreal and other descriptive
. details must await a more thorough examina-
tion of the animal than that to which are willing
to subject it as this time.
Flg.1.
Three female specimens of
Holbrookia
maculata
from the vicinity of Parker Canyon
Lake, Huachuca Mountains, Cochise County,
Arizona illustrating representative color pat-
terns present in the population (left, UCM
54210; center, UCM 54206; right, UCM 54207).
Figure 1.
Striped pattern of
Xantusia riversi-
ana
on Santa Barbara Island.
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
95
Submitted by
JAMES L. GLENN,
Hogle Zoo-
logical Gardens and Venom Research Labor-
atory, VA Medical Center, Salt Lake City, UT
84108. •
.
-
'
/„(4
,\
■
v
4
%1 \
Figure 1.
Hybrid between
Agkistrodon con-
tortrix
(Tallapoosa Co., Alabama) and
A. pis-
civorus
(Collier Co., Florida) in the Auburn
University Museum.
We thank Dr. J. L. Dobie, G. W. Folkerts and
R. E. Mirarchi for their constructive criticism
of the manuscript. Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station Journal No. 15-810094.
Submitted by
ROBERT H. MOUNT,
Depart-
ment of Zoology-Entomology, School of
Agricultural, Forestry, and Biological Scien-
ces, Auburn University, Auburn University,
AL 36849 and
JOHN CECIL,
2714 Barrett
Avenue, Naples, FL 33942. •
DIADOPHIS PUNCTATUS EDWARDSI
(Northern Ringneck Snake).
SIZE.
A large
Diadophis punctatus edwardsi
was caught by
Robert Spalding, Jr. on 7 May 1982 as it
crossed a U. S. Forestry Service road in Chero-
kee National Forest, Monroe Co., Tennessee.
The snake is a female with a total length of
706 mm (568 mm SVL, 138 mm TL).
The record length for
D. p. edwardsi
is
reported as 625 mm by Conant (1975. A field
guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern
and central North America, Houghton Mifflin
Co., Boston).
The snake is presently on loan to the Chatta-
nooga Nature Center and is being maintained
by John Muir, South Pittsburg, Tennessee.
Submitted by
JOHN R. FREEMAN,
Biology
Department, University of Tennessee at Chatta-
nooga, Chattanooga, TN 37402 and
CHAR-
LOTTE C. FREEMAN,
Girls' Preparatory
School, Chattanooga, TN 37405. •
MASTICOPHIS LATERALIS
(California
Striped Racer).
FOOD.
On 22 April 1973 at ca.
1015 hours, a specimen of
Masticophis latera-
lis
was observed eating an adult
Gerrhonotus
multicarinatus.
The snake and lizard were in
an oak-shaded ravine 0.5 km west of Carbon
Canyon, Orange County, California. The lizard
was approximately one third swallowed when
the snake, apparently disturbed by my pres-
ence, disgorged it. The lizard immediately ran
for shelter beneath the dense undergrowth.
The snake was captured and measured (total
length = 98.2 cm, with a portion of its tail
missing).
A second specimen of M.
lateralis
was
observed in direct sunlight on 2 July 1977 at
0945 hours, eating a subadult
Sceloporus
orcutti.
Once again the snake disgorged the
lizard as I approached, and both escaped.
The latter observation occurred in Idyllwild
County Park, Riverside County, California.
Though M.
lateralis
is known to prey upon
lizards (Klauber, Bull. Zool. Soc. San Diego
8:1-93, 1931; Stebbins, Amphibians and Rep-
tiles of Western North America, McGraw Hill
Book Co., New York, 536 pp., 1954), these are
the first observations of these two lizard spe-
cies as prey.
Submitted by
JAMES W. CORNETT,
Natural
Science Department, Palm Springs Desert
Museum, P.O. Box 2288, Palm Springs, Cali-
fornia 92263. •
NAJA NAJA NAJA
(Indian Cobra).
COLOR-
ATION.
Madras, So. India. While touring
southern India in March, 1981, I had the for-
tunate experience of observing and photo-
graphing one of the rarest hood markings in
cobras. An adult,
Naja naja naja
had been
recently obtained by the Madras Snake Park,
Madras, South India, and apparently was col-
lected locally. Bob Larson (Hogle Zoo, Salt
Lake City, Utah), at the time employed at the
Snake Park, had noticed the unusual nature
of the hood design and had isolated the spec-
imen for further examination. The dorsal
hood marking was similar to the description
of Deraniyagala (1960, The Taxonomy of the
Cobras of South Eastern Asia, Spol. Zeyl.
