An overview of Mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds

Abstract

Mycotoxins contamination of animal feeds remains a great concern for animal feed safety, public health and economic significance. It may occur in various foods and feeds stuffs from agricultural commodities to finished foods and feeds of animal. Hot, humid weather and late harvesting of grains favored the mold and fungal growth in cereal crops. There are around 400 types of mycotoxins in which aflatoxin, deoxyinalenol (vomitoxin), fumonisin, zearalenone and ochratoxins are important for animal and human foods. However, presence of mold or fungi in the grains does not mean that mycotoxins are present in feeds or foods. The acceptable level of aflatoxins, deoxyinalenol (vomitoxin), fumonisin, zearalenone and ochratoxins are in livestock feeds are 20 ppb, 10 ppm, 5 ppm and 3-10 ppm and 3-20 (μg/kg) respectively. Mycotoxins can be found in contaminated cereal grains, straw and silage. The most detrimental effects of mycotoxins are hepatic, digestive, immunological, reproductive disorders, teratogenicity, nephrotoxicity, edema and carcinogenicity etc. of animal and human being. Adsorbents and activated charcoal in animal feeds bind the toxic substances. There are some regulations but not in all countries aimed to prevent and control mycotoxins in industrial processed foods and animal feeds but not in locally processed ones. A number of strategies in some countries for preventing mycotoxins have been mobilized but the awareness for implementation is very weak. Mass media can play an important role to build awareness to mycotoxin. (

Full text

*Corresponding author: zakir.vet@blri.gov.bd
Bang. J. Livs. Res. Special Vol. 21-25, 2018: P. 1-9, ISSN 1022-3851
An overview of Mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds
M.Z. Hassan1*, M.M. Rahman2, M.Z. Ali1, M.A. Yousuf1, S. Akther3, M.H. Rahman3, M.A. Islam4 and
A. Hossen5
1Animal Health Research Division, Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, Savar, Dhaka-1341,
Bangladesh. 2Conservation and Improvement of Native Sheep Through Community & Commercial
Farming Project, BLRI, Savar, Dhaka-1341. 3Goat and Sheep Production Research Division, BLRI, Savar,
Dhaka-1341. 4Research on FMD and PPR in Bangladesh, BLRI, Savar, Dhaka-1341. 5System Research
Division, BLRI, Savar, Dhaka-1341.
Abstract
Mycotoxins contamination of animal feeds remains a great concern for animal feed safety, public health
and economic significance. It may occur in various foods and feeds stuffs from agricultural commodities
to finished foods and feeds of animal. Hot, humid weather and late harvesting of grains favored the mold
and fungal growth in cereal crops. There are around 400 types of mycotoxins in which aflatoxin,
deoxyinalenol (vomitoxin), fumonisin, zearalenone and ochratoxins are important for animal and human
foods. However, presence of mold or fungi in the grains does not mean that mycotoxins are present in
feeds or foods. The acceptable level of aflatoxins, deoxyinalenol (vomitoxin), fumonisin, zearalenone and
ochratoxins are in livestock feeds are 20 ppb, 10 ppm, 5 ppm and 3-10 ppm and 3-20 (μg/kg) respectively.
Mycotoxins can be found in contaminated cereal grains, straw and silage. The most detrimental effects of
mycotoxins are hepatic, digestive, immunological, reproductive disorders, teratogenicity, nephrotoxicity,
edema and carcinogenicity etc. of animal and human being. Adsorbents and activated charcoal in animal
feeds bind the toxic substances. There are some regulations but not in all countries aimed to prevent and
control mycotoxins in industrial processed foods and animal feeds but not in locally processed ones. A
number of strategies in some countries for preventing mycotoxins have been mobilized but the awareness
for implementation is very weak. Mass media can play an important role to build awareness to mycotoxin.
(Key words: Feeds, grains, mycotoxin, contamination, effects, prevention.)
Introduction
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites
produced by fungi (molds). Only few molds
produce mycotoxins, and they are referred to
as toxigenic. The primary classes of mycotoxins
are aflatoxins of which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
is the most prevalent, zearalenone (ZEA),
trichothecenes,
deoxy- nivalenol (DON) and
T-2 toxin (T-2), fumonisins, ochratoxins
(OTA) (Whitelow et al., 2010). These can
cause toxicity in a variety of species. Feeds
and forages can become contaminated with
mycotoxins in the field, during harvest,
drying
and transport, as well as during storage
(Sarah
and Vickers, 2016). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain.
Animal feeds, the raw ingredients used in
manufacturing, namely, maize, wheat,
sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, bagasse, wheat
bran, gluten feed and pet foods are
contaminated with mycotoxin- producing
fungi and their toxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins,
zearalenone and ochratoxins (Phakamile et
al., 2007). Disease outbreaks due to the
consumption of contaminated foods and feeds
stuff are a recurring problem worldwide. The
major factor contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce low-molecular-weight compounds as
secondary metabolites, with confirmed toxic
properties referred to as mycotoxins (Rajeev
et al., 2009). Mycotoxin contaminations of
foods and feeds remain a great concern to
food safety and of public health and
economic significance. Health implications of
mycotoxins are diverse. Mycotoxicity of
foods have tremendous effect on international
trade, resulting in huge losses. A number of
strategies for preventing mycotoxins have
been proposed but the awareness for
implementation is very low. The use of media
to create awareness is a viable option
(Ukwuru et al., 2017). Mycotoxins are toxic
to both animals and humans and that are
mainly produced by five genera: Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and
Alternaria (Ruima et al., 2018). Fungi
proliferate to produce secondary metabolites
under favorable environmental conditions,
when temperature and moisture are suitable
(Bryde, 2009). The amount of toxin produced
will depend on physical factors (moisture,
relative humidity, temperature and
mechanical damage), chemical factors
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, composition of
substrate, pesticide and fungicides), and
biological factors (plant variety, stress,
insects, spore load). These toxins (aflatoxin,
ochratoxin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol)
produced by fungal species remain stable
throughout the processing periods and
cooking of feeds and foods. Fungal infection
and subsequent production of mycotoxin can
occur at the field during crop growth or
harvesting, and may continue during storage.
The occurrence of this mycotoxin at a
considerably high level of concentration in
foods can cause toxic effects ranging from
acute to chronic manifestations in humans
and animals (Richard, 2007). Animals that
have been fed with Mycotoxin contaminated
feeds release products which can be dietary
sources of some mycotoxin (Prelusky, 1994).
The economic impact of mycotoxin is
diverse; loss of human and animal life,
reduced livestock production, disposal of
contaminated foods and feeds and investment
in research (Hussein et al., 2001). So many
efforts have been made towards control and
reduction of mycotoxin contamination of
foods but the ubiquitous nature of toxigenic
fungi enables their wide occurrence. It is also
noted that in most rural areas of the world, no
effort is made towards the control of toxigenic
fungi in food contamination. This paper has
reviewed mycotoxin contamination in animal
feeds.
Mycotoxins contaminations in
animal feeds
Animal feed contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins usually found in grain during
growth and storage, silage and straw
preparation. Feeds become contaminated
with mycotoxin during preservation and
storage. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin
A, trichothescenes and zearalenone are
considered as the most alarming mycotoxins
that affect livestock production. Mycotoxin
production is influenced by pre-and post-
harvest temperature, agronomic practice,
carbon dioxide and moisture and humidity
levels. Generally, mycotoxin contamination is
most likely to occur in warm, wet conditions.
It is thought ruminants are less susceptible to
mycotoxins than other species, because the
bacteria which make the rumen function can
degrade certain mycotoxins into a less toxic
1
form,
providing some protection (Rahman et
al., 2018). However, some mycotoxins can
resist
breakdown and prolonged exposure to
mixtures
of mycotoxins can impair the
function of the rumen microbes (Sarah and
Mary, 2016).
Source of contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins are very stable compounds that
can survive on the grain long time after the
initial mould has disappeared, so the absence
of mould does not mean the crop is clean.
Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence may be
greater when wet weather delay harvesting.
Storage fungi can grow on cereals from about
14.5% moisture content (7.5-8% in oilseed)
and these can causes losses of germinates
capacity, furthermore may produce mycotoxins.
Ochratoxin- A may be produced by the storage
of mould Penicillium verrucosum if grain
exceeds 18% moisture content.
Moreover, the
significant risk occurs during ambient
air-drying which may takes weeks to dry.
Straw may contain higher concentrations
of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Aspergillus, Penicillium
and fusarium are considered to be the most
important moulds and producers of mycotoxins
in silage (Sarah and Vickers, 2016).
Risk factor for mycotoxin contami-
nations in animal feed
According to Sarah and Vickers, 2016, risk
factors for mycotoxin contaminations in
animal feeds are crop debris, high humidity,
early sowing and dry weather. More resistant
varieties have a lower risk of Fusarium
mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is
reported to be the more carcinogenic than
others. Ducklings are 5 to 15 times more
sensitive to aflatoxins than laying hens.
Stress, physical state, nutritional level and
disease condition also determine the response
of animal to mycotoxin.
Molds growth and formation of
mycotoxins
The major mycotoxin-producing fungal genera
are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.
Many of these fungi produce mycotoxins in
feedstuffs. Molds usually grow and produce
mycotoxin during pre-harvest or during
storage, transport, processing or feeding stages.
Mold growth and mycotoxin production are
related to plant stress caused by weather
extremes, insect damage, inadequate storage
practices and faulty feeding conditions
(Coulumbe, 1993). Molds grow over a
temperature range of 10-40°C (50-104°F), a
pH range of 4 - 8 and moisture content
>13-15%. Most molds are aerobic, and
therefore high-moisture concentrations that
exclude adequate oxygen can prevent mold
growth. Molds usually grow in wet feeds
such as silage or wet byproducts, when
oxygen is available. Aspergillus species
normally grow at lower water activities and
at higher temperatures than the Fusarium
species. Therefore, Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin in corn are favored by the heat and
drought stress associated with warmer
climates (Klich et al., 1994). Aflatoxin
contamination is enhanced by insect damage
before and after harvest. The individual
Penicillium species have variable requirements
for temperature and moisture but are more
likely to grow under post- harvest conditions,
in cool climates, in wet conditions and at a
lower pH. The Fusarium species are
important plant pathogens that can proliferate
pre-harvest, but continue to grow post-
harvest. Fusarium molds are associated
economically important diseases, causing ear
rot and stalk rot in corn and head blight (scab)
in small grains. In wheat, Fusarium is
associated with excessive moisture at
flowering
and early grain-fill stages (CAST, 2003).
Acceptable range of mycotoxins in
foods and animal feeds
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in human
foods according to European Commissions (2007)
is shown in Table 1. (Ukwuru et al., 2017).
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal
feed according to European Commissions
(2007) is shown in Table 2. (Sarah and
Vickers, 2016).
Effect of mycotoxin on animal
health and production
Outbreaks of disease due to the consumption
of contaminated food and feedstuff are a
recurring problem worldwide. The major
factors contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce
low-molecular-weight compounds
as secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins
(Rajeev et al., 2010; Ali, 2018). Subacute
mycotoxicosis causes symptoms in humans
and animals including moderate to severe
liver damage, reproductive problems, appetite
loss, digestive tract discomfort, diarrhoea,
growth faltering, immune suppression,
increased morbidity, and premature mortality
(Miller et al., 1994). Immune suppression
causes increased morbidity and mortality in
animals and humans. Fusarium toxins called
trichothecenes causes severe damage to
actively dividing cells in bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and intestinal
mucosa (Cardwell et al., 2000). Hendrickse
et al. (1991) and Sultana et al. (2015)
reported that protein–energy malnutrition,
kwashiorkor, immune suppression, reduce
assimilation of vitamins A and E,
carcinogenicity and genotoxicity due to
aflatoxicosis
(Linsell et al., 1977). Acute
aflatoxicosis (severe aflatoxin poisoning)
occurs in poultry, swine, and cattle
consuming feeds contaminated with
aflatoxins. The same can appear in humans,
and cases of lethal toxic hepatitis attributed to
consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize
(Marasas et al., 1996). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain
(Phakamile et al., 2007). Effect of Mycotoxins
on animal health and production shown in
Table 3 according to Sarah and Vickers
(2016).
Prevention and treatment of
mycotoxins
Desired level of mycotoxin in feeds and
foods stuff is zero. But it is impossible in the
environment. The Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2001) provides a
manual on application of hazard analysis
and critical control points (HACCP)
techniques for mycotoxin prevention and
control. Management of mycotoxin in the
cereal crops supply chain may be improved
through preventing contamination and
minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in
feeds (Kabak et al., 2006). Pre-harvesting
mycotoxin accumulation may be reduced by
applying agronomic practices, minimizing
plant stress and fungal invasion in the field.
These includes proper irrigation, insect
control, and pesticide application in some
cases, cultivating resistant or adapted
hybrids, tillage type, and proper fertilization,
timely planting and avoiding delay harvesting.
Fungicides have shown little efficacy in
controlling pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination
in corn, but may be helpful in the
control of
other mycotoxins. The application of
fungicide within mold organism may reduce
the mold growth and mycotoxicosis (Gareis
and Ceynowa, 1994). A major success in
reducing aflatoxins is the use of non-
toxigenic fungi to competitively exclude
toxigenic fungi. The best strategy for
post-harvest control of mycotoxins is proper
storage and handling of feedstuffs to prevent
fungal growth. Management strategies also
include mycotoxin analysis of feedstuffs,
segregation of contaminated lots and treatments
to reduce mold growth. Physical separation
by cleaning or screening grains also helpful.
Use of enzymes, like pancreatinase, carboxy-
peptidase A, epoxidase and lactonohydrolase,
potentially useful to mycotoxin degradation
(Niderkorn et al., 2007). Mycotoxin
detoxification
also applicable by potential use
of microorganisms including Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (aflatoxin), Enterococcus faecium
(aflatoxin and patulin), Eubacterium : BSSH
797 and LS 100 (trichothecenes) and
Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans (ZEA and
OTA). Addition of 0.25-0.5% of calcium
propionate in diets successfully detoxify the
aflatoxin (Galvano et al., 2001). Increasing
nutrients such as protein, energy and
antioxidant usually advisable for mycotoxin
detoxification (Galvano et al., 2001).
Research
has demonstrated that adsorbent
materials such as silicate clays (bentonites
and others), activated carbons or beta-glucan
polymers (extracted from yeast cell wall) can
reduce the effects of mycotoxins (Diaz et. al.,
2004). An in vitro gastrointestinal model is
proposed for better simulation in vivo
conditions and has been used to assess the
mycotoxin binding efficacy by using some
feed additives and mycotoxin binders
(Avantaggiato et al., 2004; Ali and Hasan,
2018). According to scientific report entitled
“A review of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents
used as feed additives: Mode of action,
efficacy and feed/food safety” (EC, 2009), it
was noted that inorganic absorbing agents
(charcoal) seem to be effective for preventing
adverse effects of many toxic agents. Organic
absorbing agents have the ability to stimulate
the immune system. Proven detoxifying
agents may benefit animal health and
indirectly humans (EC, 2007).
Conclusion
The presence of mycotoxins in the food/feed
chain is an unavoidable and serious problem
throughout the world. Practicing good
sanitary measures, build up awareness about
the toxic effects of mycotoxin in humans and
livestock is urgent. Wide gaps exist on
the toxicological effects of mycotoxin-
contaminated
feeds in animal. Research has
been necessity in this field. Feed analysis is
required to check mycotoxin contamination
in impoted animal feeds stuff. Emphasis
should be done on to develop new low-cost
mycotoxin detection kit, which are portable,
reliable, and easy to handle at field level.
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Introduction
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites
produced by fungi (molds). Only few molds
produce mycotoxins, and they are referred to
as toxigenic. The primary classes of mycotoxins
are aflatoxins of which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
is the most prevalent, zearalenone (ZEA),
trichothecenes,
deoxy- nivalenol (DON) and
T-2 toxin (T-2), fumonisins, ochratoxins
(OTA) (Whitelow et al., 2010). These can
cause toxicity in a variety of species. Feeds
and forages can become contaminated with
mycotoxins in the field, during harvest,
drying
and transport, as well as during storage
(Sarah
and Vickers, 2016). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain.
