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Linear and nonlinear parameters for the analysisof fetal heart rate signal from cardiotocographic recordings

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Antepartum fetal monitoring based on the classical cardiotocography (CTG) is a noninvasive and simple tool for checking fetal status. Its introduction in the clinical routine limited the occurrence of fetal problems leading to a reduction of the precocious child mortality. Nevertheless, very poor indications on fetal pathologies can be inferred from the even automatic CTG analysis methods, which are actually employed. The feeling is that fetal heart rate (FHR) signals and uterine contractions carry much more information on fetal state than is usually extracted by classical analysis methods. In particular, FHR signal contains indications about the neural development of the fetus. However, the methods actually adopted for judging a CTG trace as "abnormal" give weak predictive indications about fetal dangers. We propose a new methodological approach for the CTG monitoring, based on a multiparametric FHR analysis, which includes spectral parameters from autoregressive models and nonlinear algorithms (approximate entropy). This preliminary study considers 14 normal fetuses, eight cases of gestational (maternal) diabetes, and 13 intrauterine growth retarded fetuses. A comparison with the traditional time domain analysis is also included. This paper shows that the proposed new parameters are able to separate normal from pathological fetuses. Results constitute the first step for realizing a new clinical classification system for the early diagnosis of most common fetal pathologies.
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       
     
      
         
      
      
         
     
      
      
       
        
       
          
         
          
 
 
         
      
        
       
         
 
    
 
    
  
         
          
 
          
        
         
        
        
       
        
        
        
        
    
        
            
      
       
         
   
         
      
 
          
     
  
        
          

      
         
    
      
   
    
   
    
        
        
      
        
       
  
         
  
       
     
 
      
       
 
   
      
        
        

  
       

        
       
         
        
       
       
        
      
   

     
       
  
   
      
          
 
      
     
       
       
        
      
     
         
        
 
         
            
   
       

         
      
        
       
      
      
     
        
       
     
         
       
         
    
   
   
         
       
       
         
  

          
     
          
        
        
         
    

 


           
       
         
     
         
     

  
 

        


 





       
  


          
      

           
        
  

         
      
       


 


 


        

     

       
         
          
   
    
    

 
          





    

 

   

 


 

                
                         
                
          
      



 
       
       
    
      
    
    
   
          
   
          
       
       
      

          
 

     
       
  
          
 
      
          
      
  
 
 
       
          
 
 

      
    
        
         
        
     
          
     

      
       

  
      
 
   
        
  
          
          
   
    

          
   
           
        
         
  
      
        
   
     
    
          
     
      

 
        
          
      
          
         
         

       
         
        
    
   
   
   
         
        
      
        
        
            
    
   

          
 
           
         
        

 


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
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 
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
     
           
      
            
  
      
            
   
         
          
 
            
       
       

  

         

       
      
    
        
        
         
      
         

         
        
         
         
    
        
          
            
        
         
  
          
         
 
         
 
          

      
         
        
        
           
         
       
       
       
          
   
       
  
     
        
     
     
            
       
         
    
         
  
        
          
         
         
   
      
       
        
        





 






       
   
          
        
          
       
      
 
        
        
         
  
          
        
   
      
         
        
  
  
  
     
       
        
     
          
         
   
         
       
   
          
      
           
        
          
          
         
     
       
    
        
        
       
         
         
      
       
         

       
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  
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
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      
     
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 

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 
        
         
         
  

         
          
      
      
      
       
   
   
         
 
          
        
       
        
       
        
          
         
           
         
       
         
  
    
 
      
       
      

 
         




        

 
 
 
 
          
        
  
        
       

        
       

       
  
         
  
         
        
       
         
         
   
        
      
        
          

          
        
         
          
   
 
        
         
          
        

        
        
     
          
          
       

  
 

  
 
  


   



  
 

  
 

  
 
  


     
  
 


 
 


 
 
 


 
 
 
             
        
       
 
        
          

           
  
         
        
         
        
     
   
       
      
      
       
     
        
        
  
         
        
       
         
   
       

  




  





    


                     
             
                   

       
      
        
   

         
    
      
        
         
   
          
   
            
        
     
   
   
          
        
         
         
   
           
        
  
        
           
      