Geol. Zool. Anthropol., 29:41-43) who des-
cribed five types of dorsal hood markings in
Asian cobras, and added an additional sixth
type as follows: "An additional type of mark-
ing sometimes occurs between the back of
the head and the main hood marking. This
consists of a row of two to six white spots with
dark margins
which might be connected
to
form a transverse bar across the hood ante-
rior to the two main ocelli of the spectacles
marking. This is the color variety
polyocellata
Deraniyagala and such cobras only exist in
Ceylon and Southern India." Plates III and IV
in Deraniyagala's report illustrate various
markings above the spectacle design in
Naja
n. naja
specimens from Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
He notes that approximately 20% of the Cey-
lon cobras exhibited markings in this hood
region, which he terms a color variety
poly-
ocellata
(not a subspecies). He further adds
that this variety is rarer in Southern India than
in Ceylon. Two small white spots in this hood
region are also illustrated by Deoras (1971,
The Story of Some Indian Poisonous Snakes.
In: Venomous Animals and Their Venoms,
Vol. II, Academic Press, N.Y., pp 41-63).
In this specimen, the white zig-zag design
bordered by dark margins formed a twin-
peak-like mountain scene, extending straight
across the dorsal hood region approximately
midway between the back of the head and the
spectacle design (Figure I a). The ventral
view (Figure 1b) appeared normal, as did
other body markings.
It is impossible to judge how common this
hood design is in the region by quizzing the
local Irula "snake catchers" or the local snake
charmers ("magicians"). They show little
interest in such matters and will often favor
you with "what they think you want to hear."
However, Romulus Whitaker, Director of the
Madras Snake Park, is undoubtedly one of
the most knowledgeable and experienced
herpetologists in India. He has seen thou-
sands of cobra skins in the markets, plus
hundreds of live cobras from the region. He
said this pattern was highly unusual and he
had never noticed it before in his experience.
He further noted, as did other Snake Park
employees, that they had seen cobras with
either black or white spots in this hood
region, and this was fairly common.
Regardless of how unique this hood mark-
ing is, it represents one of the most ornate
and attractive designs in cobra hood patterns.
This information has been reported through
the permission of the Madras Snake Park
Trust, Deer Sanctuary, Guindy, Madras 600
022 India.
96
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
VIRGINIA VALERIAE
(Smooth Earth Snake).
SIZE.
On 13 April, 1982, an exceptionally
large
Virginia valeriae elegans
was collected
by Nicholas A. Laposha and Kenneth P. Bro-
meier in the Blue River valley, Kansas City,
Jackson County, Missouri. The animal is a
female with a total length of 393mm (342mm
SVL, 51mm TL). The specimen has been de-
posited in the Bobby Witcher Memorial Col-
lection (BWMC 01714) at Avila College, Kan-
sas City.
The record length reported for the species
by Conant (1975. A field guide to reptiles and
amphibians of eastern and central North
America, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston) was
338mm. The previous record for Missouri was
285mm, reported by Anderson (1965. The
reptiles of Missouri, Univ. Mo. Press, Colum-
bia). Collins (1974. Amphibians and reptiles
in Kansas, Univ. Ks. Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ.
Educ. Ser. No. 1, Lawrence) reported in Kan-
sas record of 327mm from Wyandotte County
(immediately west of Jackson County, Mis-
souri), and noted that that record apparently
represented the maximum size for the spe-
cies at that time. The specimen reported
herein surpasses by 56mm the record reported
by Conant and by 66mm that repotted by
Collins, thereby representing a new record
length for the species.
Submitted by
NICHOLAS A. LAPOSHA,
Kansas City Zoo, Swope Park, Kansas City,
Missouri 64132, and
ROBERT POWELL,
Avila
College, 11901 Wornall Road, Kansas City,
Missouri 64145. •
TESTUDINES
GEOCHELONE ELEGANS
(Indian Star Tor-
toise).
FECUNDITY.
Deraniyagala (1939, The
Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon, Vol. 1) reported
for
Geochelone elegans
in Sri Lanka that,
"Three to six eggs are laid at a time and two or
three batches appear to be laid annually, for
specimens dissected after oviposition con-
tain half developed eggs" (p.287). Jayakar
and Spurway (1966, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
63 (1):83-114) reported a clutch of seven eggs
laid on 18 April 1964 in Bhubaneswar. Four
additional eggs found later, were laid by the
same female, but in a different nest. However
these authors concluded, "It is not impossible
that these 11 eggs were all laid on 18/iv/64
before midnight" (p.89).
A female
G. elegans
of unknown origin, in
captivity since 20 April 1968, laid nine clutches
during the period 5 June 1977 to 17 October
1980. The clutch sizes, in chronological order,
were 5, 5, 6, 7, 5, 9, 10, 5, and 8 eggs. The
clutch of 10 eggs was laid on 14 May 1980.