Animal feeds, the raw ingredients used in
manufacturing, namely, maize, wheat,
sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, bagasse, wheat
bran, gluten feed and pet foods are
contaminated with mycotoxin- producing
fungi and their toxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins,
zearalenone and ochratoxins (Phakamile et
al., 2007). Disease outbreaks due to the
consumption of contaminated foods and feeds
stuff are a recurring problem worldwide. The
major factor contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce low-molecular-weight compounds as
secondary metabolites, with confirmed toxic
properties referred to as mycotoxins (Rajeev
et al., 2009). Mycotoxin contaminations of
foods and feeds remain a great concern to
food safety and of public health and
economic significance. Health implications of
mycotoxins are diverse. Mycotoxicity of
foods have tremendous effect on international
trade, resulting in huge losses. A number of
strategies for preventing mycotoxins have
been proposed but the awareness for
implementation is very low. The use of media
to create awareness is a viable option
(Ukwuru et al., 2017). Mycotoxins are toxic
to both animals and humans and that are
mainly produced by five genera: Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and
Alternaria (Ruima et al., 2018). Fungi
proliferate to produce secondary metabolites
under favorable environmental conditions,
when temperature and moisture are suitable
(Bryde, 2009). The amount of toxin produced
will depend on physical factors (moisture,
relative humidity, temperature and
mechanical damage), chemical factors
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, composition of
substrate, pesticide and fungicides), and
biological factors (plant variety, stress,
insects, spore load). These toxins (aflatoxin,
ochratoxin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol)
produced by fungal species remain stable
throughout the processing periods and
cooking of feeds and foods. Fungal infection
and subsequent production of mycotoxin can
occur at the field during crop growth or
harvesting, and may continue during storage.
The occurrence of this mycotoxin at a
considerably high level of concentration in
foods can cause toxic effects ranging from
acute to chronic manifestations in humans
and animals (Richard, 2007). Animals that
have been fed with Mycotoxin contaminated
feeds release products which can be dietary
sources of some mycotoxin (Prelusky, 1994).
The economic impact of mycotoxin is
diverse; loss of human and animal life,
reduced livestock production, disposal of
contaminated foods and feeds and investment
in research (Hussein et al., 2001). So many
efforts have been made towards control and
reduction of mycotoxin contamination of
foods but the ubiquitous nature of toxigenic
fungi enables their wide occurrence. It is also
noted that in most rural areas of the world, no
effort is made towards the control of toxigenic
fungi in food contamination. This paper has
reviewed mycotoxin contamination in animal
feeds.
Mycotoxins contaminations in
animal feeds
Animal feed contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins usually found in grain during
growth and storage, silage and straw
preparation. Feeds become contaminated
with mycotoxin during preservation and
storage. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin
A, trichothescenes and zearalenone are
considered as the most alarming mycotoxins
that affect livestock production. Mycotoxin
production is influenced by pre-and post-
harvest temperature, agronomic practice,
carbon dioxide and moisture and humidity
levels. Generally, mycotoxin contamination is
most likely to occur in warm, wet conditions.
It is thought ruminants are less susceptible to
mycotoxins than other species, because the
bacteria which make the rumen function can
degrade certain mycotoxins into a less toxic
2Hassan et al.
form,
providing some protection (Rahman et
al., 2018). However, some mycotoxins can
resist
breakdown and prolonged exposure to
mixtures
of mycotoxins can impair the
function of the rumen microbes (Sarah and
Mary, 2016).
Source of contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins are very stable compounds that
can survive on the grain long time after the
initial mould has disappeared, so the absence
of mould does not mean the crop is clean.
Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence may be
greater when wet weather delay harvesting.
Storage fungi can grow on cereals from about
14.5% moisture content (7.5-8% in oilseed)
and these can causes losses of germinates
capacity, furthermore may produce mycotoxins.
Ochratoxin- A may be produced by the storage
of mould Penicillium verrucosum if grain
exceeds 18% moisture content.
Moreover, the
significant risk occurs during ambient
air-drying which may takes weeks to dry.
Straw may contain higher concentrations
of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Aspergillus, Penicillium
and fusarium are considered to be the most
important moulds and producers of mycotoxins
in silage (Sarah and Vickers, 2016).
Risk factor for mycotoxin contami-
nations in animal feed
According to Sarah and Vickers, 2016, risk
factors for mycotoxin contaminations in
animal feeds are crop debris, high humidity,
early sowing and dry weather. More resistant
varieties have a lower risk of Fusarium
mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is
reported to be the more carcinogenic than
others. Ducklings are 5 to 15 times more
sensitive to aflatoxins than laying hens.
Stress, physical state, nutritional level and
disease condition also determine the response
of animal to mycotoxin.
Molds growth and formation of
mycotoxins
The major mycotoxin-producing fungal genera
are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.
Many of these fungi produce mycotoxins in
feedstuffs. Molds usually grow and produce
mycotoxin during pre-harvest or during
storage, transport, processing or feeding stages.
Mold growth and mycotoxin production are
related to plant stress caused by weather
extremes, insect damage, inadequate storage
practices and faulty feeding conditions
(Coulumbe, 1993). Molds grow over a
temperature range of 10-40°C (50-104°F), a
pH range of 4 - 8 and moisture content
>13-15%. Most molds are aerobic, and
therefore high-moisture concentrations that
exclude adequate oxygen can prevent mold
growth. Molds usually grow in wet feeds
such as silage or wet byproducts, when
oxygen is available. Aspergillus species
normally grow at lower water activities and
at higher temperatures than the Fusarium
species. Therefore, Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin in corn are favored by the heat and
drought stress associated with warmer
climates (Klich et al., 1994). Aflatoxin
contamination is enhanced by insect damage
before and after harvest. The individual
Penicillium species have variable requirements
for temperature and moisture but are more
likely to grow under post- harvest conditions,
in cool climates, in wet conditions and at a
lower pH. The Fusarium species are
important plant pathogens that can proliferate
pre-harvest, but continue to grow post-
harvest. Fusarium molds are associated
economically important diseases, causing ear
rot and stalk rot in corn and head blight (scab)
in small grains. In wheat, Fusarium is
associated with excessive moisture at
flowering
and early grain-fill stages (CAST, 2003).
Acceptable range of mycotoxins in
foods and animal feeds
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in human
foods according to European Commissions (2007)
is shown in Table 1. (Ukwuru et al., 2017).
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal
feed according to European Commissions
(2007) is shown in Table 2. (Sarah and
Vickers, 2016).
Effect of mycotoxin on animal
health and production
Outbreaks of disease due to the consumption
of contaminated food and feedstuff are a
recurring problem worldwide. The major
factors contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce
low-molecular-weight compounds
as secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins
(Rajeev et al., 2010; Ali, 2018). Subacute
mycotoxicosis causes symptoms in humans
and animals including moderate to severe
liver damage, reproductive problems, appetite
loss, digestive tract discomfort, diarrhoea,
growth faltering, immune suppression,
increased morbidity, and premature mortality
(Miller et al., 1994). Immune suppression
causes increased morbidity and mortality in
animals and humans. Fusarium toxins called
trichothecenes causes severe damage to
actively dividing cells in bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and intestinal
mucosa (Cardwell et al., 2000). Hendrickse
et al. (1991) and Sultana et al. (2015)
reported that protein–energy malnutrition,
kwashiorkor, immune suppression, reduce
assimilation of vitamins A and E,
carcinogenicity and genotoxicity due to
aflatoxicosis
(Linsell et al., 1977). Acute
aflatoxicosis (severe aflatoxin poisoning)
occurs in poultry, swine, and cattle
consuming feeds contaminated with
aflatoxins. The same can appear in humans,
and cases of lethal toxic hepatitis attributed to
consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize
(Marasas et al., 1996). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain
(Phakamile et al., 2007). Effect of Mycotoxins
on animal health and production shown in
Table 3 according to Sarah and Vickers
(2016).
Prevention and treatment of
mycotoxins
Desired level of mycotoxin in feeds and
foods stuff is zero. But it is impossible in the
environment. The Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2001) provides a
manual on application of hazard analysis
and critical control points (HACCP)
techniques for mycotoxin prevention and
control. Management of mycotoxin in the
cereal crops supply chain may be improved
through preventing contamination and
minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in
feeds (Kabak et al., 2006). Pre-harvesting
mycotoxin accumulation may be reduced by
applying agronomic practices, minimizing
plant stress and fungal invasion in the field.
These includes proper irrigation, insect
control, and pesticide application in some
cases, cultivating resistant or adapted
hybrids, tillage type, and proper fertilization,
timely planting and avoiding delay harvesting.
Fungicides have shown little efficacy in
controlling pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination
in corn, but may be helpful in the
control of
other mycotoxins. The application of
fungicide within mold organism may reduce
the mold growth and mycotoxicosis (Gareis
and Ceynowa, 1994). A major success in
reducing aflatoxins is the use of non-
toxigenic fungi to competitively exclude
toxigenic fungi. The best strategy for
post-harvest control of mycotoxins is proper
storage and handling of feedstuffs to prevent
fungal growth. Management strategies also
include mycotoxin analysis of feedstuffs,
segregation of contaminated lots and treatments
to reduce mold growth. Physical separation
by cleaning or screening grains also helpful.
Use of enzymes, like pancreatinase, carboxy-
peptidase A, epoxidase and lactonohydrolase,
potentially useful to mycotoxin degradation
(Niderkorn et al., 2007). Mycotoxin
detoxification
also applicable by potential use
of microorganisms including Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (aflatoxin), Enterococcus faecium
(aflatoxin and patulin), Eubacterium : BSSH
797 and LS 100 (trichothecenes) and
Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans (ZEA and
OTA). Addition of 0.25-0.5% of calcium
propionate in diets successfully detoxify the
aflatoxin (Galvano et al., 2001). Increasing
nutrients such as protein, energy and
antioxidant usually advisable for mycotoxin
detoxification (Galvano et al., 2001).
Research
has demonstrated that adsorbent
materials such as silicate clays (bentonites
and others), activated carbons or beta-glucan
polymers (extracted from yeast cell wall) can
reduce the effects of mycotoxins (Diaz et. al.,
2004). An in vitro gastrointestinal model is
proposed for better simulation in vivo
conditions and has been used to assess the
mycotoxin binding efficacy by using some
feed additives and mycotoxin binders
(Avantaggiato et al., 2004; Ali and Hasan,
2018). According to scientific report entitled
“A review of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents
used as feed additives: Mode of action,
efficacy and feed/food safety” (EC, 2009), it
was noted that inorganic absorbing agents
(charcoal) seem to be effective for preventing
adverse effects of many toxic agents. Organic
absorbing agents have the ability to stimulate
the immune system. Proven detoxifying
agents may benefit animal health and
indirectly humans (EC, 2007).
Conclusion
The presence of mycotoxins in the food/feed
chain is an unavoidable and serious problem
throughout the world. Practicing good
sanitary measures, build up awareness about
the toxic effects of mycotoxin in humans and
livestock is urgent. Wide gaps exist on
the toxicological effects of mycotoxin-
contaminated
feeds in animal. Research has
been necessity in this field. Feed analysis is
required to check mycotoxin contamination
in impoted animal feeds stuff. Emphasis
should be done on to develop new low-cost
mycotoxin detection kit, which are portable,
reliable, and easy to handle at field level.
References
Avantaggiato, G., Havenaar, R. and Visconti A.
2004. Evaluation of the intestinal absorption of
deoxynivalenol and nivalenol by an in vitro
gastrointestinal model and the binding efficacy
of activated carbon and other adsorbent
materials. Food Chemistry and Toxicology. 42:
817-824.
Ali, M.Z. 2018. The Seroprevalence Study of
Reticuloendotheliosis Virus Infection in
Chicken in Bangladesh. Egyptian Journal of
Veterinary Sciences, 49(2): 179-186.
Ali, M.Z. and Hasan B. (2018). Follow up of
maternally derived antibodies titer against
economically important viral diseases of
chicken. Poultry Science Journal. 6(2):
149-154.
Bryden, W.L. 2009. Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses:
significance, occurrence and mitigation in the
food chain. General, Applied and Systems
Toxicology.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology
(CAST) 2003. Mycotoxins: risks in plant,
animal and human systems. Task force report,
ISSN 0194-4088, Ames, Iowa: Council for
Agricultural Science and Technology.
Cardwell, K.F. 2000. Mycotoxin contamination of
foods in Africa: Antinutritional factors. Food
and Nutrition Bulletin. 21: 4.
Commission Regulation (EC). 1126/2007. amending
Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 setting
maximum levels for certain contaminants in
foodstuffs as regards Fusarium toxinsin maize
and maize products Official Journal of the
European Communities. 2007: 14-17.
Diaz, D., Hagler, W., Blackwelder, J., Eve, J.,
Hopkins, B., Anderson, K., Jones, F. and
Whitlow, L. 2004. Aflatoxin binders II:
reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by
sequestering agents of cows consuming
aflatoxin in feed. Mycopathologia. 157: 233–
241.
Gareis,
M. and Ceynowa, J. 1994. Effect of the
fungicide Matador (tebuconazole/ triadimenol)
on mycotoxin production by Fusarium
culmorum. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 198:
244–248.
Galvano, F., Galofaro, V., Bognanno, M., De
Angelis, A. and Galvano, G. 2001. Survey of
the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy
products marketed in Italy, Second year of
observation.
Food Additives and
Contaminants. 18:
644–646.
Hussein,
H.S. and Brasel, J. M. 2001. Toxicity,
metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on
humans and animals. Toxicology. 167: 101-134.
Hendrickse, R.G. 1991. Clinical implications of
food contamination by aflatoxins. Annals
academy of the Academy of Medicine,
Singapore. 20: 84-90.
IARC, 2002. IARC Monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans
Fumonisin
B1. International Agency for
Research on
Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France.
Kabak, B., Dobson, A.D. and Var, I. 2006.
Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination
of food and animal feed: a review. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46:
593-619.
Linsell, C.A. and Peers, F.G. 1977. Aflatoxin and
liver cell cancer. Transactions of the Royal
Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
71: 471-473.
Miller, J.D. 1995. Fungi and mycotoxins in grain:
implications for stored product research.
Journal of Stored Products Research. 31:
1-16.
Miller, J.D. and Trenholm, M.L. 1994.
Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than
aflatoxin. USA: Eagan Press.
Marasas, W.F.O. 1996. Fumonisins: history,
worldwide occurrence and impact. In:
Jackson, L.S., DeVries, J.W., Bullerman, L. B.
(eds.) Fumonisins in food. New York: Plenum
Press: 1-18.
Phakamile, T., Mngadi, R.G. and Odhav, B. 2007.
Co-occurring mycotoxins in animal feeds.
African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (13):
2239-2243.
Niderkorn, V., Morgavi, D.P., Pujos, E., Tissandier,
A. and Boudra, H. 2007. Screening of
fermentative bacteria for their ability to bind
and biotransform deoxynivalenol, zearalenone
and fumonisins in an in vitro simulated corn
silage model. Food Additives and Contaminants.
24:406–15.
Rahman, M.M., Uddin, M.K., Hassan, M.Z.,
Rahman, M.M., Ali, M.Z., Rahman, M.L.,
Akter, M.R. and Rahman, M.M. 2018.
Seroprevalence study of infectious
laryngotracheitis virus antibody of commercial
layer in Gazipur district of Bangladesh. Asian
Journal of Medical and Biological Research.
4(1): 1-6.
Richard, J.L. 2007. Some major mycotoxins and
their mycotoxicoses- An overview. International
Journal of Food Microbiology. 119: 3-10.