    
    
        
       
 
           
      
      
   
    
        
         
           
        
 
          
   
     
     
              
    
     
           
      
        
       
       
    
  
        

        
        
     
          
    
       
     
     
     
         
        
  
       
         
 
    
   
      
         
 
     
      
    
     
        
    
          
   
      

           
     
    
 
         
 
      
    
       
          
     
       
 
    
        
       
        
     
    
     
      
      

      
    
     
    
        
    
     
     
    

      
        
      
  
        
      
     
     
         
  
      
   
  
     
  

    
    
   
      
       
   
    
     
        
      
   
 
    
    
   
 
      
      
      
      
      
      
       
  
       
          
          
         
      
     
       
    
... An improvement to the FHR analysis came when several biomarkers were proposed in the literature together with systems for the computerized analysis of the signals. This has allowed to overcome some of the limitations linked to simple eye inspection of the traces [3,4]. ...
... These include the very low frequency (VLF), low frequency (LF), and high frequency (HF) bands. In addition, some authors also consider an additional frequency band, called movement frequency (MF), between LF and HF [4]. The exact frequency ranges vary between different authors and have been summarized in [14]. ...
... The exact frequency ranges vary between different authors and have been summarized in [14]. In general, the power in VLF is related to long period and non-linear contributions and gross body movements, LF with mainly sympathetic activity and HF with parasympathetic activity and fetal breathing [4]. MF has been hypothesized to be related to fetal movements and maternal breathing [4] but overlaps with what other authors consider HF [14]. ...
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Cardiotocography (CTG) is the most common technique for electronic fetal monitoring and consists of the simultaneous recording of fetal heart rate (FHR) and uterine contractions. In analogy with the adult case, spectral analysis of the FHR signal can be used to assess the functionality of the autonomic nervous system. To do so, several methods can be employed, each of which has its strengths and limitations. This paper aims at performing a methodological investigation on FHR spectral analysis adopting 4 different spectrum estimators and a novel PRSA-based spectral method. The performances have been evaluated in terms of the ability of the various methods to detect changes in the FHR in two common pregnancy complications: intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and gestational diabetes. A balanced dataset containing 2178 recordings distributed between the 32nd and 38th week of gestation was used. The results show that the spectral method derived from the PRSA better differentiates high-risk pregnancies vs. controls compared to the others. Specifically, it more robustly detects an increase in power percentage within the movement frequency band and a decrease in high frequency between pregnancies at high risk in comparison to those at low risk. Graphical abstract
... a) Frequency domain features: were estimated from the power spectral density (PSD), computed using the Lomb-Scargle periodogram to handle gaps [9]. We estimated the power in three bands: low frequency (LF, 30 -150 mHz); movement frequency (MF, 150 -500 mHz); and high frequency (HF, 0.5 -1 Hz) bands [10]. The band ratio LF/(MF+HF) was also computed. ...
... b) Nonlinear and nonparametric features: included the approximate entropy (ApEn) which quantifies signal irregularity and has been shown to reflect fetal compromise [10]. We also estimated features using phase rectified signal averaging (PRSA) including the deceleration capacity (DC), acceleration capacity (AC), and the deceleration reserve (DR) [11]. ...
... In particular, feature-based methods such as the decelerative capacity of phase rectified signal averaging (DC PRSA ) which quantifies the downward trend of FHR, has shown strong association for predicting fetal compromise 19 . A range of other FHR features have been proposed [20][21][22] , with three specific FHR features showing strong classification performance using sparse feature selection 17 including: i) median absolute deviation of FHR from baseline (MAD dtrd ), which quantifies the average depth of decelerations; ii) β 0 parameter, which represents the FHR baseline, and iii) Hurst parameter (H), which quantifies variability of the FHR. ...