The first eight clutches were the result of mat-
ing with the same male. All 52 eggs from
those clutches were infertile. The last clutch
(eight eggs) was the result of mating with one
or more of a group of three males while the
female
G. elegans
was on a breeding loan.
Coakley (1981, J. NOAH 7 (1):1-6) reported
three hatchlings from that clutch. Incubation
periods were 111, 113, and 127 days. All three
hatchlings were still alive at the time this
paper was submitted (7 June 1982).
In the calendar years 1977 through 1980,
three was the maximum number of clutches
laid annually (1977, 1980) and 23 was the
maximum number of eggs laid annually
(1980). If the term, "annually", is taken to
mean a 12 month period other than a calendar
year, then four was the maximum number of
clutches laid (5 June 1977 through 27 May
1978) and 23 was again the maximum number
of eggs laid (same period).
Submitted by
JOHN P. WHELAN,
173
Senator St., Brooklyn, New York 11220 and
JOHN COAKLEY,
33 Indigo St., Mystic, Con-
necticut 06355.
TECHNIQUES
NEW METHODS FOR
MEASURING AND
TAGGING SNAKES
The need for an accurate and harmless
technique for measuring the length of snakes
is long-standing and reflected in the results of
several studies including those of Fitch and
Glading, 1947, Fitch, 1949, and Wharton,
1966. Such studies report fluctuations in
recapture lengths and/or loss of body weight,
indicating inaccuracy and injury to the snake,
respectively. Concern has been expressed by
workers that rough handling of the snakes
was a major cause of the problem. These
problems can be avoided by either of two
alternative methods for measuring live snakes
of any size, both tested in a field study of
Sistrurus miliarius
(Serpentes: Crotalidae) in
south Florida (Hudnall, 1979).
Photographed Snake Measurement.
The
procedure is as follows: 1. The snake, a meter
stick, and an appropriate identification card
are photographed from directly above using
slide film. 2. The slide is projected onto a
piece of paper and the snake's outline is
traced along with an increment of the meter
stick for scale. 3. The snake's length is then
obtained with a measuring wheel (a Germany
brand device was used) commonly used in
reading map mileages, and comparing it with
the meter stick increment. If the snout-vent
length is desired, a water base paint can be
applied to the back above the vent before
photographing.
Accuracy in this method was determined
by photographing two
S. miliarius,
one six
times and the other seven times, disturbing
the snakes between each photograph to
assess the effect of different body positions
on the measured length; this work was done
in a field enclosure. The photographed mea-
surements (N = 13) differed from each other
by 4.5-6.1% of the smallest photographed-
measured length. These same photographed
measurements were within 0.3-3.4% of direct
measurements of the chilled snakes (method
below).
The great advantages of this method for
field studies include simple, portable equip-
ment (camera, film, and ruler), and that it fea-
tures universal applicability to all reptiles and
amphibians in that the animals are not
manipulated mechanically or physiologically.
The time investment (excluding film develop-
ment, ca. 15 minutes per snake) could be limit-
ing for processing especially large numbers
of snakes.
Chilled Snake Measurement. —
The pro-
cedure is as follows: 1. The snake is placed in
a jar with enough water to cover it, and the jar
is placed in an ice-water mixture. 2. When the
temperature of the jar approaches 5 C, either
submerge the snake directly into the ice-
water mixture or add ice to the jar to finish
chilling it. 3. The snake can then be readily
straightened out along a meter stick for
measuring. 4. The snake is placed in a shaded
area for a short period to allow gradual
re-warming.
The time required for chilling will differ with
the size of the snake to be measured. This
technique was used on pigmy rattlesnakes
(Sistrurus miliarius)
in southern Florida. Their
weights ranged from 17 to 70 grams, and it
was found that 15-20 minutes at step 1, with
an additional 3-5 minutes at step 2 was suffi-
cient to immobilize them.
Possible inconsistency in this method was
checked. Three
S. miliarius
and one
Agkis-
trodon piscivorus
were chilled five times each
over a ten day period. They measured from
453 mm to 523 mm in length; the measure-
ments differed by less than one per cent
(0.65-0.96%) of their total length.
Of 22 recaptures of
S. miliarius
in a field
marking study using this method, 63.6%
gained and 36.4% lost weight over periods
from 7 to 294 days. Further, six
S. miliarius
were chilled and measured in the lab; all ate
readily the following day and did well during a
seven month observation period. This indi-
cates that the chilling process as employed
was not harmful to these snakes. However, it
is strongly recommended that different spe-
cies be tested in the lab prior to using this
method in the field; some species may suc-
cumb to the severe change in body tempera-
ture (see Heatwole
et al.,
1969 and Lowe
et
at.,
1971).