Rui. M., Lei, Z., Liu, M., Su, Y.T., Xie, W.M.,
Zhang, N.I., Dai, J.F., Yun Wang, Shahid Ali
Rajput, ID , De-Sheng Qi , Niel Alexander
Karrow and Lv-Hui Sun. 2018. Toxins 2018,
10, 113; doi:10.3390/toxins10030113.
Bhat, R. Ravishankar, Rai, V. and Karim, A.A.
2010. Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Present
status and future concerns. comprehensive
reviews in food science and food safety.
9,:57-81.
Sarah Pick and Mary Vickers. 2016. Mycotoxin
contamination in animal feed and forages.
beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk
Sultana, S., Rahman, M.M. and Ali, M.Z. 2015.
Evaluation of Gentian Violet and Copper
Sulphate as Fungi Inhibitor in Broiler Diet.
International Journal of Animal Biology. 1(4):
146-149.
Ukwuru, M.U., Ohaegbu, C.G., and Muritala, A.
2017. An Overview of Mycotoxin
Contamination of Foods and Feeds. Journal of
Biochemical and Microbial Toxicology. 1: 101.
Whitlow, L.W., Hagler, W.M. and Diaz, D.E.
2010. Mycotoxins in feeds. September 15,
2010, Feedstuffs: 74-84.

Introduction
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites
produced by fungi (molds). Only few molds
produce mycotoxins, and they are referred to
as toxigenic. The primary classes of mycotoxins
are aflatoxins of which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
is the most prevalent, zearalenone (ZEA),
trichothecenes,
deoxy- nivalenol (DON) and
T-2 toxin (T-2), fumonisins, ochratoxins
(OTA) (Whitelow et al., 2010). These can
cause toxicity in a variety of species. Feeds
and forages can become contaminated with
mycotoxins in the field, during harvest,
drying
and transport, as well as during storage
(Sarah
and Vickers, 2016). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain.
Animal feeds, the raw ingredients used in
manufacturing, namely, maize, wheat,
sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, bagasse, wheat
bran, gluten feed and pet foods are
contaminated with mycotoxin- producing
fungi and their toxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins,
zearalenone and ochratoxins (Phakamile et
al., 2007). Disease outbreaks due to the
consumption of contaminated foods and feeds
stuff are a recurring problem worldwide. The
major factor contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce low-molecular-weight compounds as
secondary metabolites, with confirmed toxic
properties referred to as mycotoxins (Rajeev
et al., 2009). Mycotoxin contaminations of
foods and feeds remain a great concern to
food safety and of public health and
economic significance. Health implications of
mycotoxins are diverse. Mycotoxicity of
foods have tremendous effect on international
trade, resulting in huge losses. A number of
strategies for preventing mycotoxins have
been proposed but the awareness for
implementation is very low. The use of media
to create awareness is a viable option
(Ukwuru et al., 2017). Mycotoxins are toxic
to both animals and humans and that are
mainly produced by five genera: Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and
Alternaria (Ruima et al., 2018). Fungi
proliferate to produce secondary metabolites
under favorable environmental conditions,
when temperature and moisture are suitable
(Bryde, 2009). The amount of toxin produced
will depend on physical factors (moisture,
relative humidity, temperature and
mechanical damage), chemical factors
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, composition of
substrate, pesticide and fungicides), and
biological factors (plant variety, stress,
insects, spore load). These toxins (aflatoxin,
ochratoxin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol)
produced by fungal species remain stable
throughout the processing periods and
cooking of feeds and foods. Fungal infection
and subsequent production of mycotoxin can
occur at the field during crop growth or
harvesting, and may continue during storage.
The occurrence of this mycotoxin at a
considerably high level of concentration in
foods can cause toxic effects ranging from
acute to chronic manifestations in humans
and animals (Richard, 2007). Animals that
have been fed with Mycotoxin contaminated
feeds release products which can be dietary
sources of some mycotoxin (Prelusky, 1994).
The economic impact of mycotoxin is
diverse; loss of human and animal life,
reduced livestock production, disposal of
contaminated foods and feeds and investment
in research (Hussein et al., 2001). So many
efforts have been made towards control and
reduction of mycotoxin contamination of
foods but the ubiquitous nature of toxigenic
fungi enables their wide occurrence. It is also
noted that in most rural areas of the world, no
effort is made towards the control of toxigenic
fungi in food contamination. This paper has
reviewed mycotoxin contamination in animal
feeds.
Mycotoxins contaminations in
animal feeds
Animal feed contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins usually found in grain during
growth and storage, silage and straw
preparation. Feeds become contaminated
with mycotoxin during preservation and
storage. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin
A, trichothescenes and zearalenone are
considered as the most alarming mycotoxins
that affect livestock production. Mycotoxin
production is influenced by pre-and post-
harvest temperature, agronomic practice,
carbon dioxide and moisture and humidity
levels. Generally, mycotoxin contamination is
most likely to occur in warm, wet conditions.
It is thought ruminants are less susceptible to
mycotoxins than other species, because the
bacteria which make the rumen function can
degrade certain mycotoxins into a less toxic
form,
providing some protection (Rahman et
al., 2018). However, some mycotoxins can
resist
breakdown and prolonged exposure to
mixtures
of mycotoxins can impair the
function of the rumen microbes (Sarah and
Mary, 2016).
Source of contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins are very stable compounds that
can survive on the grain long time after the
initial mould has disappeared, so the absence
of mould does not mean the crop is clean.
Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence may be
greater when wet weather delay harvesting.
Storage fungi can grow on cereals from about
14.5% moisture content (7.5-8% in oilseed)
and these can causes losses of germinates
capacity, furthermore may produce mycotoxins.
Ochratoxin- A may be produced by the storage
of mould Penicillium verrucosum if grain
exceeds 18% moisture content.
Moreover, the
significant risk occurs during ambient
air-drying which may takes weeks to dry.
Straw may contain higher concentrations
of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Aspergillus, Penicillium
and fusarium are considered to be the most
important moulds and producers of mycotoxins
in silage (Sarah and Vickers, 2016).
Risk factor for mycotoxin contami-
nations in animal feed
According to Sarah and Vickers, 2016, risk
factors for mycotoxin contaminations in
animal feeds are crop debris, high humidity,
early sowing and dry weather. More resistant
varieties have a lower risk of Fusarium
mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is
reported to be the more carcinogenic than
others. Ducklings are 5 to 15 times more
sensitive to aflatoxins than laying hens.
Stress, physical state, nutritional level and
disease condition also determine the response
of animal to mycotoxin.
Molds growth and formation of
mycotoxins
The major mycotoxin-producing fungal genera
are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.
Many of these fungi produce mycotoxins in
feedstuffs. Molds usually grow and produce
mycotoxin during pre-harvest or during
storage, transport, processing or feeding stages.
Mold growth and mycotoxin production are
related to plant stress caused by weather
extremes, insect damage, inadequate storage
practices and faulty feeding conditions
(Coulumbe, 1993). Molds grow over a
temperature range of 10-40°C (50-104°F), a
pH range of 4 - 8 and moisture content
>13-15%. Most molds are aerobic, and
therefore high-moisture concentrations that
exclude adequate oxygen can prevent mold
growth. Molds usually grow in wet feeds
such as silage or wet byproducts, when
oxygen is available. Aspergillus species
normally grow at lower water activities and
at higher temperatures than the Fusarium
species. Therefore, Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin in corn are favored by the heat and
drought stress associated with warmer
climates (Klich et al., 1994). Aflatoxin
contamination is enhanced by insect damage
before and after harvest. The individual
Penicillium species have variable requirements
for temperature and moisture but are more
likely to grow under post- harvest conditions,
in cool climates, in wet conditions and at a
lower pH. The Fusarium species are
important plant pathogens that can proliferate
pre-harvest, but continue to grow post-
harvest. Fusarium molds are associated
economically important diseases, causing ear
rot and stalk rot in corn and head blight (scab)
in small grains. In wheat, Fusarium is
associated with excessive moisture at
flowering
and early grain-fill stages (CAST, 2003).
Acceptable range of mycotoxins in
foods and animal feeds
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in human
foods according to European Commissions (2007)
is shown in Table 1. (Ukwuru et al., 2017).
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal
feed according to European Commissions
(2007) is shown in Table 2. (Sarah and
Vickers, 2016).
Effect of mycotoxin on animal
health and production
Outbreaks of disease due to the consumption
of contaminated food and feedstuff are a
recurring problem worldwide. The major
factors contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce
low-molecular-weight compounds
as secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins
(Rajeev et al., 2010; Ali, 2018). Subacute
mycotoxicosis causes symptoms in humans
and animals including moderate to severe
liver damage, reproductive problems, appetite
loss, digestive tract discomfort, diarrhoea,
growth faltering, immune suppression,
increased morbidity, and premature mortality
(Miller et al., 1994). Immune suppression
causes increased morbidity and mortality in
animals and humans. Fusarium toxins called
trichothecenes causes severe damage to
actively dividing cells in bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and intestinal
mucosa (Cardwell et al., 2000). Hendrickse
et al. (1991) and Sultana et al. (2015)
reported that protein–energy malnutrition,
kwashiorkor, immune suppression, reduce
assimilation of vitamins A and E,
carcinogenicity and genotoxicity due to
aflatoxicosis
(Linsell et al., 1977). Acute
aflatoxicosis (severe aflatoxin poisoning)
occurs in poultry, swine, and cattle
consuming feeds contaminated with
aflatoxins. The same can appear in humans,
and cases of lethal toxic hepatitis attributed to
consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize
(Marasas et al., 1996). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain
(Phakamile et al., 2007). Effect of Mycotoxins
on animal health and production shown in
Table 3 according to Sarah and Vickers
(2016).
Prevention and treatment of
mycotoxins
Desired level of mycotoxin in feeds and
foods stuff is zero. But it is impossible in the
environment. The Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2001) provides a
manual on application of hazard analysis
and critical control points (HACCP)
techniques for mycotoxin prevention and
control. Management of mycotoxin in the
cereal crops supply chain may be improved
through preventing contamination and
minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in
feeds (Kabak et al., 2006). Pre-harvesting
mycotoxin accumulation may be reduced by
applying agronomic practices, minimizing
plant stress and fungal invasion in the field.
These includes proper irrigation, insect
control, and pesticide application in some
cases, cultivating resistant or adapted
hybrids, tillage type, and proper fertilization,
timely planting and avoiding delay harvesting.
Fungicides have shown little efficacy in
controlling pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination
in corn, but may be helpful in the
control of
other mycotoxins. The application of
fungicide within mold organism may reduce
the mold growth and mycotoxicosis (Gareis
and Ceynowa, 1994). A major success in
reducing aflatoxins is the use of non-
toxigenic fungi to competitively exclude
toxigenic fungi. The best strategy for
post-harvest control of mycotoxins is proper
storage and handling of feedstuffs to prevent
fungal growth. Management strategies also
include mycotoxin analysis of feedstuffs,
segregation of contaminated lots and treatments
to reduce mold growth. Physical separation
by cleaning or screening grains also helpful.
Use of enzymes, like pancreatinase, carboxy-
peptidase A, epoxidase and lactonohydrolase,
potentially useful to mycotoxin degradation
(Niderkorn et al., 2007). Mycotoxin
detoxification
also applicable by potential use
of microorganisms including Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (aflatoxin), Enterococcus faecium
(aflatoxin and patulin), Eubacterium : BSSH
797 and LS 100 (trichothecenes) and
Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans (ZEA and
OTA). Addition of 0.25-0.5% of calcium
propionate in diets successfully detoxify the
aflatoxin (Galvano et al., 2001). Increasing
nutrients such as protein, energy and
antioxidant usually advisable for mycotoxin
detoxification (Galvano et al., 2001).
Research
has demonstrated that adsorbent
materials such as silicate clays (bentonites
and others), activated carbons or beta-glucan
polymers (extracted from yeast cell wall) can
reduce the effects of mycotoxins (Diaz et. al.,
2004). An in vitro gastrointestinal model is
proposed for better simulation in vivo
conditions and has been used to assess the
mycotoxin binding efficacy by using some
feed additives and mycotoxin binders
(Avantaggiato et al., 2004; Ali and Hasan,
2018). According to scientific report entitled
“A review of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents
used as feed additives: Mode of action,
efficacy and feed/food safety” (EC, 2009), it
was noted that inorganic absorbing agents
(charcoal) seem to be effective for preventing
adverse effects of many toxic agents. Organic
absorbing agents have the ability to stimulate
the immune system. Proven detoxifying
agents may benefit animal health and
indirectly humans (EC, 2007).
Conclusion
The presence of mycotoxins in the food/feed
chain is an unavoidable and serious problem
throughout the world. Practicing good
sanitary measures, build up awareness about
the toxic effects of mycotoxin in humans and
livestock is urgent. Wide gaps exist on
the toxicological effects of mycotoxin-
contaminated
feeds in animal. Research has
been necessity in this field. Feed analysis is
required to check mycotoxin contamination
in impoted animal feeds stuff. Emphasis
should be done on to develop new low-cost
mycotoxin detection kit, which are portable,
reliable, and easy to handle at field level.
References
Avantaggiato, G., Havenaar, R. and Visconti A.
2004. Evaluation of the intestinal absorption of
deoxynivalenol and nivalenol by an in vitro
gastrointestinal model and the binding efficacy
of activated carbon and other adsorbent
materials. Food Chemistry and Toxicology. 42:
817-824.
Ali, M.Z. 2018. The Seroprevalence Study of
Reticuloendotheliosis Virus Infection in
Chicken in Bangladesh. Egyptian Journal of
Veterinary Sciences, 49(2): 179-186.
Ali, M.Z. and Hasan B. (2018). Follow up of
maternally derived antibodies titer against
economically important viral diseases of
chicken. Poultry Science Journal. 6(2):
149-154.
Bryden, W.L. 2009. Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses:
significance, occurrence and mitigation in the
food chain. General, Applied and Systems
Toxicology.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology
(CAST) 2003. Mycotoxins: risks in plant,
animal and human systems. Task force report,
ISSN 0194-4088, Ames, Iowa: Council for
Agricultural Science and Technology.
Cardwell, K.F. 2000. Mycotoxin contamination of
foods in Africa: Antinutritional factors. Food
and Nutrition Bulletin. 21: 4.
Commission Regulation (EC). 1126/2007. amending
Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 setting
maximum levels for certain contaminants in
foodstuffs as regards Fusarium toxinsin maize
and maize products Official Journal of the
European Communities. 2007: 14-17.
Diaz, D., Hagler, W., Blackwelder, J., Eve, J.,
Hopkins, B., Anderson, K., Jones, F. and
Whitlow, L. 2004. Aflatoxin binders II:
reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by
sequestering agents of cows consuming
aflatoxin in feed. Mycopathologia. 157: 233–
241.
Gareis,
M. and Ceynowa, J. 1994. Effect of the
fungicide Matador (tebuconazole/ triadimenol)
on mycotoxin production by Fusarium
culmorum. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 198:
244–248.
Galvano, F., Galofaro, V., Bognanno, M., De
Angelis, A. and Galvano, G. 2001. Survey of
the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy
products marketed in Italy, Second year of
observation.
Food Additives and
Contaminants. 18:
644–646.
Hussein,
H.S. and Brasel, J. M. 2001. Toxicity,
metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on
humans and animals. Toxicology. 167: 101-134.
Hendrickse, R.G. 1991. Clinical implications of
food contamination by aflatoxins. Annals
academy of the Academy of Medicine,
Singapore. 20: 84-90.
IARC, 2002. IARC Monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans
Fumonisin
B1. International Agency for
Research on
Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France.
Kabak, B., Dobson, A.D. and Var, I. 2006.
Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination
of food and animal feed: a review. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46:
593-619.
Linsell, C.A. and Peers, F.G. 1977. Aflatoxin and
liver cell cancer. Transactions of the Royal
Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
71: 471-473.
Miller, J.D. 1995. Fungi and mycotoxins in grain:
implications for stored product research.
Journal of Stored Products Research. 31:
1-16.
Miller, J.D. and Trenholm, M.L. 1994.
Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than
aflatoxin. USA: Eagan Press.
Marasas, W.F.O. 1996. Fumonisins: history,
worldwide occurrence and impact. In:
Jackson, L.S., DeVries, J.W., Bullerman, L. B.
(eds.) Fumonisins in food. New York: Plenum
Press: 1-18.
Phakamile, T., Mngadi, R.G. and Odhav, B. 2007.
Co-occurring mycotoxins in animal feeds.
African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (13):
2239-2243.
Niderkorn, V., Morgavi, D.P., Pujos, E., Tissandier,
A. and Boudra, H. 2007. Screening of
fermentative bacteria for their ability to bind
and biotransform deoxynivalenol, zearalenone
and fumonisins in an in vitro simulated corn
silage model. Food Additives and Contaminants.
24:406–15.
Rahman, M.M., Uddin, M.K., Hassan, M.Z.,
Rahman, M.M., Ali, M.Z., Rahman, M.L.,
Akter, M.R. and Rahman, M.M. 2018.
Seroprevalence study of infectious
laryngotracheitis virus antibody of commercial
layer in Gazipur district of Bangladesh. Asian
Journal of Medical and Biological Research.
4(1): 1-6.
Richard, J.L. 2007. Some major mycotoxins and
their mycotoxicoses- An overview. International
Journal of Food Microbiology. 119: 3-10.
Rui. M., Lei, Z., Liu, M., Su, Y.T., Xie, W.M.,
Zhang, N.I., Dai, J.F., Yun Wang, Shahid Ali
Rajput, ID , De-Sheng Qi , Niel Alexander
Karrow and Lv-Hui Sun. 2018. Toxins 2018,
10, 113; doi:10.3390/toxins10030113.
Bhat, R. Ravishankar, Rai, V. and Karim, A.A.
2010. Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Present
status and future concerns. comprehensive
reviews in food science and food safety.
9,:57-81.
Sarah Pick and Mary Vickers. 2016. Mycotoxin
contamination in animal feed and forages.
beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk
Sultana, S., Rahman, M.M. and Ali, M.Z. 2015.
Evaluation of Gentian Violet and Copper
Sulphate as Fungi Inhibitor in Broiler Diet.
International Journal of Animal Biology. 1(4):
146-149.
Ukwuru, M.U., Ohaegbu, C.G., and Muritala, A.
2017. An Overview of Mycotoxin
Contamination of Foods and Feeds. Journal of
Biochemical and Microbial Toxicology. 1: 101.
Whitlow, L.W., Hagler, W.M. and Diaz, D.E.
2010. Mycotoxins in feeds. September 15,
2010, Feedstuffs: 74-84.
3An overview of Mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds

Introduction
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites
produced by fungi (molds). Only few molds
produce mycotoxins, and they are referred to
as toxigenic. The primary classes of mycotoxins
are aflatoxins of which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
is the most prevalent, zearalenone (ZEA),
trichothecenes,
deoxy- nivalenol (DON) and
T-2 toxin (T-2), fumonisins, ochratoxins
(OTA) (Whitelow et al., 2010). These can
cause toxicity in a variety of species. Feeds
and forages can become contaminated with
mycotoxins in the field, during harvest,
drying
and transport, as well as during storage
(Sarah
and Vickers, 2016). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain.
Animal feeds, the raw ingredients used in
manufacturing, namely, maize, wheat,
sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, bagasse, wheat
bran, gluten feed and pet foods are
contaminated with mycotoxin- producing
fungi and their toxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins,
zearalenone and ochratoxins (Phakamile et
al., 2007). Disease outbreaks due to the
consumption of contaminated foods and feeds
stuff are a recurring problem worldwide. The
major factor contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce low-molecular-weight compounds as
secondary metabolites, with confirmed toxic
properties referred to as mycotoxins (Rajeev
et al., 2009). Mycotoxin contaminations of
foods and feeds remain a great concern to
food safety and of public health and
economic significance. Health implications of
mycotoxins are diverse. Mycotoxicity of
foods have tremendous effect on international
trade, resulting in huge losses. A number of
strategies for preventing mycotoxins have
been proposed but the awareness for
implementation is very low. The use of media
to create awareness is a viable option
(Ukwuru et al., 2017). Mycotoxins are toxic
to both animals and humans and that are
mainly produced by five genera: Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and
Alternaria (Ruima et al., 2018). Fungi
proliferate to produce secondary metabolites
under favorable environmental conditions,
when temperature and moisture are suitable
(Bryde, 2009). The amount of toxin produced
will depend on physical factors (moisture,
relative humidity, temperature and
mechanical damage), chemical factors
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, composition of
substrate, pesticide and fungicides), and
biological factors (plant variety, stress,
insects, spore load). These toxins (aflatoxin,
ochratoxin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol)
produced by fungal species remain stable
throughout the processing periods and
cooking of feeds and foods. Fungal infection
and subsequent production of mycotoxin can
occur at the field during crop growth or
harvesting, and may continue during storage.
The occurrence of this mycotoxin at a
considerably high level of concentration in
foods can cause toxic effects ranging from
acute to chronic manifestations in humans
and animals (Richard, 2007). Animals that
have been fed with Mycotoxin contaminated
feeds release products which can be dietary
sources of some mycotoxin (Prelusky, 1994).
The economic impact of mycotoxin is
diverse; loss of human and animal life,
reduced livestock production, disposal of
contaminated foods and feeds and investment
in research (Hussein et al., 2001). So many
efforts have been made towards control and
reduction of mycotoxin contamination of
foods but the ubiquitous nature of toxigenic
fungi enables their wide occurrence. It is also
noted that in most rural areas of the world, no
effort is made towards the control of toxigenic
fungi in food contamination. This paper has
reviewed mycotoxin contamination in animal
feeds.
Mycotoxins contaminations in
animal feeds
Animal feed contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins usually found in grain during
growth and storage, silage and straw
preparation. Feeds become contaminated
with mycotoxin during preservation and
storage. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin
A, trichothescenes and zearalenone are
considered as the most alarming mycotoxins
that affect livestock production. Mycotoxin
production is influenced by pre-and post-
harvest temperature, agronomic practice,
carbon dioxide and moisture and humidity
levels. Generally, mycotoxin contamination is
most likely to occur in warm, wet conditions.
It is thought ruminants are less susceptible to
mycotoxins than other species, because the
bacteria which make the rumen function can
degrade certain mycotoxins into a less toxic
4Hassan et al.
form,
providing some protection (Rahman et
al., 2018). However, some mycotoxins can
resist
breakdown and prolonged exposure to
mixtures
of mycotoxins can impair the
function of the rumen microbes (Sarah and
Mary, 2016).
Source of contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins are very stable compounds that
can survive on the grain long time after the
initial mould has disappeared, so the absence
of mould does not mean the crop is clean.
Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence may be
greater when wet weather delay harvesting.
Storage fungi can grow on cereals from about
14.5% moisture content (7.5-8% in oilseed)
and these can causes losses of germinates
capacity, furthermore may produce mycotoxins.
Ochratoxin- A may be produced by the storage
of mould Penicillium verrucosum if grain
exceeds 18% moisture content.
Moreover, the
significant risk occurs during ambient
air-drying which may takes weeks to dry.
Straw may contain higher concentrations
of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Aspergillus, Penicillium
and fusarium are considered to be the most
important moulds and producers of mycotoxins
in silage (Sarah and Vickers, 2016).
Risk factor for mycotoxin contami-
nations in animal feed
According to Sarah and Vickers, 2016, risk
factors for mycotoxin contaminations in
animal feeds are crop debris, high humidity,
early sowing and dry weather. More resistant
varieties have a lower risk of Fusarium
mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is
reported to be the more carcinogenic than
others. Ducklings are 5 to 15 times more
sensitive to aflatoxins than laying hens.
Stress, physical state, nutritional level and
disease condition also determine the response
of animal to mycotoxin.
Molds growth and formation of
mycotoxins
The major mycotoxin-producing fungal genera
are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.
Many of these fungi produce mycotoxins in
feedstuffs. Molds usually grow and produce
mycotoxin during pre-harvest or during
storage, transport, processing or feeding stages.
Mold growth and mycotoxin production are
related to plant stress caused by weather
extremes, insect damage, inadequate storage
practices and faulty feeding conditions
(Coulumbe, 1993). Molds grow over a
temperature range of 10-40°C (50-104°F), a
pH range of 4 - 8 and moisture content
>13-15%. Most molds are aerobic, and
therefore high-moisture concentrations that
exclude adequate oxygen can prevent mold
growth. Molds usually grow in wet feeds
such as silage or wet byproducts, when
oxygen is available. Aspergillus species
normally grow at lower water activities and
at higher temperatures than the Fusarium
species. Therefore, Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin in corn are favored by the heat and
drought stress associated with warmer
climates (Klich et al., 1994). Aflatoxin
contamination is enhanced by insect damage
before and after harvest. The individual
Penicillium species have variable requirements
for temperature and moisture but are more
likely to grow under post- harvest conditions,
in cool climates, in wet conditions and at a
lower pH. The Fusarium species are
important plant pathogens that can proliferate
pre-harvest, but continue to grow post-
harvest. Fusarium molds are associated
economically important diseases, causing ear
rot and stalk rot in corn and head blight (scab)
in small grains. In wheat, Fusarium is
associated with excessive moisture at
flowering
and early grain-fill stages (CAST, 2003).
Acceptable range of mycotoxins in
foods and animal feeds
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in human
foods according to European Commissions (2007)
is shown in Table 1. (Ukwuru et al., 2017).
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal
feed according to European Commissions
(2007) is shown in Table 2. (Sarah and
Vickers, 2016).
Effect of mycotoxin on animal
health and production
Outbreaks of disease due to the consumption
of contaminated food and feedstuff are a
recurring problem worldwide. The major
factors contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce
low-molecular-weight compounds
as secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins
(Rajeev et al., 2010; Ali, 2018). Subacute
mycotoxicosis causes symptoms in humans
and animals including moderate to severe
liver damage, reproductive problems, appetite
loss, digestive tract discomfort, diarrhoea,
growth faltering, immune suppression,
increased morbidity, and premature mortality
(Miller et al., 1994). Immune suppression
causes increased morbidity and mortality in
animals and humans. Fusarium toxins called
trichothecenes causes severe damage to
actively dividing cells in bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and intestinal
mucosa (Cardwell et al., 2000). Hendrickse
et al. (1991) and Sultana et al. (2015)
reported that protein–energy malnutrition,
kwashiorkor, immune suppression, reduce
assimilation of vitamins A and E,
carcinogenicity and genotoxicity due to
aflatoxicosis
(Linsell et al., 1977). Acute
aflatoxicosis (severe aflatoxin poisoning)
occurs in poultry, swine, and cattle
consuming feeds contaminated with
aflatoxins. The same can appear in humans,
and cases of lethal toxic hepatitis attributed to
consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize
(Marasas et al., 1996). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain
(Phakamile et al., 2007). Effect of Mycotoxins
on animal health and production shown in
Table 3 according to Sarah and Vickers
(2016).
Prevention and treatment of
mycotoxins
Desired level of mycotoxin in feeds and
foods stuff is zero. But it is impossible in the
environment. The Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2001) provides a
manual on application of hazard analysis
and critical control points (HACCP)
techniques for mycotoxin prevention and
control. Management of mycotoxin in the
cereal crops supply chain may be improved
through preventing contamination and
minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in
feeds (Kabak et al., 2006). Pre-harvesting
mycotoxin accumulation may be reduced by
applying agronomic practices, minimizing
plant stress and fungal invasion in the field.
These includes proper irrigation, insect
control, and pesticide application in some
cases, cultivating resistant or adapted
hybrids, tillage type, and proper fertilization,
timely planting and avoiding delay harvesting.
Fungicides have shown little efficacy in
controlling pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination
in corn, but may be helpful in the
control of
other mycotoxins. The application of
fungicide within mold organism may reduce
the mold growth and mycotoxicosis (Gareis
and Ceynowa, 1994). A major success in
reducing aflatoxins is the use of non-
toxigenic fungi to competitively exclude
toxigenic fungi. The best strategy for
post-harvest control of mycotoxins is proper
storage and handling of feedstuffs to prevent
fungal growth. Management strategies also
include mycotoxin analysis of feedstuffs,
segregation of contaminated lots and treatments
to reduce mold growth. Physical separation
by cleaning or screening grains also helpful.
Use of enzymes, like pancreatinase, carboxy-
peptidase A, epoxidase and lactonohydrolase,
potentially useful to mycotoxin degradation
(Niderkorn et al., 2007). Mycotoxin
detoxification
also applicable by potential use
of microorganisms including Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (aflatoxin), Enterococcus faecium
(aflatoxin and patulin), Eubacterium : BSSH
797 and LS 100 (trichothecenes) and
Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans (ZEA and
OTA). Addition of 0.25-0.5% of calcium
propionate in diets successfully detoxify the
aflatoxin (Galvano et al., 2001). Increasing
nutrients such as protein, energy and
antioxidant usually advisable for mycotoxin
detoxification (Galvano et al., 2001).
Research
has demonstrated that adsorbent
materials such as silicate clays (bentonites
and others), activated carbons or beta-glucan
polymers (extracted from yeast cell wall) can
reduce the effects of mycotoxins (Diaz et. al.,
2004). An in vitro gastrointestinal model is
proposed for better simulation in vivo
conditions and has been used to assess the
mycotoxin binding efficacy by using some
feed additives and mycotoxin binders
(Avantaggiato et al., 2004; Ali and Hasan,
2018). According to scientific report entitled
“A review of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents
used as feed additives: Mode of action,
efficacy and feed/food safety” (EC, 2009), it
was noted that inorganic absorbing agents
(charcoal) seem to be effective for preventing
adverse effects of many toxic agents. Organic
absorbing agents have the ability to stimulate
the immune system. Proven detoxifying
agents may benefit animal health and
indirectly humans (EC, 2007).
Conclusion
The presence of mycotoxins in the food/feed
chain is an unavoidable and serious problem
throughout the world. Practicing good
sanitary measures, build up awareness about
the toxic effects of mycotoxin in humans and
livestock is urgent. Wide gaps exist on
the toxicological effects of mycotoxin-
contaminated
feeds in animal. Research has
been necessity in this field. Feed analysis is
required to check mycotoxin contamination
in impoted animal feeds stuff. Emphasis
should be done on to develop new low-cost
mycotoxin detection kit, which are portable,
reliable, and easy to handle at field level.
References
Avantaggiato, G., Havenaar, R. and Visconti A.
2004. Evaluation of the intestinal absorption of
deoxynivalenol and nivalenol by an in vitro
gastrointestinal model and the binding efficacy
of activated carbon and other adsorbent
materials. Food Chemistry and Toxicology. 42:
817-824.
Ali, M.Z. 2018. The Seroprevalence Study of
Reticuloendotheliosis Virus Infection in
Chicken in Bangladesh. Egyptian Journal of
Veterinary Sciences, 49(2): 179-186.
Ali, M.Z. and Hasan B. (2018). Follow up of
maternally derived antibodies titer against
economically important viral diseases of
chicken. Poultry Science Journal. 6(2):
149-154.
Bryden, W.L. 2009. Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses:
significance, occurrence and mitigation in the
food chain. General, Applied and Systems
Toxicology.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology
(CAST) 2003. Mycotoxins: risks in plant,
animal and human systems. Task force report,
ISSN 0194-4088, Ames, Iowa: Council for
Agricultural Science and Technology.
Cardwell, K.F. 2000. Mycotoxin contamination of
foods in Africa: Antinutritional factors. Food
and Nutrition Bulletin. 21: 4.
Commission Regulation (EC). 1126/2007. amending
Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 setting
maximum levels for certain contaminants in
foodstuffs as regards Fusarium toxinsin maize
and maize products Official Journal of the
European Communities. 2007: 14-17.