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Standard clinical practice to assess fetal well-being during labour utilises monitoring of the fetal heart rate (FHR) using cardiotocography. However, visual evaluation of FHR signals can result in subjective interpretations leading to inter and intra-observer disagreement. Therefore, recent studies have proposed deep-learning-based methods to interpret FHR signals and detect fetal compromise. These methods have typically focused on evaluating fixed-length FHR segments at the conclusion of labour, leaving little time for clinicians to intervene. In this study, we propose a novel FHR evaluation method using an input length invariant deep learning model (FHR-LINet) to progressively evaluate FHR as labour progresses and achieve rapid detection of fetal compromise. Using our FHR-LINet model, we obtained approximately 25% reduction in the time taken to detect fetal compromise compared to the state-of-the-art multimodal convolutional neural network while achieving 27.5%, 45.0%, 56.5% and 65.0% mean true positive rate at 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% false positive rate respectively. A diagnostic system based on our approach could potentially enable earlier intervention for fetal compromise and improve clinical outcomes.
... Other parameters include the standard deviation of NN (SDNN), the root mean square of successive differences of RR intervals (RMSSD), NN50, and pNN50, which determine the number and percentage of NN that differ by more than 50 ms. Short-term variability and long-term variability (STV and LTV [20]), the triangular index (Tri [21]), and the triangular interpolation of the NN interval histogram (TINN [22]) were also calculated. ...
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Background In clinical medicine, fetal heart rate (FHR) monitoring using cardiotocography (CTG) is one of the most commonly used methods for assessing fetal acidosis. However, as the visual interpretation of CTG depends on the subjective judgment of the clinician, this has led to high inter-observer and intra-observer variability, making it necessary to introduce automated diagnostic techniques. Methods In this study, we propose a computer-aided diagnostic algorithm (Hybrid-FHR) for fetal acidosis to assist physicians in making objective decisions and taking timely interventions. Hybrid-FHR uses multi-modal features, including one-dimensional FHR signals and three types of expert features designed based on prior knowledge (morphological time domain, frequency domain, and nonlinear). To extract the spatiotemporal feature representation of one-dimensional FHR signals, we designed a multi-scale squeeze and excitation temporal convolutional network (SE-TCN) backbone model based on dilated causal convolution, which can effectively capture the long-term dependence of FHR signals by expanding the receptive field of each layer’s convolution kernel while maintaining a relatively small parameter size. In addition, we proposed a cross-modal feature fusion (CMFF) method that uses multi-head attention mechanisms to explore the relationships between different modalities, obtaining more informative feature representations and improving diagnostic accuracy. Results Our ablation experiments show that the Hybrid-FHR outperforms traditional previous methods, with average accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, precision, and F1 score of 96.8, 97.5, 96, 97.5, and 96.7%, respectively. Conclusions Our algorithm enables automated CTG analysis, assisting healthcare professionals in the early identification of fetal acidosis and the prompt implementation of interventions.
... c) Antepartum CTG is recommended for monitoring pregnancies of women with pregestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM) (2) and it is considered bene cial for women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) with poor glycemic control or treated with insulin or oral agents (1). Moreover, in the last two decades, much has been done to improve methods of fetal heart rate (FHR) analysis and monitoring to allow for better evaluation of fetal well-being in relation to antepartum pathophysiological control mechanisms (5)(6)(7). ...
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... The range of the FHR signal in the frequency domain is often divided into four bands: very low frequency (VLF: 0-0.03 Hz, associated with a long time period and non-linear contributions), low frequency (LF: 0.03-0.15 Hz, related to fetal sympathetic nervous system activity), high frequency (HF: 0.5-1 Hz, reflecting fetal breathing) and movement frequency (MF: 0.15-0.5 Hz, correlated with fetal movements and maternal activity) [101]. The power spectral density is estimated in each band using Fourier transform, autoregressive or wavelet transform-based models [49]. ...
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The measurement and analysis of fetal heart rate (FHR) and uterine contraction (UC) patterns, known as cardiotocography (CTG), is a key technology for detecting fetal compromise during labour. This technology is commonly used by clinicians to make decisions on the mode of delivery to minimise adverse outcomes. A range of computerised CTG analysis techniques have been proposed to overcome the limitations of manual clinician interpretation. While these automated techniques can potentially improve patient outcomes, their adoption into clinical practice remains limited. This review provides an overview of current FHR and UC monitoring technologies, public and private CTG datasets, pre-processing steps, and classification algorithms used in automated approaches for fetal compromise detection. It aims to highlight challenges inhibiting the translation of automated CTG analysis methods from research to clinical application and provide recommendations to overcome them.
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