Color-bead Tagging Method. —
This
method employs monofilament suture-line
mounted on a surgical needle, available from
surgical supply houses, to attach two or more
colored glass beads to a snake's tail. The
glass beads, commonly used in decorations
on belts and handbags, can be obtained in a
variety of colors from hobby stores.
The procedure is as follows: 1. A bead is
threaded onto the line and a knot is tied in the
end of it. 2. The needle is inserted into the
snake's tail dorso-laterally and run along the
backbone for at least 13 mm. 3. The slack is
pulled through the tail so that the bead is
snug against the skin. 4. The line is clipped far
enough from the skin to allow room for tying
another knot after a bead has been threaded
onto it. The beads should be tied close to the
skin to reduce snagging on brush while the
snake is moving. The process requires three
to four minutes per snake. Individual snakes
are distinguished by the color sequence of
the beads and the color of the line (Fig. 1).
In a long-term field project of
S. miliarius
in
southern Florida (Hudnall, 1979) it was found
that the bead tag had a tendency to pull free
after several skin sheds, leaving a detectable
scar. This was probably due to the small
diameter of the tail which afforded little mus-
culature to resist the pulling of the tag. This
tag will last even longer on larger snakes.
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
97
White-White ,White
White , White -White
Figure 1.
Diagrammatic dorsal view of snake
tails tagged with three white beads in two
arrangements; dashed line indicates subcu-
taneous position of monofilament suture-line.
The small size of the pigmy rattlesnake tail
precluded successful use of the Buttoneer
marking method (Pough, 1970). As Pough
and others have noted, the Buttoneer method
is applicable to snakes 250 mm or more in
total length. The bead tagging method, unlike
the Buttoneer and other tagging methods in
the literature (see Ferner, 1979), is useful on
snakes as small as 180 mm.
In situations where small snakes (< 250
mm) are tagged, a short-term tag is desired,
and/or the need for remote identification
presents itself, this method is satisfactory.
With binoculars, individuals are easily identi-
fied at considerable distance. Application of
the tag causes no apparent distress to the
snake; of 50 tagged
S. miliarius,
16 (=32%)
were recaptured after periods of up to one
year and none showed any signs of infection
or impediment of movement at any time. This
recapture success in a very brushy study area
strongly suggests mortality was not increased
with this tagging method.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank my father, Jack L. Hudnall, for his
open and enthusiastic exchange of ideas in
the development and testing of these tech-
niques, as well as his moral, financial, and
technical support during this study. I espe-
cially thank Dr. Charles Lowe, University of
Arizona, for kindly and critically reviewing
this manuscript, and for providing moral and
financial support throughout its preparation.
LITERATURE CITED
Ferner, J. W. 1979. A review of marking tech-
niques for amphibians and reptiles. SSAR
Herp. Circ. 9:1-41.
Fitch, H. A. 1949. Study of snake populations
in central California. Am. Midl. Nat.
41:513-579.
Fitch, H. S. and B. Glading. 1947. A field study
of a rattlesnake population. Calif. Fish and
Game 33:103-123.
Heatwole, H., T. H. Lin, E. Villalon, A Muniz,
and A. Matta. 1969. Some aspects of the
thermal ecology of Puerto Rican anoline
lizards. J. Herpetol. 31:65-77.
Hudnall, J. A. 1979. Surface activity and
horizontal movements in a marked popu-
lation of
Sistrurus miliarius barbouri.
Bull.
Maryland Herpet. Soc. 15:134-138.
Lowe, C. H., P. J. Lardner, and E. A. Halpern.
1971. Supercooling in reptiles and other
vertebrates. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.
39:125-135.
Pough, F. H. 1970. A quick method for per-
manently marking snakes and turtles.
Herpetologica 26:428-430.
Wharton, C. H. 1966. Reproduction and growth
in the cottonmouths,
Agkistrodon
piscivo-
rus
Lacepede, of Cedar Deys, Florida.
Copeia 1966:149-161.
JAMES A. HUDNALL
Department of Ecology and
Evolutionary Biology
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
Present address:
101 W. River Road
Sp. 299
Tucson, Arizona 85704, USA
•
BOOK REVIEWS
Biomechanics. An approach to vertebrate
biology.
by Carl Gans. 1974. J. B. Lippincott
Company, New York. x + 261 pp. Available for
$6.50 postpaid from: University of Michigan
Press, P.O. Box 104, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48106.
This is an unusual book. Most herpetolo-
gists might overlook it and its relevance to
amphibian and reptilian biology — its title
obscures the wealth of herpetological infor-
mation and the philosophy that Gans brings
to the study of lower vertebrates. Herpetolog-
ical literature is replete with extensive taxo-
nomic, regional, and demographic tomes,
and, with the exception of a few herpetology
texts and Gans' "Biology of the Reptilia"
(1969 et
seq.),
few books which adopt a dif-
ferent view of amphibians and reptiles have
appeared in recent years.