Diaz, D., Hagler, W., Blackwelder, J., Eve, J.,
Hopkins, B., Anderson, K., Jones, F. and
Whitlow, L. 2004. Aflatoxin binders II:
reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by
sequestering agents of cows consuming
aflatoxin in feed. Mycopathologia. 157: 233–
241.
Gareis,
M. and Ceynowa, J. 1994. Effect of the
fungicide Matador (tebuconazole/ triadimenol)
on mycotoxin production by Fusarium
culmorum. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 198:
244–248.
Galvano, F., Galofaro, V., Bognanno, M., De
Angelis, A. and Galvano, G. 2001. Survey of
the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy
products marketed in Italy, Second year of
observation.
Food Additives and
Contaminants. 18:
644–646.
Hussein,
H.S. and Brasel, J. M. 2001. Toxicity,
metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on
humans and animals. Toxicology. 167: 101-134.
Hendrickse, R.G. 1991. Clinical implications of
food contamination by aflatoxins. Annals
academy of the Academy of Medicine,
Singapore. 20: 84-90.
IARC, 2002. IARC Monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans
Fumonisin
B1. International Agency for
Research on
Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France.
Kabak, B., Dobson, A.D. and Var, I. 2006.
Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination
of food and animal feed: a review. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46:
593-619.
Linsell, C.A. and Peers, F.G. 1977. Aflatoxin and
liver cell cancer. Transactions of the Royal
Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
71: 471-473.
Miller, J.D. 1995. Fungi and mycotoxins in grain:
implications for stored product research.
Journal of Stored Products Research. 31:
1-16.
Miller, J.D. and Trenholm, M.L. 1994.
Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than
aflatoxin. USA: Eagan Press.
Marasas, W.F.O. 1996. Fumonisins: history,
worldwide occurrence and impact. In:
Jackson, L.S., DeVries, J.W., Bullerman, L. B.
(eds.) Fumonisins in food. New York: Plenum
Press: 1-18.
Phakamile, T., Mngadi, R.G. and Odhav, B. 2007.
Co-occurring mycotoxins in animal feeds.
African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (13):
2239-2243.
Niderkorn, V., Morgavi, D.P., Pujos, E., Tissandier,
A. and Boudra, H. 2007. Screening of
fermentative bacteria for their ability to bind
and biotransform deoxynivalenol, zearalenone
and fumonisins in an in vitro simulated corn
silage model. Food Additives and Contaminants.
24:406–15.
Rahman, M.M., Uddin, M.K., Hassan, M.Z.,
Rahman, M.M., Ali, M.Z., Rahman, M.L.,
Akter, M.R. and Rahman, M.M. 2018.
Seroprevalence study of infectious
laryngotracheitis virus antibody of commercial
layer in Gazipur district of Bangladesh. Asian
Journal of Medical and Biological Research.
4(1): 1-6.
Richard, J.L. 2007. Some major mycotoxins and
their mycotoxicoses- An overview. International
Journal of Food Microbiology. 119: 3-10.
Rui. M., Lei, Z., Liu, M., Su, Y.T., Xie, W.M.,
Zhang, N.I., Dai, J.F., Yun Wang, Shahid Ali
Rajput, ID , De-Sheng Qi , Niel Alexander
Karrow and Lv-Hui Sun. 2018. Toxins 2018,
10, 113; doi:10.3390/toxins10030113.
Bhat, R. Ravishankar, Rai, V. and Karim, A.A.
2010. Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Present
status and future concerns. comprehensive
reviews in food science and food safety.
9,:57-81.
Sarah Pick and Mary Vickers. 2016. Mycotoxin
contamination in animal feed and forages.
beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk
Sultana, S., Rahman, M.M. and Ali, M.Z. 2015.
Evaluation of Gentian Violet and Copper
Sulphate as Fungi Inhibitor in Broiler Diet.
International Journal of Animal Biology. 1(4):
146-149.
Ukwuru, M.U., Ohaegbu, C.G., and Muritala, A.
2017. An Overview of Mycotoxin
Contamination of Foods and Feeds. Journal of
Biochemical and Microbial Toxicology. 1: 101.
Whitlow, L.W., Hagler, W.M. and Diaz, D.E.
2010. Mycotoxins in feeds. September 15,
2010, Feedstuffs: 74-84.
Table 1. European Commission (2007) maximum limits for Mycotoxins in foods
SL
No.
Type of Toxin Causal agent Food item and product Maximum
limit (μg/kg)
1 Aflatoxin Aspergillus flavus,
A. parasiticus,
A. nomius, A.
A. bombycis,
A. ochraceoroseus,
A. pseudotamari
Peanuts, oilseeds, cereals, processed
products
4
Tree nuts, dried fruits, maize, rice,
spices, almonds, pistachios, hazel nuts
10
2 Fumonisins Fusarium
proliferatum,
F. verticillioides
Processed cereal-based foods 200
Infant baby foods 400
Unprocessed maize 800
3 Trichothecenes F. sporotrichioides;
F. poae
Processed cereal-based foods 200
Pasta 750
4 Ochratoxin A Penicillium
verrucosum,
P. auriantiogriseum,
P. nordicum,
P. palitans,
P. commune,
P. variabile,
Aspergillus
ochraceus,
A. melleus, A. niger,
A. carbonarius,
A. sclerotiorum,
A. sulphureus
Processed cereal-based foods 0.5
Wine, grape juice, grape nectar/must 2
Roasted/ground coffee beans 5
Spices 20
5 Patulin P. expansum Apple juice 10
Solid apple products 25
Spirit drink, cider 50
6 Zearalenone Fusarium
graminearum,
F. sporotrichoides,
F. culmorum,
F. cerealis,
F. equiseti,
F. incarnatum
Bread, pastries 50
Biscuits, cereals, snacks 75

Introduction
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites
produced by fungi (molds). Only few molds
produce mycotoxins, and they are referred to
as toxigenic. The primary classes of mycotoxins
are aflatoxins of which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
is the most prevalent, zearalenone (ZEA),
trichothecenes,
deoxy- nivalenol (DON) and
T-2 toxin (T-2), fumonisins, ochratoxins
(OTA) (Whitelow et al., 2010). These can
cause toxicity in a variety of species. Feeds
and forages can become contaminated with
mycotoxins in the field, during harvest,
drying
and transport, as well as during storage
(Sarah
and Vickers, 2016). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain.
Animal feeds, the raw ingredients used in
manufacturing, namely, maize, wheat,
sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, bagasse, wheat
bran, gluten feed and pet foods are
contaminated with mycotoxin- producing
fungi and their toxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins,
zearalenone and ochratoxins (Phakamile et
al., 2007). Disease outbreaks due to the
consumption of contaminated foods and feeds
stuff are a recurring problem worldwide. The
major factor contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce low-molecular-weight compounds as
secondary metabolites, with confirmed toxic
properties referred to as mycotoxins (Rajeev
et al., 2009). Mycotoxin contaminations of
foods and feeds remain a great concern to
food safety and of public health and
economic significance. Health implications of
mycotoxins are diverse. Mycotoxicity of
foods have tremendous effect on international
trade, resulting in huge losses. A number of
strategies for preventing mycotoxins have
been proposed but the awareness for
implementation is very low. The use of media
to create awareness is a viable option
(Ukwuru et al., 2017). Mycotoxins are toxic
to both animals and humans and that are
mainly produced by five genera: Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and
Alternaria (Ruima et al., 2018). Fungi
proliferate to produce secondary metabolites
under favorable environmental conditions,
when temperature and moisture are suitable
(Bryde, 2009). The amount of toxin produced
will depend on physical factors (moisture,
relative humidity, temperature and
mechanical damage), chemical factors
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, composition of
substrate, pesticide and fungicides), and
biological factors (plant variety, stress,
insects, spore load). These toxins (aflatoxin,
ochratoxin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol)
produced by fungal species remain stable
throughout the processing periods and
cooking of feeds and foods. Fungal infection
and subsequent production of mycotoxin can
occur at the field during crop growth or
harvesting, and may continue during storage.
The occurrence of this mycotoxin at a
considerably high level of concentration in
foods can cause toxic effects ranging from
acute to chronic manifestations in humans
and animals (Richard, 2007). Animals that
have been fed with Mycotoxin contaminated
feeds release products which can be dietary
sources of some mycotoxin (Prelusky, 1994).
The economic impact of mycotoxin is
diverse; loss of human and animal life,
reduced livestock production, disposal of
contaminated foods and feeds and investment
in research (Hussein et al., 2001). So many
efforts have been made towards control and
reduction of mycotoxin contamination of
foods but the ubiquitous nature of toxigenic
fungi enables their wide occurrence. It is also
noted that in most rural areas of the world, no
effort is made towards the control of toxigenic
fungi in food contamination. This paper has
reviewed mycotoxin contamination in animal
feeds.
Mycotoxins contaminations in
animal feeds
Animal feed contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins usually found in grain during
growth and storage, silage and straw
preparation. Feeds become contaminated
with mycotoxin during preservation and
storage. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin
A, trichothescenes and zearalenone are
considered as the most alarming mycotoxins
that affect livestock production. Mycotoxin
production is influenced by pre-and post-
harvest temperature, agronomic practice,
carbon dioxide and moisture and humidity
levels. Generally, mycotoxin contamination is
most likely to occur in warm, wet conditions.
It is thought ruminants are less susceptible to
mycotoxins than other species, because the
bacteria which make the rumen function can
degrade certain mycotoxins into a less toxic
form,
providing some protection (Rahman et
al., 2018). However, some mycotoxins can
resist
breakdown and prolonged exposure to
mixtures
of mycotoxins can impair the
function of the rumen microbes (Sarah and
Mary, 2016).
Source of contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins are very stable compounds that
can survive on the grain long time after the
initial mould has disappeared, so the absence
of mould does not mean the crop is clean.
Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence may be
greater when wet weather delay harvesting.
Storage fungi can grow on cereals from about
14.5% moisture content (7.5-8% in oilseed)
and these can causes losses of germinates
capacity, furthermore may produce mycotoxins.
Ochratoxin- A may be produced by the storage
of mould Penicillium verrucosum if grain
exceeds 18% moisture content.
Moreover, the
significant risk occurs during ambient
air-drying which may takes weeks to dry.
Straw may contain higher concentrations
of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Aspergillus, Penicillium
and fusarium are considered to be the most
important moulds and producers of mycotoxins
in silage (Sarah and Vickers, 2016).
Risk factor for mycotoxin contami-
nations in animal feed
According to Sarah and Vickers, 2016, risk
factors for mycotoxin contaminations in
animal feeds are crop debris, high humidity,
early sowing and dry weather. More resistant
varieties have a lower risk of Fusarium
mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is
reported to be the more carcinogenic than
others. Ducklings are 5 to 15 times more
sensitive to aflatoxins than laying hens.
Stress, physical state, nutritional level and
disease condition also determine the response
of animal to mycotoxin.
Molds growth and formation of
mycotoxins
The major mycotoxin-producing fungal genera
are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.
Many of these fungi produce mycotoxins in
feedstuffs. Molds usually grow and produce
mycotoxin during pre-harvest or during
storage, transport, processing or feeding stages.
Mold growth and mycotoxin production are
related to plant stress caused by weather
extremes, insect damage, inadequate storage
practices and faulty feeding conditions
(Coulumbe, 1993). Molds grow over a
temperature range of 10-40°C (50-104°F), a
pH range of 4 - 8 and moisture content
>13-15%. Most molds are aerobic, and
therefore high-moisture concentrations that
exclude adequate oxygen can prevent mold
growth. Molds usually grow in wet feeds
such as silage or wet byproducts, when
oxygen is available. Aspergillus species
normally grow at lower water activities and
at higher temperatures than the Fusarium
species. Therefore, Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin in corn are favored by the heat and
drought stress associated with warmer
climates (Klich et al., 1994). Aflatoxin
contamination is enhanced by insect damage
before and after harvest. The individual
Penicillium species have variable requirements
for temperature and moisture but are more
likely to grow under post- harvest conditions,
in cool climates, in wet conditions and at a
lower pH. The Fusarium species are
important plant pathogens that can proliferate
pre-harvest, but continue to grow post-
harvest. Fusarium molds are associated
economically important diseases, causing ear
rot and stalk rot in corn and head blight (scab)
in small grains. In wheat, Fusarium is
associated with excessive moisture at
flowering
and early grain-fill stages (CAST, 2003).
Acceptable range of mycotoxins in
foods and animal feeds
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in human
foods according to European Commissions (2007)
is shown in Table 1. (Ukwuru et al., 2017).
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal
feed according to European Commissions
(2007) is shown in Table 2. (Sarah and
Vickers, 2016).
Effect of mycotoxin on animal
health and production
Outbreaks of disease due to the consumption
of contaminated food and feedstuff are a
recurring problem worldwide. The major
factors contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce
low-molecular-weight compounds
as secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins
(Rajeev et al., 2010; Ali, 2018). Subacute
mycotoxicosis causes symptoms in humans
and animals including moderate to severe
liver damage, reproductive problems, appetite
loss, digestive tract discomfort, diarrhoea,
growth faltering, immune suppression,
increased morbidity, and premature mortality
(Miller et al., 1994). Immune suppression
causes increased morbidity and mortality in
animals and humans. Fusarium toxins called
trichothecenes causes severe damage to
actively dividing cells in bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and intestinal
mucosa (Cardwell et al., 2000). Hendrickse
et al. (1991) and Sultana et al. (2015)
reported that protein–energy malnutrition,
kwashiorkor, immune suppression, reduce
assimilation of vitamins A and E,
carcinogenicity and genotoxicity due to
aflatoxicosis
(Linsell et al., 1977). Acute
aflatoxicosis (severe aflatoxin poisoning)
occurs in poultry, swine, and cattle
consuming feeds contaminated with
aflatoxins. The same can appear in humans,
and cases of lethal toxic hepatitis attributed to
consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize
(Marasas et al., 1996). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain
(Phakamile et al., 2007). Effect of Mycotoxins
on animal health and production shown in
Table 3 according to Sarah and Vickers
(2016).
Prevention and treatment of
mycotoxins
Desired level of mycotoxin in feeds and
foods stuff is zero. But it is impossible in the
environment. The Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2001) provides a
manual on application of hazard analysis
and critical control points (HACCP)
techniques for mycotoxin prevention and
control. Management of mycotoxin in the
cereal crops supply chain may be improved
through preventing contamination and
minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in
feeds (Kabak et al., 2006). Pre-harvesting
mycotoxin accumulation may be reduced by
applying agronomic practices, minimizing
plant stress and fungal invasion in the field.
These includes proper irrigation, insect
control, and pesticide application in some
cases, cultivating resistant or adapted
hybrids, tillage type, and proper fertilization,
timely planting and avoiding delay harvesting.
Fungicides have shown little efficacy in
controlling pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination
in corn, but may be helpful in the
control of
other mycotoxins. The application of
fungicide within mold organism may reduce
the mold growth and mycotoxicosis (Gareis
and Ceynowa, 1994). A major success in
reducing aflatoxins is the use of non-
toxigenic fungi to competitively exclude
toxigenic fungi. The best strategy for
post-harvest control of mycotoxins is proper
storage and handling of feedstuffs to prevent
fungal growth. Management strategies also
include mycotoxin analysis of feedstuffs,
segregation of contaminated lots and treatments
to reduce mold growth. Physical separation
by cleaning or screening grains also helpful.
Use of enzymes, like pancreatinase, carboxy-
peptidase A, epoxidase and lactonohydrolase,
potentially useful to mycotoxin degradation
(Niderkorn et al., 2007). Mycotoxin
detoxification
also applicable by potential use
of microorganisms including Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (aflatoxin), Enterococcus faecium
(aflatoxin and patulin), Eubacterium : BSSH
797 and LS 100 (trichothecenes) and
Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans (ZEA and
OTA). Addition of 0.25-0.5% of calcium
propionate in diets successfully detoxify the
aflatoxin (Galvano et al., 2001). Increasing
nutrients such as protein, energy and
antioxidant usually advisable for mycotoxin
detoxification (Galvano et al., 2001).
Research
has demonstrated that adsorbent
materials such as silicate clays (bentonites
and others), activated carbons or beta-glucan
polymers (extracted from yeast cell wall) can
reduce the effects of mycotoxins (Diaz et. al.,
2004). An in vitro gastrointestinal model is
proposed for better simulation in vivo
conditions and has been used to assess the
mycotoxin binding efficacy by using some
feed additives and mycotoxin binders
(Avantaggiato et al., 2004; Ali and Hasan,
2018). According to scientific report entitled
“A review of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents
used as feed additives: Mode of action,
efficacy and feed/food safety” (EC, 2009), it
was noted that inorganic absorbing agents
(charcoal) seem to be effective for preventing
adverse effects of many toxic agents. Organic
absorbing agents have the ability to stimulate
the immune system. Proven detoxifying
agents may benefit animal health and
indirectly humans (EC, 2007).
Conclusion
The presence of mycotoxins in the food/feed
chain is an unavoidable and serious problem
throughout the world. Practicing good
sanitary measures, build up awareness about
the toxic effects of mycotoxin in humans and
livestock is urgent. Wide gaps exist on
the toxicological effects of mycotoxin-
contaminated
feeds in animal. Research has
been necessity in this field. Feed analysis is
required to check mycotoxin contamination
in impoted animal feeds stuff. Emphasis
should be done on to develop new low-cost
mycotoxin detection kit, which are portable,
reliable, and easy to handle at field level.
References
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2004. Evaluation of the intestinal absorption of
deoxynivalenol and nivalenol by an in vitro
gastrointestinal model and the binding efficacy
of activated carbon and other adsorbent
materials. Food Chemistry and Toxicology. 42:
817-824.
Ali, M.Z. 2018. The Seroprevalence Study of
Reticuloendotheliosis Virus Infection in
Chicken in Bangladesh. Egyptian Journal of
Veterinary Sciences, 49(2): 179-186.
Ali, M.Z. and Hasan B. (2018). Follow up of
maternally derived antibodies titer against
economically important viral diseases of
chicken. Poultry Science Journal. 6(2):
149-154.
Bryden, W.L. 2009. Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses:
significance, occurrence and mitigation in the
food chain. General, Applied and Systems
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(CAST) 2003. Mycotoxins: risks in plant,
animal and human systems. Task force report,
ISSN 0194-4088, Ames, Iowa: Council for
Agricultural Science and Technology.
Cardwell, K.F. 2000. Mycotoxin contamination of
foods in Africa: Antinutritional factors. Food
and Nutrition Bulletin. 21: 4.
Commission Regulation (EC). 1126/2007. amending
Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 setting
maximum levels for certain contaminants in
foodstuffs as regards Fusarium toxinsin maize
and maize products Official Journal of the
European Communities. 2007: 14-17.
Diaz, D., Hagler, W., Blackwelder, J., Eve, J.,
Hopkins, B., Anderson, K., Jones, F. and
Whitlow, L. 2004. Aflatoxin binders II:
reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by
sequestering agents of cows consuming
aflatoxin in feed. Mycopathologia. 157: 233–
241.
Gareis,
M. and Ceynowa, J. 1994. Effect of the
fungicide Matador (tebuconazole/ triadimenol)
on mycotoxin production by Fusarium
culmorum. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 198:
244–248.
Galvano, F., Galofaro, V., Bognanno, M., De
Angelis, A. and Galvano, G. 2001. Survey of
the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy
products marketed in Italy, Second year of
observation.
Food Additives and
Contaminants. 18:
644–646.
Hussein,
H.S. and Brasel, J. M. 2001. Toxicity,
metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on
humans and animals. Toxicology. 167: 101-134.
Hendrickse, R.G. 1991. Clinical implications of
food contamination by aflatoxins. Annals
academy of the Academy of Medicine,
Singapore. 20: 84-90.
IARC, 2002. IARC Monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans
Fumonisin
B1. International Agency for
Research on
Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France.
Kabak, B., Dobson, A.D. and Var, I. 2006.
Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination
of food and animal feed: a review. Critical
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593-619.
Linsell, C.A. and Peers, F.G. 1977. Aflatoxin and
liver cell cancer. Transactions of the Royal
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Miller, J.D. 1995. Fungi and mycotoxins in grain:
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1-16.
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Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than
aflatoxin. USA: Eagan Press.
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worldwide occurrence and impact. In:
Jackson, L.S., DeVries, J.W., Bullerman, L. B.
(eds.) Fumonisins in food. New York: Plenum
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Phakamile, T., Mngadi, R.G. and Odhav, B. 2007.
Co-occurring mycotoxins in animal feeds.
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2239-2243.
Niderkorn, V., Morgavi, D.P., Pujos, E., Tissandier,
A. and Boudra, H. 2007. Screening of
fermentative bacteria for their ability to bind
and biotransform deoxynivalenol, zearalenone
and fumonisins in an in vitro simulated corn
silage model. Food Additives and Contaminants.
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Rahman, M.M., Ali, M.Z., Rahman, M.L.,
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their mycotoxicoses- An overview. International
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Zhang, N.I., Dai, J.F., Yun Wang, Shahid Ali
Rajput, ID , De-Sheng Qi , Niel Alexander
Karrow and Lv-Hui Sun. 2018. Toxins 2018,
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Bhat, R. Ravishankar, Rai, V. and Karim, A.A.
2010. Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Present
status and future concerns. comprehensive
reviews in food science and food safety.
9,:57-81.
Sarah Pick and Mary Vickers. 2016. Mycotoxin
contamination in animal feed and forages.
beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk
Sultana, S., Rahman, M.M. and Ali, M.Z. 2015.
Evaluation of Gentian Violet and Copper
Sulphate as Fungi Inhibitor in Broiler Diet.
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146-149.
Ukwuru, M.U., Ohaegbu, C.G., and Muritala, A.
2017. An Overview of Mycotoxin
Contamination of Foods and Feeds. Journal of
Biochemical and Microbial Toxicology. 1: 101.
Whitlow, L.W., Hagler, W.M. and Diaz, D.E.
2010. Mycotoxins in feeds. September 15,
2010, Feedstuffs: 74-84.
5An overview of Mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds
Table 2. The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal feed
Serial
No.
Type of Toxin Feedstuff Maximum content in
mg/kg (ppm)
1. Aflatoxin All feed materials 0.02
Complete feedstuffs for beef cattle and
sheep
0.02
Complete feedstuffs for dairy cattle 0.005
Complete feedstuffs for calves and
lambs
0.01
2. Deoxynivalenol
(DON)
Feed materials- Cereal and cereal
products
8
Feed materials- Maize co-products 12
Complete feedstuffs for sheep, beef and
dairy cattle
5
Complete feedstuffs for calves and
lambs
2
3. Zearalenone
(ZEN)
Feed materials- Cereals and cereal
products
2
Feed materials- maize co-products 3
Complete feed stuffs 0.5
4. Ochratoxin A Feed materials- Cereals and cereal
products
0.25
5. Fumonisin B1
and B2
Feed materials- Cereals and cereal
products
60
Complete feedstuffs for sheep, dairy
and beef cattle
50
Complete feedstuffs for calves and
lambs
20
Ref. : EC, 2007.

Introduction
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites
produced by fungi (molds). Only few molds
produce mycotoxins, and they are referred to
as toxigenic. The primary classes of mycotoxins
are aflatoxins of which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
is the most prevalent, zearalenone (ZEA),
trichothecenes,
deoxy- nivalenol (DON) and
T-2 toxin (T-2), fumonisins, ochratoxins
(OTA) (Whitelow et al., 2010). These can
cause toxicity in a variety of species. Feeds
and forages can become contaminated with
mycotoxins in the field, during harvest,
drying
and transport, as well as during storage
(Sarah
and Vickers, 2016). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain.
Animal feeds, the raw ingredients used in
manufacturing, namely, maize, wheat,
sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, bagasse, wheat
bran, gluten feed and pet foods are
contaminated with mycotoxin- producing
fungi and their toxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins,
zearalenone and ochratoxins (Phakamile et
al., 2007). Disease outbreaks due to the
consumption of contaminated foods and feeds
stuff are a recurring problem worldwide. The
major factor contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce low-molecular-weight compounds as
secondary metabolites, with confirmed toxic
properties referred to as mycotoxins (Rajeev
et al., 2009). Mycotoxin contaminations of
foods and feeds remain a great concern to
food safety and of public health and
economic significance. Health implications of
mycotoxins are diverse. Mycotoxicity of
foods have tremendous effect on international
trade, resulting in huge losses. A number of
strategies for preventing mycotoxins have
been proposed but the awareness for
implementation is very low. The use of media
to create awareness is a viable option
(Ukwuru et al., 2017). Mycotoxins are toxic
to both animals and humans and that are
mainly produced by five genera: Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and
Alternaria (Ruima et al., 2018). Fungi
proliferate to produce secondary metabolites
under favorable environmental conditions,
when temperature and moisture are suitable
(Bryde, 2009). The amount of toxin produced
will depend on physical factors (moisture,
relative humidity, temperature and
mechanical damage), chemical factors
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, composition of
substrate, pesticide and fungicides), and
biological factors (plant variety, stress,
insects, spore load). These toxins (aflatoxin,
ochratoxin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol)
produced by fungal species remain stable
throughout the processing periods and
cooking of feeds and foods. Fungal infection
and subsequent production of mycotoxin can
occur at the field during crop growth or
harvesting, and may continue during storage.
The occurrence of this mycotoxin at a
considerably high level of concentration in
foods can cause toxic effects ranging from
acute to chronic manifestations in humans
and animals (Richard, 2007). Animals that
have been fed with Mycotoxin contaminated
feeds release products which can be dietary
sources of some mycotoxin (Prelusky, 1994).
The economic impact of mycotoxin is
diverse; loss of human and animal life,
reduced livestock production, disposal of
contaminated foods and feeds and investment
in research (Hussein et al., 2001). So many
efforts have been made towards control and
reduction of mycotoxin contamination of
foods but the ubiquitous nature of toxigenic
fungi enables their wide occurrence. It is also
noted that in most rural areas of the world, no
effort is made towards the control of toxigenic
fungi in food contamination. This paper has
reviewed mycotoxin contamination in animal
feeds.
Mycotoxins contaminations in
animal feeds
Animal feed contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins usually found in grain during
growth and storage, silage and straw
preparation. Feeds become contaminated
with mycotoxin during preservation and
storage. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin
A, trichothescenes and zearalenone are
considered as the most alarming mycotoxins
that affect livestock production. Mycotoxin
production is influenced by pre-and post-
harvest temperature, agronomic practice,
carbon dioxide and moisture and humidity
levels. Generally, mycotoxin contamination is
most likely to occur in warm, wet conditions.
It is thought ruminants are less susceptible to
mycotoxins than other species, because the
bacteria which make the rumen function can
degrade certain mycotoxins into a less toxic
6Hassan et al.
form,
providing some protection (Rahman et
al., 2018). However, some mycotoxins can
resist
breakdown and prolonged exposure to
mixtures
of mycotoxins can impair the
function of the rumen microbes (Sarah and
Mary, 2016).
Source of contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins are very stable compounds that
can survive on the grain long time after the
initial mould has disappeared, so the absence
of mould does not mean the crop is clean.
Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence may be
greater when wet weather delay harvesting.
Storage fungi can grow on cereals from about
14.5% moisture content (7.5-8% in oilseed)
and these can causes losses of germinates
capacity, furthermore may produce mycotoxins.
Ochratoxin- A may be produced by the storage
of mould Penicillium verrucosum if grain
exceeds 18% moisture content.
Moreover, the
significant risk occurs during ambient
air-drying which may takes weeks to dry.
Straw may contain higher concentrations
of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Aspergillus, Penicillium
and fusarium are considered to be the most
important moulds and producers of mycotoxins
in silage (Sarah and Vickers, 2016).
Risk factor for mycotoxin contami-
nations in animal feed
According to Sarah and Vickers, 2016, risk
factors for mycotoxin contaminations in
animal feeds are crop debris, high humidity,
early sowing and dry weather. More resistant
varieties have a lower risk of Fusarium
mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is
reported to be the more carcinogenic than
others. Ducklings are 5 to 15 times more
sensitive to aflatoxins than laying hens.
Stress, physical state, nutritional level and
disease condition also determine the response
of animal to mycotoxin.
Molds growth and formation of
mycotoxins
The major mycotoxin-producing fungal genera
are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.
Many of these fungi produce mycotoxins in
feedstuffs. Molds usually grow and produce
mycotoxin during pre-harvest or during
storage, transport, processing or feeding stages.
Mold growth and mycotoxin production are
related to plant stress caused by weather
extremes, insect damage, inadequate storage
practices and faulty feeding conditions
(Coulumbe, 1993). Molds grow over a
temperature range of 10-40°C (50-104°F), a
pH range of 4 - 8 and moisture content
>13-15%. Most molds are aerobic, and
therefore high-moisture concentrations that
exclude adequate oxygen can prevent mold
growth. Molds usually grow in wet feeds
such as silage or wet byproducts, when
oxygen is available. Aspergillus species
normally grow at lower water activities and
at higher temperatures than the Fusarium
species. Therefore, Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin in corn are favored by the heat and
drought stress associated with warmer
climates (Klich et al., 1994). Aflatoxin
contamination is enhanced by insect damage
before and after harvest. The individual
Penicillium species have variable requirements
for temperature and moisture but are more
likely to grow under post- harvest conditions,
in cool climates, in wet conditions and at a
lower pH. The Fusarium species are
important plant pathogens that can proliferate
pre-harvest, but continue to grow post-
harvest. Fusarium molds are associated
economically important diseases, causing ear
rot and stalk rot in corn and head blight (scab)
in small grains. In wheat, Fusarium is
associated with excessive moisture at
flowering
and early grain-fill stages (CAST, 2003).
Acceptable range of mycotoxins in
foods and animal feeds
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in human
foods according to European Commissions (2007)
is shown in Table 1. (Ukwuru et al., 2017).
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal
feed according to European Commissions
(2007) is shown in Table 2. (Sarah and
Vickers, 2016).
Effect of mycotoxin on animal
health and production
Outbreaks of disease due to the consumption
of contaminated food and feedstuff are a
recurring problem worldwide. The major
factors contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce
low-molecular-weight compounds
as secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins
(Rajeev et al., 2010; Ali, 2018). Subacute
mycotoxicosis causes symptoms in humans
and animals including moderate to severe
liver damage, reproductive problems, appetite
loss, digestive tract discomfort, diarrhoea,
growth faltering, immune suppression,
increased morbidity, and premature mortality
(Miller et al., 1994). Immune suppression
causes increased morbidity and mortality in
animals and humans. Fusarium toxins called
trichothecenes causes severe damage to
actively dividing cells in bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and intestinal
mucosa (Cardwell et al., 2000). Hendrickse
et al. (1991) and Sultana et al. (2015)
reported that protein–energy malnutrition,
kwashiorkor, immune suppression, reduce
assimilation of vitamins A and E,
carcinogenicity and genotoxicity due to
aflatoxicosis
(Linsell et al., 1977). Acute
aflatoxicosis (severe aflatoxin poisoning)
occurs in poultry, swine, and cattle
consuming feeds contaminated with
aflatoxins. The same can appear in humans,
and cases of lethal toxic hepatitis attributed to
consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize
(Marasas et al., 1996). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain
(Phakamile et al., 2007). Effect of Mycotoxins
on animal health and production shown in
Table 3 according to Sarah and Vickers
(2016).
Prevention and treatment of
mycotoxins
Desired level of mycotoxin in feeds and
foods stuff is zero. But it is impossible in the
environment. The Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2001) provides a
manual on application of hazard analysis
and critical control points (HACCP)
techniques for mycotoxin prevention and
control. Management of mycotoxin in the
cereal crops supply chain may be improved
through preventing contamination and
minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in
feeds (Kabak et al., 2006). Pre-harvesting
mycotoxin accumulation may be reduced by
applying agronomic practices, minimizing
plant stress and fungal invasion in the field.