"Biomechanics" is a five-chapter book
about functional morphology which draws
almost exclusively on amphibians and rep-
tiles as examples for analysis. Its first chapter
defines structures and adaptations, presents
a model for analysis, and closes with a ration-
ale for comparison which concludes that
"actual observation rather than extrapolation,
living specimens rather than preserved mate-
rials, manipulation rather than passive obser-
vation of the system, and comparison rather
than conclusions from single forms represent
optimal approaches to the study of biome-
chanics." The following four chapters deal
with analytical approaches to diverse prob-
lems involving structure and adaptation.
Chapter 2 is an analysis of structure using
dissection and observation of egg-eating
snakes, with emphasis on the genus
Dasypel-
tis.
Chapter 3 is an investigation of locomo-
tion without limbs and features the adapta-
tions of snakes, concluding with a brief
discussion of lateral undulation and its signif-
icance to the phylogeny of vertebrates. This
third chapter is an illustration of analysis by
limiting the question. Chapter 4 is a discus-
sion of analysis by comparison using the bur-
rowing habits of amphisbaenians as exam-
ples of structural adaptation. The final chapter
is a description of analysis by quantification
using as an example air breathing and vocali-
zation in frogs, and featuring electromyogra-
phical analysis, an experimental technique
that Gans has explored and utilized more
extensively since this book appeared.
This book is cohesive and easily read with
profit by herpetologists from zoos, museums,
and universities, and particularly by the large
numbers of herpetologists who maintain
amphibians and reptiles as an avocation.
Gans states that this book is "intensely per-
sonal," and he restricts amphibian and rep-
tilian examples used in the book to those
forms with which he has experimented per-
sonally. His intent to present examples of
analyses in functional morphology, to offer
samples of approaches to functional mor-
phology and samples of philosophy from
which the approaches derive has been
achieved. In addition, he has admirably pre-
sented a little-used approach which herpeto-
logical systematists and physiologists might
embrace in their future research.
JOSEPH T. COLLINS
Museum of Natural History
University of Kansas
Synopsis of the Herpetofauna of Mexico,
Volume VI. Guide to Mexican Turtles and Bib-
liographic Addendum III,
by Hobart M. Smith
and Rozella B. Smith. 1980, 1044 pages.
$40.00. John Johnson Natural History Books,
North Bennington, Vermont.
This book represents the sixth volume in
the Smith's monumental series on the amphi-
bians and reptiles of Mexico. The main text is
totally devoted to turtles, but also included is
a general literature addendum to the previous
volumes.
The Preface explains the significance,
objectives, and status of the entire series pro-
ject; and the organization of the present
volume is briefly outlined. The objectives of
this volume being to provide as complete a
survey of the present knowledge of the turtle
fauna of Mexico as possible, in as practically
usable a form as possible.
The Introduction summarizes the turtle
fauna of Mexico, 60 species and subspecies,
and compares it with that of the United States
and Canada. This is followed by a brief des-
cription of some taxonomic problems relat-
ing to Mexican turtles, the sources of the data
included, acknowledgements, a list of acro-
nyms of the 70 scientific collections contain-
ing Mexican turtles, and explanations of the
literature citations and map preparations.
A section entitled Systematic Accounts
appears next and includes the synonomies,
nomenclatural history, and definitions of the
6
V
98
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
NATURE PRINTS
BY DAVID M. DENNIS
We are pleased to offer exquisite, full-color
art prints by David
M.
Dennis, naturalist and
professional scientific illustrator renown for
his watercolors of unusual wildlife. First set
of 4 now available: Green frog, Painted
turtle, Spotted salamanders, Beetle and Red
salamander. Prints measure 20 x 24 inches,
each signed and numbered by Mr. Dennis in
editions limited to only 500. $25 each
or $85
set of 4, plus
shipping ($4.50) and any NY
taxes. Send orders to Biographics, 12 Eagle's
Head Rd., Ithaca, NY 14850. Illustrated bro-
chure on request.
higher taxonomy of Mexican turtles: Sub-
class Chelonomorpha, Order Testudines,
Suborder Casichelydia, Infraorder Crypto-
dira, and Parvorder Eucryptodira. In this
respect it is refreshing to find that the authors
have used the modern classification proposed
by Gaffney (1975). Adequate keys are then
provided to the families, genera, and species.
In some cases these keys were prepared by
known experts on the taxon. Each superfam-
ily, family, subfamily, tribe, subtribe, and
genus is fully described and its synonomy,
nomenclatural history and geographical range
is given.