These includes proper irrigation, insect
control, and pesticide application in some
cases, cultivating resistant or adapted
hybrids, tillage type, and proper fertilization,
timely planting and avoiding delay harvesting.
Fungicides have shown little efficacy in
controlling pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination
in corn, but may be helpful in the
control of
other mycotoxins. The application of
fungicide within mold organism may reduce
the mold growth and mycotoxicosis (Gareis
and Ceynowa, 1994). A major success in
reducing aflatoxins is the use of non-
toxigenic fungi to competitively exclude
toxigenic fungi. The best strategy for
post-harvest control of mycotoxins is proper
storage and handling of feedstuffs to prevent
fungal growth. Management strategies also
include mycotoxin analysis of feedstuffs,
segregation of contaminated lots and treatments
to reduce mold growth. Physical separation
by cleaning or screening grains also helpful.
Use of enzymes, like pancreatinase, carboxy-
peptidase A, epoxidase and lactonohydrolase,
potentially useful to mycotoxin degradation
(Niderkorn et al., 2007). Mycotoxin
detoxification
also applicable by potential use
of microorganisms including Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (aflatoxin), Enterococcus faecium
(aflatoxin and patulin), Eubacterium : BSSH
797 and LS 100 (trichothecenes) and
Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans (ZEA and
OTA). Addition of 0.25-0.5% of calcium
propionate in diets successfully detoxify the
aflatoxin (Galvano et al., 2001). Increasing
nutrients such as protein, energy and
antioxidant usually advisable for mycotoxin
detoxification (Galvano et al., 2001).
Research
has demonstrated that adsorbent
materials such as silicate clays (bentonites
and others), activated carbons or beta-glucan
polymers (extracted from yeast cell wall) can
reduce the effects of mycotoxins (Diaz et. al.,
2004). An in vitro gastrointestinal model is
proposed for better simulation in vivo
conditions and has been used to assess the
mycotoxin binding efficacy by using some
feed additives and mycotoxin binders
(Avantaggiato et al., 2004; Ali and Hasan,
2018). According to scientific report entitled
“A review of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents
used as feed additives: Mode of action,
efficacy and feed/food safety” (EC, 2009), it
was noted that inorganic absorbing agents
(charcoal) seem to be effective for preventing
adverse effects of many toxic agents. Organic
absorbing agents have the ability to stimulate
the immune system. Proven detoxifying
agents may benefit animal health and
indirectly humans (EC, 2007).
Conclusion
The presence of mycotoxins in the food/feed
chain is an unavoidable and serious problem
throughout the world. Practicing good
sanitary measures, build up awareness about
the toxic effects of mycotoxin in humans and
livestock is urgent. Wide gaps exist on
the toxicological effects of mycotoxin-
contaminated
feeds in animal. Research has
been necessity in this field. Feed analysis is
required to check mycotoxin contamination
in impoted animal feeds stuff. Emphasis
should be done on to develop new low-cost
mycotoxin detection kit, which are portable,
reliable, and easy to handle at field level.
References
Avantaggiato, G., Havenaar, R. and Visconti A.
2004. Evaluation of the intestinal absorption of
deoxynivalenol and nivalenol by an in vitro
gastrointestinal model and the binding efficacy
of activated carbon and other adsorbent
materials. Food Chemistry and Toxicology. 42:
817-824.
Ali, M.Z. 2018. The Seroprevalence Study of
Reticuloendotheliosis Virus Infection in
Chicken in Bangladesh. Egyptian Journal of
Veterinary Sciences, 49(2): 179-186.
Ali, M.Z. and Hasan B. (2018). Follow up of
maternally derived antibodies titer against
economically important viral diseases of
chicken. Poultry Science Journal. 6(2):
149-154.
Bryden, W.L. 2009. Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses:
significance, occurrence and mitigation in the
food chain. General, Applied and Systems
Toxicology.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology
(CAST) 2003. Mycotoxins: risks in plant,
animal and human systems. Task force report,
ISSN 0194-4088, Ames, Iowa: Council for
Agricultural Science and Technology.
Cardwell, K.F. 2000. Mycotoxin contamination of
foods in Africa: Antinutritional factors. Food
and Nutrition Bulletin. 21: 4.
Commission Regulation (EC). 1126/2007. amending
Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 setting
maximum levels for certain contaminants in
foodstuffs as regards Fusarium toxinsin maize
and maize products Official Journal of the
European Communities. 2007: 14-17.
Diaz, D., Hagler, W., Blackwelder, J., Eve, J.,
Hopkins, B., Anderson, K., Jones, F. and
Whitlow, L. 2004. Aflatoxin binders II:
reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by
sequestering agents of cows consuming
aflatoxin in feed. Mycopathologia. 157: 233–
241.
Gareis,
M. and Ceynowa, J. 1994. Effect of the
fungicide Matador (tebuconazole/ triadimenol)
on mycotoxin production by Fusarium
culmorum. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 198:
244–248.
Galvano, F., Galofaro, V., Bognanno, M., De
Angelis, A. and Galvano, G. 2001. Survey of
the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy
products marketed in Italy, Second year of
observation.
Food Additives and
Contaminants. 18:
644–646.
Hussein,
H.S. and Brasel, J. M. 2001. Toxicity,
metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on
humans and animals. Toxicology. 167: 101-134.
Hendrickse, R.G. 1991. Clinical implications of
food contamination by aflatoxins. Annals
academy of the Academy of Medicine,
Singapore. 20: 84-90.
IARC, 2002. IARC Monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans
Fumonisin
B1. International Agency for
Research on
Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France.
Kabak, B., Dobson, A.D. and Var, I. 2006.
Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination
of food and animal feed: a review. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46:
593-619.
Linsell, C.A. and Peers, F.G. 1977. Aflatoxin and
liver cell cancer. Transactions of the Royal
Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
71: 471-473.
Miller, J.D. 1995. Fungi and mycotoxins in grain:
implications for stored product research.
Journal of Stored Products Research. 31:
1-16.
Miller, J.D. and Trenholm, M.L. 1994.
Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than
aflatoxin. USA: Eagan Press.
Marasas, W.F.O. 1996. Fumonisins: history,
worldwide occurrence and impact. In:
Jackson, L.S., DeVries, J.W., Bullerman, L. B.
(eds.) Fumonisins in food. New York: Plenum
Press: 1-18.
Phakamile, T., Mngadi, R.G. and Odhav, B. 2007.
Co-occurring mycotoxins in animal feeds.
African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (13):
2239-2243.
Niderkorn, V., Morgavi, D.P., Pujos, E., Tissandier,
A. and Boudra, H. 2007. Screening of
fermentative bacteria for their ability to bind
and biotransform deoxynivalenol, zearalenone
and fumonisins in an in vitro simulated corn
silage model. Food Additives and Contaminants.
24:406–15.
Rahman, M.M., Uddin, M.K., Hassan, M.Z.,
Rahman, M.M., Ali, M.Z., Rahman, M.L.,
Akter, M.R. and Rahman, M.M. 2018.
Seroprevalence study of infectious
laryngotracheitis virus antibody of commercial
layer in Gazipur district of Bangladesh. Asian
Journal of Medical and Biological Research.
4(1): 1-6.
Richard, J.L. 2007. Some major mycotoxins and
their mycotoxicoses- An overview. International
Journal of Food Microbiology. 119: 3-10.
Rui. M., Lei, Z., Liu, M., Su, Y.T., Xie, W.M.,
Zhang, N.I., Dai, J.F., Yun Wang, Shahid Ali
Rajput, ID , De-Sheng Qi , Niel Alexander
Karrow and Lv-Hui Sun. 2018. Toxins 2018,
10, 113; doi:10.3390/toxins10030113.
Bhat, R. Ravishankar, Rai, V. and Karim, A.A.
2010. Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Present
status and future concerns. comprehensive
reviews in food science and food safety.
9,:57-81.
Sarah Pick and Mary Vickers. 2016. Mycotoxin
contamination in animal feed and forages.
beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk
Sultana, S., Rahman, M.M. and Ali, M.Z. 2015.
Evaluation of Gentian Violet and Copper
Sulphate as Fungi Inhibitor in Broiler Diet.
International Journal of Animal Biology. 1(4):
146-149.
Ukwuru, M.U., Ohaegbu, C.G., and Muritala, A.
2017. An Overview of Mycotoxin
Contamination of Foods and Feeds. Journal of
Biochemical and Microbial Toxicology. 1: 101.
Whitlow, L.W., Hagler, W.M. and Diaz, D.E.
2010. Mycotoxins in feeds. September 15,
2010, Feedstuffs: 74-84.
Table 3. Effect of mycotoxins on animal health and production
Type of
Mycotoxins
Causal
agent
Symptoms Effect
Aflatoxins
(AFL)
Aspergillus
spp.
Jaundice,
Weight loss, Depression,
Immunosuppression,
Reduced milk yield
Carcinogenic, Partially broken
down by the rumen and excreted
in milk
Fumonisins
(FUM)
Fusarium
spp.
Decreased feed intake
Reduced milk yield
Incompletely degraded by the
rumen
Ochratoxin
A (OTA)
Aspergillus
Penicillium
Ill thrift Potential human carcinogen
metabolized by rumen
Found in meat, milk and dairy
products
Deoxynivalenol
(DON)
Fusarium
spp.
Immunosuppression
Decreased feed intake
Decreased milk yield
Commonly detected in maize
Contamination usually occurs
during crop growth when
Fusarium grows best
T-2/HT-2 Fusarium
spp.
Immunosuppression
Reduced fertility
Members of the same family as
DON and affect
animals in a similar way
Commonly detected in oats and
oat feed
Signs of exposure seen at lower
levels of contamination
than DON
Zearalenone
(ZEN)
Fusarium
spp.
Reduced fertility Rarely toxic to ruminants
Can be detected alongside its
metabolites in urine

Introduction
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites
produced by fungi (molds). Only few molds
produce mycotoxins, and they are referred to
as toxigenic. The primary classes of mycotoxins
are aflatoxins of which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
is the most prevalent, zearalenone (ZEA),
trichothecenes,
deoxy- nivalenol (DON) and
T-2 toxin (T-2), fumonisins, ochratoxins
(OTA) (Whitelow et al., 2010). These can
cause toxicity in a variety of species. Feeds
and forages can become contaminated with
mycotoxins in the field, during harvest,
drying
and transport, as well as during storage
(Sarah
and Vickers, 2016). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain.
Animal feeds, the raw ingredients used in
manufacturing, namely, maize, wheat,
sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, bagasse, wheat
bran, gluten feed and pet foods are
contaminated with mycotoxin- producing
fungi and their toxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins,
zearalenone and ochratoxins (Phakamile et
al., 2007). Disease outbreaks due to the
consumption of contaminated foods and feeds
stuff are a recurring problem worldwide. The
major factor contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce low-molecular-weight compounds as
secondary metabolites, with confirmed toxic
properties referred to as mycotoxins (Rajeev
et al., 2009). Mycotoxin contaminations of
foods and feeds remain a great concern to
food safety and of public health and
economic significance. Health implications of
mycotoxins are diverse. Mycotoxicity of
foods have tremendous effect on international
trade, resulting in huge losses. A number of
strategies for preventing mycotoxins have
been proposed but the awareness for
implementation is very low. The use of media
to create awareness is a viable option
(Ukwuru et al., 2017). Mycotoxins are toxic
to both animals and humans and that are
mainly produced by five genera: Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and
Alternaria (Ruima et al., 2018). Fungi
proliferate to produce secondary metabolites
under favorable environmental conditions,
when temperature and moisture are suitable
(Bryde, 2009). The amount of toxin produced
will depend on physical factors (moisture,
relative humidity, temperature and
mechanical damage), chemical factors
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, composition of
substrate, pesticide and fungicides), and
biological factors (plant variety, stress,
insects, spore load). These toxins (aflatoxin,
ochratoxin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol)
produced by fungal species remain stable
throughout the processing periods and
cooking of feeds and foods. Fungal infection
and subsequent production of mycotoxin can
occur at the field during crop growth or
harvesting, and may continue during storage.
The occurrence of this mycotoxin at a
considerably high level of concentration in
foods can cause toxic effects ranging from
acute to chronic manifestations in humans
and animals (Richard, 2007). Animals that
have been fed with Mycotoxin contaminated
feeds release products which can be dietary
sources of some mycotoxin (Prelusky, 1994).
The economic impact of mycotoxin is
diverse; loss of human and animal life,
reduced livestock production, disposal of
contaminated foods and feeds and investment
in research (Hussein et al., 2001). So many
efforts have been made towards control and
reduction of mycotoxin contamination of
foods but the ubiquitous nature of toxigenic
fungi enables their wide occurrence. It is also
noted that in most rural areas of the world, no
effort is made towards the control of toxigenic
fungi in food contamination. This paper has
reviewed mycotoxin contamination in animal
feeds.
Mycotoxins contaminations in
animal feeds
Animal feed contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins usually found in grain during
growth and storage, silage and straw
preparation. Feeds become contaminated
with mycotoxin during preservation and
storage. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin
A, trichothescenes and zearalenone are
considered as the most alarming mycotoxins
that affect livestock production. Mycotoxin
production is influenced by pre-and post-
harvest temperature, agronomic practice,
carbon dioxide and moisture and humidity
levels. Generally, mycotoxin contamination is
most likely to occur in warm, wet conditions.
It is thought ruminants are less susceptible to
mycotoxins than other species, because the
bacteria which make the rumen function can
degrade certain mycotoxins into a less toxic
form,
providing some protection (Rahman et
al., 2018). However, some mycotoxins can
resist
breakdown and prolonged exposure to
mixtures
of mycotoxins can impair the
function of the rumen microbes (Sarah and
Mary, 2016).
Source of contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins are very stable compounds that
can survive on the grain long time after the
initial mould has disappeared, so the absence
of mould does not mean the crop is clean.
Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence may be
greater when wet weather delay harvesting.
Storage fungi can grow on cereals from about
14.5% moisture content (7.5-8% in oilseed)
and these can causes losses of germinates
capacity, furthermore may produce mycotoxins.
Ochratoxin- A may be produced by the storage
of mould Penicillium verrucosum if grain
exceeds 18% moisture content.
Moreover, the
significant risk occurs during ambient
air-drying which may takes weeks to dry.
Straw may contain higher concentrations
of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Aspergillus, Penicillium
and fusarium are considered to be the most
important moulds and producers of mycotoxins
in silage (Sarah and Vickers, 2016).
Risk factor for mycotoxin contami-
nations in animal feed
According to Sarah and Vickers, 2016, risk
factors for mycotoxin contaminations in
animal feeds are crop debris, high humidity,
early sowing and dry weather. More resistant
varieties have a lower risk of Fusarium
mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is
reported to be the more carcinogenic than
others. Ducklings are 5 to 15 times more
sensitive to aflatoxins than laying hens.
Stress, physical state, nutritional level and
disease condition also determine the response
of animal to mycotoxin.
Molds growth and formation of
mycotoxins
The major mycotoxin-producing fungal genera
are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.
Many of these fungi produce mycotoxins in
feedstuffs. Molds usually grow and produce
mycotoxin during pre-harvest or during
storage, transport, processing or feeding stages.
Mold growth and mycotoxin production are
related to plant stress caused by weather
extremes, insect damage, inadequate storage
practices and faulty feeding conditions
(Coulumbe, 1993). Molds grow over a
temperature range of 10-40°C (50-104°F), a
pH range of 4 - 8 and moisture content
>13-15%. Most molds are aerobic, and
therefore high-moisture concentrations that
exclude adequate oxygen can prevent mold
growth. Molds usually grow in wet feeds
such as silage or wet byproducts, when
oxygen is available. Aspergillus species
normally grow at lower water activities and
at higher temperatures than the Fusarium
species. Therefore, Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin in corn are favored by the heat and
drought stress associated with warmer
climates (Klich et al., 1994). Aflatoxin
contamination is enhanced by insect damage
before and after harvest. The individual
Penicillium species have variable requirements
for temperature and moisture but are more
likely to grow under post- harvest conditions,
in cool climates, in wet conditions and at a
lower pH. The Fusarium species are
important plant pathogens that can proliferate
pre-harvest, but continue to grow post-
harvest. Fusarium molds are associated
economically important diseases, causing ear
rot and stalk rot in corn and head blight (scab)
in small grains. In wheat, Fusarium is
associated with excessive moisture at
flowering
and early grain-fill stages (CAST, 2003).