The accounts of each species include a
fully referenced synonomy, a nomenclatural
history, a discussion of its taxonomic status,
and a listing of the pertinent literature involv-
ing the species. For each reference, an index
number is listed which refers to a bibliogra-
phic entry in either the Addendum in this
book or to one of the previous volumes of the
series. The literature section is subdivided
into such topics as popular books, ecology,
zoo breeding, regional accounts, anatomy,
physiology, parasitology, paleontology, and
taxonomy. A well organized, detailed des-
cription is included for each species, and its
general range and etymology are discussed.
For those species with recognized subspe-
cies, a key to the Mexican subspecies follows,
and then each subspecies is described and
discussed in detail in a similar format as that
of the entire species. The range of each sub-
species is given, and a list of Mexican locali-
ties is presented. Another feature of each
subspecific account is its conservational sta-
tus in which harmful practices or situations
are discussed and suggested methods of pro-
tection given. Mexican range maps for each
taxon are included near the end of the book,
as also are drawings or black and white pho-
tographs of most.
A detailed Gazetteer gives, in alphabetical
order, all Mexican localities from which tur-
tles have been recorded. The quadrant and
state in which the locality is found, and all of
the species and subspecies of turtles recorded
from it are also given. Finally, a cross-index to
secondary localities of particular importance
for reference to rivers, follows the main list of
localities.
The Bibliographic Addendum III is a list of
767 titles pertinent to Mexican herpetology
not included in the earlier volumes of the ser-
ies. Many are pertinent to the turtles and are
indexed and cited by entry number in the
taxonomic accounts of the text. All entries in
the Addendum bear distinctive numbers
integrated with, but not duplicated by those
of the preceding volumes.
The book ends with adequate indexes to
the subject matter and scientific names.
The text is written in both an interesting
and informative manner, with few spelling or
typographical errors. The binding seems
adequate, but the printing is small and some-
what light. The illustrations, many reprinted
with permission from the works of others, are
often of poor quality, too dark, or too small to
adequately show the important features.
There are few errors in the taxon descrip-
tions and keys. For instance, in the key to the
subspecies of Rhinoclemmys puicherrima,
rogerbarbouri
and
incisa
are separated on
the basis of the extent of the dark plastral
figure when, in reality, this is very similar and
overlaps greatly.
The text is perhaps slanted too much toward
taxonomy, but this is the Smiths' major inter-
est. The use of two nomenclatural combina-
tions may cause come confusion and con-
sternation among chelonian systematists
—
Trionyx spiniferus asper
and
Caretta caretta
tarapacana.
The former is usually considered
a full species, while the eastern Pacific log-
gerheads are more commonly known as
Caretta c. gigas and the name
tarapacana
is
unfamiliar to most herpetologists. In each
case, the authors have documented their rea-
sons for the use of these names.
The Major criticism of this book, however,
is one which is inherent to the series as a
whole. The reader needs either to own or
have readily available the other volumes of
the series in order to find all of the numeri-
cally listed references. On an individual basis
this becomes expensive; however, the librar-
ies of most universities and museums now
subscribe to the series, and it is more locally
available than before.
Despite these few problems, the book is an
excellent source of information on Mexican
turtles, and is a necessary reference for all
who plan to study the Mexican herpetofauna.
Much more data is to be found between its
covers than could be adequately described in
the short space of this review.
It
is a highly
recommended volume for all herpetologists
and biological libraries.
LITERATURE CITED
Gaffney, E. S. 1975. A phylogeny and classi-
fication of the higher categories of turtles.
Bull. Amer. Mus. Natur. Hist. 155(5):
387-436.
CARL H. ERNST
George Mason University
•
South African Frogs,
by Passmore, N. I. and
V. C. Carruthers. 1979. Witwatersrand Uni-
versity Press, Johannesburg. xviii + 270pp.,
ill. + Voices of South African Frogs.
This publication represents not only a
beautiful book, worthy of the coffee table
trade, but also one useful to the more scientif-
ically inclined herpetologist. As suggested in
Foreword by Prof. Paterson, it should cer-
tainly stimulate interest in South African frogs
and help motivate studies on a relatively
poorly-known segment of the fauna.
There are 10 short introductory chapters
dealing with frogs and frog biology, including
an important discussion on frog sounds.
Considerable weight is placed on frog vocali-
zations as being an important component of
specific mate recognition systems. Sona-
grams accompany each species description
and a 7-inch two-sided 33.3 record is included
as a supplement. The reader is urged to study
the sonagrams in conjunction with listening
to the record.
Eighty-four species comprise the anuran
fauna of South Africa and each is illustrated
by a color photograph of superb artistry, a
distribution map, a sonogram, plus a number
of black and white photographs illustrating
the salient morphological features that dis-
tinguish any given species from its nearest
relatives. Color variation, which is considera-
ble in many of the species, is emphasized by
showing several selections from the range of
colors and patterns. Subspecies are treated
in a reasonable fashion, shown in color plates,
but described in more detail in an appendix.
One feature that is puzzling to me — each
species has a black and white photo purport-
ing to represent life size. If these dimensions
are accurate, then the frog fauna of South
Africa must be composed of midgets. I know
that
Xenopus
and
Pyxicephalus
grow larger
than the illustrations depict — do the others?
Unfortunately, tadpoles are neither illustrated
nor described in any significant way so only
metamorphosed individuals can be truly
identified. A selected bibliography, an index,
and a glossary of sorts complete the text.
This is an excellent book both for its con-
tents and for its printing.
HENRI C. SEIBERT
Ohio University, Athens
•
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
99
Turtles: Perspectives and Research.
Edited by
Marion Harless and Henry Morlock. 1979. John
Wiley & Sons, New York. 695 p.
Like its subject, this book is at once ponderous
and graceful. The chapters mix much original
material with analyses of the literature (through
the early 1970s). The opening chapter on taxon-
omy and distribution (P. C. H. Pritchard) is con-
cise and readable.
A practical manual of methods is next: cap-
ture, marking (M. V. Plummer); telemetry (W. K.
Legler); life history techniques (T. E. Graham);
photographic analysis of behavior (C. C. Car-
penter); lab maintenance (H. W. Campbell, S. D.
Busack); anesthesia, surgery (J.
H.
Maxwell).
The material is clear but occasionally oversim-
plified. For example, I have found some turtles
(Chelydra, Terrapene)
more difficult to sex than
195X • SILVER
ANNIVERSARY CFI.EBRATION • 1982_
x0Clt 11 FOR 1 HI SI C DV 01 AMPHIBIANS AND RI PIII. IS
SSAR SILVER ANNIVERSARY
COMMEMORATIVE PRINT
SSAR SILVER
ANNIVERSARY
COMMEMORATIVE
PRINT
As part of the 25th Anniversary Celebration
the Society has issued a beautiful
full
-
color
print of a Gila monster, taken from a water-
color drawing by the noted wildlife artist
David M. Dennis. The print measures 111/2 by
151/4 inches (29 by 38.5 cm) and is printed on a
very heavy acid-free paper stock so that it can
be framed or used as a poster.
The edition is strictly limited to 1000 copies,
most of which were distributed at the Annual
Meeting in Raleigh in August, but some copies
remain for sale on a first-come, first-served
basis. Prices are $10 each postpaid, or $8
each in quantities of 10 or more. Send orders
to Dr. Douglas H. Taylor, SSAR Publications
Secretary, Department of Zoology, Miami
University, Oxford, Ohio 45056, U.S.A. Checks
should be made payable to "SSAR"; payment
in U.S. funds, please. •
implied on p. 82-83. Potential impacts of study
techniques need more attention
(e.g.,
radioac-
tive tags, anesthetics, pesticides for parasitic
arthropods, confinement in small cages). Sup-
pliers' addresses are given in one chapter and
would have been useful in others.
The section on vital functions covers: cardio-
vascular system (C. G. Jackson); respiration (D.
C. Jackson); brain (A. S. Powers, A. J. Reiner);
thermoregulation (V. H. Hutchison); feeding,
drinking, excretion (I. Y. Mahmoud, J. Klicka). I
enjoyed most the elucidation of unique breath-
ing and buoyancy control mechanisms. Some
chapters need more graphics.
Selected senses are the subjects of: eyes and
color sensitivity (A. M. Granda); smell and taste
(T. R. Scott); olfactory behavior (M. L. Manton).
"There is no concrete evidence that olfaction is
critical in any of the life functions of turtles" (p.
289), but how do some species feed and orient in
very turbid waters?
Reproductive cycles and adaptations (E. 0.
Moll) and the embryo and its egg (M. A. Ewert)
make up the section on reproduction and devel-
opment. Ewert has assembled data on egg and
hatchling measurements, eggshell characteris-
tics, egg constituents, incubation periods, and
29 good black-and-white photos of terata into a
fascinating and perceptive mini-book.
A section on behavior includes: (D. W. Ehren-
feld); locomotion (W. F. Walker); learning (H.
Morlock); social behavior (M. Harless); emo-
tional reactivity (I. M. Spiegel); rhythms (E. V.
Gourley). Ehrenfeld analyzes activities from
landfall to re-entry into the water, with a final
stimulating discussion of orientation. Harless
includes intriguing observations on
Clemmys
insculpta
in an outdoor pen. Spiegel treats the
effects of drugs, cerebral lesions, and various
stimuli on
Chrysemys picta
behavior in experi-
mental apparatus, with little evident awareness
of wild behavior. However, the use of excretory
sodium and potassium levels in cage water as
indicators of emotional status is a very promis-
ing technique.
The book concludes with discussions of popu-
lation ecology of sea (H. R. Bustard), land (W.
Auffenberg, J. B. Iverson), and freshwater turtles
(R. B. Bury). Sea turtle "farming" is proposed as
a cottage industry to give Third World consu-
mers a stake in resource stewardship, and
Gopherus polyphemus
populations are related
to vegetation variation in space and time.
This book should stimulate lab and field
workers to collaborate in testing and amplifying
proposed techniques and hypotheses. There is
much to be learned, with a minimum of poten-
tially behavior-distorting or inhumane drugs,
surgery and hardware necessary. Biologists
could: choose research projects with clear
application to conservation problems, and use
these problems to approach "pure science"
questions; and obtain their experimental ani-
mals from captive-bred or reared stocks, or col-
lect them from the wild while observing behavior
and monitoring population size.
Most of the authors do not provide recom-
mendations to implement the editors' desire for
conservation of wild populations. Bury con-
cludes that "information on the population ecol-
ogy of freshwater turtles is wholly inadequate for
conservation and management of these resour-
ces". Lack of comparative natural history data as
basic as nest chamber dimensions is mentioned
several times (here is work for careful amateurs
and students). Graham warns that field studies
are often halted by land development projects;
but are parks and sanctuaries always safe from
dumps, impoundments, parking lots?
Some potentially misleading errors are:
"Atland" for Altland (p. 60); "mm/sec" for frames/
sec (99); "miasis" for myiasis (124);
"Chrysemys
picta"
for
Pseudemys scripta
(214); "Friar" for
Frair (226, 234); "concostracod" for conchostra-
can or ostracod (232); "orinithine" for ornithine
(240); "Risely" for Risley (390); "rigor" for vigor
(392);
"typhinurium"
for
typhimurium
(399);
"external" for internal (402); "Malaclemmys" for
Malaclemys
(516); "arribidas" for arribadas
(525); and "Tonier" for Toner (572). The photos
are switched on p. 329-330. Fig. la (437) shows
right lateral and ventral (not "dorsal") views.
Chelydra
matures at 200 mm carapace (not plas-
tron) length, equivalent to 145 mm plastron
length (578). Some abbreviations in the figures
on p. 196-201 suffer from reduction. In my copy,
p. 321-328 are badly wrinkled.
More integration among chapters, and addi-
tion of non-technical abstracts would improve a
2nd edition. I would like to see a photo of a wild
turtle rather than a specimen on the dust jacket.
And the publisher should consider selling paper-
bound separates of the sections to people who
can't spend $45 for the whole book.
ERIK KIVIAT
Smithtown Rd.
Fishk ill, N.Y. 12524
•
HERPETOLOGISTS'
LEAGUE
HERPETOLOGISTS' LEAGUE (HL) is an
international, non-profit organization of profes-
sional and amateur herpetologists, founded in
1936 by Chapman Grant, and dedicated to furth-
ering knowledge of the biology of amphibians
and reptiles. The League publishes a scholarly
journal,
Herpetologica,
which appears quarterly,
and a
Herpetological Monograph Series,
issues
of which appear irregularly. All members in good
standing receive
Herpetologica.
The League holds its annual meeting, usually
in August, in conjunction with the Society for the
Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Symposia,
contributed papers, poster sessions, various
displays, and the HL Distinguished Herpetolo-
gist's Lecture facilitate the exchange of informa-
tion and ideas on a wide array of herpetological
topics. Prizes are awarded for the best student
paper and best student poster presented at the
meeting.
Membership in THE HERPETOLOGISTS'
LEAGUE is open to anyone with an interest in
the biology of amphibians and/or reptiles. New
members are welcomed and are encouraged to
participate in League affairs. Application for
membership should be made to the Treasurer,
Laurence M. Hardy, Department of Biological
Sciences, Louisiana State University in Shreve-
port, 8515 Youree Drive, Shreveport, Louisiana
71115 USA. Annual dues are $15.00 for individu-
als and $17.00 for family membership. Subscrip-
tions for institutions and nonmembers are $20.00
per annum. Make checks payable in U.S. funds
to THE HERPETOLOGISTS' LEAGUE. Overseas
subscribers who desire airmail delivery of the
journal, add $12.00. Information on availability
and cost of back issues of
Herpetologica
and the
twenty year index can be obtained from the Pub-
lications Secretary, W. Ronald Heyer, Smithson-
ian Institution, Natural History Building, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20560. Additional information con-
cerning membership, societal activities, and
related matters can be obtained from the Secre-
tary, Julian C. Lee, Department of Biology, Uni-
versity of Miami, P.O. Box 249118, Coral Gables,
Florida 33124.
•
100
Herp Review 13(3), 1982
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.