Acceptable range of mycotoxins in
foods and animal feeds
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in human
foods according to European Commissions (2007)
is shown in Table 1. (Ukwuru et al., 2017).
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal
feed according to European Commissions
(2007) is shown in Table 2. (Sarah and
Vickers, 2016).
Effect of mycotoxin on animal
health and production
Outbreaks of disease due to the consumption
of contaminated food and feedstuff are a
recurring problem worldwide. The major
factors contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce
low-molecular-weight compounds
as secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins
(Rajeev et al., 2010; Ali, 2018). Subacute
mycotoxicosis causes symptoms in humans
and animals including moderate to severe
liver damage, reproductive problems, appetite
loss, digestive tract discomfort, diarrhoea,
growth faltering, immune suppression,
increased morbidity, and premature mortality
(Miller et al., 1994). Immune suppression
causes increased morbidity and mortality in
animals and humans. Fusarium toxins called
trichothecenes causes severe damage to
actively dividing cells in bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and intestinal
mucosa (Cardwell et al., 2000). Hendrickse
et al. (1991) and Sultana et al. (2015)
reported that protein–energy malnutrition,
kwashiorkor, immune suppression, reduce
assimilation of vitamins A and E,
carcinogenicity and genotoxicity due to
aflatoxicosis
(Linsell et al., 1977). Acute
aflatoxicosis (severe aflatoxin poisoning)
occurs in poultry, swine, and cattle
consuming feeds contaminated with
aflatoxins. The same can appear in humans,
and cases of lethal toxic hepatitis attributed to
consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize
(Marasas et al., 1996). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain
(Phakamile et al., 2007). Effect of Mycotoxins
on animal health and production shown in
Table 3 according to Sarah and Vickers
(2016).
Prevention and treatment of
mycotoxins
Desired level of mycotoxin in feeds and
foods stuff is zero. But it is impossible in the
environment. The Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2001) provides a
manual on application of hazard analysis
and critical control points (HACCP)
techniques for mycotoxin prevention and
control. Management of mycotoxin in the
cereal crops supply chain may be improved
through preventing contamination and
minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in
feeds (Kabak et al., 2006). Pre-harvesting
mycotoxin accumulation may be reduced by
applying agronomic practices, minimizing
plant stress and fungal invasion in the field.
These includes proper irrigation, insect
control, and pesticide application in some
cases, cultivating resistant or adapted
hybrids, tillage type, and proper fertilization,
timely planting and avoiding delay harvesting.
Fungicides have shown little efficacy in
controlling pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination
in corn, but may be helpful in the
control of
other mycotoxins. The application of
fungicide within mold organism may reduce
the mold growth and mycotoxicosis (Gareis
and Ceynowa, 1994). A major success in
reducing aflatoxins is the use of non-
toxigenic fungi to competitively exclude
toxigenic fungi. The best strategy for
post-harvest control of mycotoxins is proper
storage and handling of feedstuffs to prevent
fungal growth. Management strategies also
include mycotoxin analysis of feedstuffs,
segregation of contaminated lots and treatments
to reduce mold growth. Physical separation
by cleaning or screening grains also helpful.
Use of enzymes, like pancreatinase, carboxy-
peptidase A, epoxidase and lactonohydrolase,
potentially useful to mycotoxin degradation
(Niderkorn et al., 2007). Mycotoxin
detoxification
also applicable by potential use
of microorganisms including Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (aflatoxin), Enterococcus faecium
(aflatoxin and patulin), Eubacterium : BSSH
797 and LS 100 (trichothecenes) and
Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans (ZEA and
OTA). Addition of 0.25-0.5% of calcium
propionate in diets successfully detoxify the
aflatoxin (Galvano et al., 2001). Increasing
nutrients such as protein, energy and
antioxidant usually advisable for mycotoxin
detoxification (Galvano et al., 2001).
Research
has demonstrated that adsorbent
materials such as silicate clays (bentonites
and others), activated carbons or beta-glucan
polymers (extracted from yeast cell wall) can
reduce the effects of mycotoxins (Diaz et. al.,
2004). An in vitro gastrointestinal model is
proposed for better simulation in vivo
conditions and has been used to assess the
mycotoxin binding efficacy by using some
feed additives and mycotoxin binders
(Avantaggiato et al., 2004; Ali and Hasan,
2018). According to scientific report entitled
“A review of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents
used as feed additives: Mode of action,
efficacy and feed/food safety” (EC, 2009), it
was noted that inorganic absorbing agents
(charcoal) seem to be effective for preventing
adverse effects of many toxic agents. Organic
absorbing agents have the ability to stimulate
the immune system. Proven detoxifying
agents may benefit animal health and
indirectly humans (EC, 2007).
Conclusion
The presence of mycotoxins in the food/feed
chain is an unavoidable and serious problem
throughout the world. Practicing good
sanitary measures, build up awareness about
the toxic effects of mycotoxin in humans and
livestock is urgent. Wide gaps exist on
the toxicological effects of mycotoxin-
contaminated
feeds in animal. Research has
been necessity in this field. Feed analysis is
required to check mycotoxin contamination
in impoted animal feeds stuff. Emphasis
should be done on to develop new low-cost
mycotoxin detection kit, which are portable,
reliable, and easy to handle at field level.
References
Avantaggiato, G., Havenaar, R. and Visconti A.
2004. Evaluation of the intestinal absorption of
deoxynivalenol and nivalenol by an in vitro
gastrointestinal model and the binding efficacy
of activated carbon and other adsorbent
materials. Food Chemistry and Toxicology. 42:
817-824.
Ali, M.Z. 2018. The Seroprevalence Study of
Reticuloendotheliosis Virus Infection in
Chicken in Bangladesh. Egyptian Journal of
Veterinary Sciences, 49(2): 179-186.
Ali, M.Z. and Hasan B. (2018). Follow up of
maternally derived antibodies titer against
economically important viral diseases of
chicken. Poultry Science Journal. 6(2):
149-154.
Bryden, W.L. 2009. Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses:
significance, occurrence and mitigation in the
food chain. General, Applied and Systems
Toxicology.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology
(CAST) 2003. Mycotoxins: risks in plant,
animal and human systems. Task force report,
ISSN 0194-4088, Ames, Iowa: Council for
Agricultural Science and Technology.
Cardwell, K.F. 2000. Mycotoxin contamination of
foods in Africa: Antinutritional factors. Food
and Nutrition Bulletin. 21: 4.
Commission Regulation (EC). 1126/2007. amending
Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 setting
maximum levels for certain contaminants in
foodstuffs as regards Fusarium toxinsin maize
and maize products Official Journal of the
European Communities. 2007: 14-17.
Diaz, D., Hagler, W., Blackwelder, J., Eve, J.,
Hopkins, B., Anderson, K., Jones, F. and
Whitlow, L. 2004. Aflatoxin binders II:
reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by
sequestering agents of cows consuming
aflatoxin in feed. Mycopathologia. 157: 233–
241.
Gareis,
M. and Ceynowa, J. 1994. Effect of the
fungicide Matador (tebuconazole/ triadimenol)
on mycotoxin production by Fusarium
culmorum. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 198:
244–248.
Galvano, F., Galofaro, V., Bognanno, M., De
Angelis, A. and Galvano, G. 2001. Survey of
the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy
products marketed in Italy, Second year of
observation.
Food Additives and
Contaminants. 18:
644–646.
Hussein,
H.S. and Brasel, J. M. 2001. Toxicity,
metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on
humans and animals. Toxicology. 167: 101-134.
Hendrickse, R.G. 1991. Clinical implications of
food contamination by aflatoxins. Annals
academy of the Academy of Medicine,
Singapore. 20: 84-90.
IARC, 2002. IARC Monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans
Fumonisin
B1. International Agency for
Research on
Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France.
Kabak, B., Dobson, A.D. and Var, I. 2006.
Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination
of food and animal feed: a review. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46:
593-619.
Linsell, C.A. and Peers, F.G. 1977. Aflatoxin and
liver cell cancer. Transactions of the Royal
Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
71: 471-473.
Miller, J.D. 1995. Fungi and mycotoxins in grain:
implications for stored product research.
Journal of Stored Products Research. 31:
1-16.
Miller, J.D. and Trenholm, M.L. 1994.
Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than
aflatoxin. USA: Eagan Press.
Marasas, W.F.O. 1996. Fumonisins: history,
worldwide occurrence and impact. In:
Jackson, L.S., DeVries, J.W., Bullerman, L. B.
(eds.) Fumonisins in food. New York: Plenum
Press: 1-18.
Phakamile, T., Mngadi, R.G. and Odhav, B. 2007.
Co-occurring mycotoxins in animal feeds.
African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (13):
2239-2243.
Niderkorn, V., Morgavi, D.P., Pujos, E., Tissandier,
A. and Boudra, H. 2007. Screening of
fermentative bacteria for their ability to bind
and biotransform deoxynivalenol, zearalenone
and fumonisins in an in vitro simulated corn
silage model. Food Additives and Contaminants.
24:406–15.
Rahman, M.M., Uddin, M.K., Hassan, M.Z.,
Rahman, M.M., Ali, M.Z., Rahman, M.L.,
Akter, M.R. and Rahman, M.M. 2018.
Seroprevalence study of infectious
laryngotracheitis virus antibody of commercial
layer in Gazipur district of Bangladesh. Asian
Journal of Medical and Biological Research.
4(1): 1-6.
Richard, J.L. 2007. Some major mycotoxins and
their mycotoxicoses- An overview. International
Journal of Food Microbiology. 119: 3-10.
Rui. M., Lei, Z., Liu, M., Su, Y.T., Xie, W.M.,
Zhang, N.I., Dai, J.F., Yun Wang, Shahid Ali
Rajput, ID , De-Sheng Qi , Niel Alexander
Karrow and Lv-Hui Sun. 2018. Toxins 2018,
10, 113; doi:10.3390/toxins10030113.
Bhat, R. Ravishankar, Rai, V. and Karim, A.A.
2010. Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Present
status and future concerns. comprehensive
reviews in food science and food safety.
9,:57-81.
Sarah Pick and Mary Vickers. 2016. Mycotoxin
contamination in animal feed and forages.
beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk
Sultana, S., Rahman, M.M. and Ali, M.Z. 2015.
Evaluation of Gentian Violet and Copper
Sulphate as Fungi Inhibitor in Broiler Diet.
International Journal of Animal Biology. 1(4):
146-149.
Ukwuru, M.U., Ohaegbu, C.G., and Muritala, A.
2017. An Overview of Mycotoxin
Contamination of Foods and Feeds. Journal of
Biochemical and Microbial Toxicology. 1: 101.
Whitlow, L.W., Hagler, W.M. and Diaz, D.E.
2010. Mycotoxins in feeds. September 15,
2010, Feedstuffs: 74-84.
7An overview of Mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds

Introduction
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites
produced by fungi (molds). Only few molds
produce mycotoxins, and they are referred to
as toxigenic. The primary classes of mycotoxins
are aflatoxins of which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
is the most prevalent, zearalenone (ZEA),
trichothecenes,
deoxy- nivalenol (DON) and
T-2 toxin (T-2), fumonisins, ochratoxins
(OTA) (Whitelow et al., 2010). These can
cause toxicity in a variety of species. Feeds
and forages can become contaminated with
mycotoxins in the field, during harvest,
drying
and transport, as well as during storage
(Sarah
and Vickers, 2016). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain.
Animal feeds, the raw ingredients used in
manufacturing, namely, maize, wheat,
sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, bagasse, wheat
bran, gluten feed and pet foods are
contaminated with mycotoxin- producing
fungi and their toxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins,
zearalenone and ochratoxins (Phakamile et
al., 2007). Disease outbreaks due to the
consumption of contaminated foods and feeds
stuff are a recurring problem worldwide. The
major factor contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce low-molecular-weight compounds as
secondary metabolites, with confirmed toxic
properties referred to as mycotoxins (Rajeev
et al., 2009). Mycotoxin contaminations of
foods and feeds remain a great concern to
food safety and of public health and
economic significance. Health implications of
mycotoxins are diverse. Mycotoxicity of
foods have tremendous effect on international
trade, resulting in huge losses. A number of
strategies for preventing mycotoxins have
been proposed but the awareness for
implementation is very low. The use of media
to create awareness is a viable option
(Ukwuru et al., 2017). Mycotoxins are toxic
to both animals and humans and that are
mainly produced by five genera: Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and
Alternaria (Ruima et al., 2018). Fungi
proliferate to produce secondary metabolites
under favorable environmental conditions,
when temperature and moisture are suitable
(Bryde, 2009). The amount of toxin produced
will depend on physical factors (moisture,
relative humidity, temperature and
mechanical damage), chemical factors
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, composition of
substrate, pesticide and fungicides), and
biological factors (plant variety, stress,
insects, spore load). These toxins (aflatoxin,
ochratoxin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol)
produced by fungal species remain stable
throughout the processing periods and
cooking of feeds and foods. Fungal infection
and subsequent production of mycotoxin can
occur at the field during crop growth or
harvesting, and may continue during storage.
The occurrence of this mycotoxin at a
considerably high level of concentration in
foods can cause toxic effects ranging from
acute to chronic manifestations in humans
and animals (Richard, 2007). Animals that
have been fed with Mycotoxin contaminated
feeds release products which can be dietary
sources of some mycotoxin (Prelusky, 1994).
The economic impact of mycotoxin is
diverse; loss of human and animal life,
reduced livestock production, disposal of
contaminated foods and feeds and investment
in research (Hussein et al., 2001). So many
efforts have been made towards control and
reduction of mycotoxin contamination of
foods but the ubiquitous nature of toxigenic
fungi enables their wide occurrence. It is also
noted that in most rural areas of the world, no
effort is made towards the control of toxigenic
fungi in food contamination. This paper has
reviewed mycotoxin contamination in animal
feeds.
Mycotoxins contaminations in
animal feeds
Animal feed contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins usually found in grain during
growth and storage, silage and straw
preparation. Feeds become contaminated
with mycotoxin during preservation and
storage. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin
A, trichothescenes and zearalenone are
considered as the most alarming mycotoxins
that affect livestock production. Mycotoxin
production is influenced by pre-and post-
harvest temperature, agronomic practice,
carbon dioxide and moisture and humidity
levels. Generally, mycotoxin contamination is
most likely to occur in warm, wet conditions.
It is thought ruminants are less susceptible to
mycotoxins than other species, because the
bacteria which make the rumen function can
degrade certain mycotoxins into a less toxic
8Hassan et al.
form,
providing some protection (Rahman et
al., 2018). However, some mycotoxins can
resist
breakdown and prolonged exposure to
mixtures
of mycotoxins can impair the
function of the rumen microbes (Sarah and
Mary, 2016).
Source of contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins are very stable compounds that
can survive on the grain long time after the
initial mould has disappeared, so the absence
of mould does not mean the crop is clean.
Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence may be
greater when wet weather delay harvesting.
Storage fungi can grow on cereals from about
14.5% moisture content (7.5-8% in oilseed)
and these can causes losses of germinates
capacity, furthermore may produce mycotoxins.
Ochratoxin- A may be produced by the storage
of mould Penicillium verrucosum if grain
exceeds 18% moisture content.
Moreover, the
significant risk occurs during ambient
air-drying which may takes weeks to dry.
Straw may contain higher concentrations
of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Aspergillus, Penicillium
and fusarium are considered to be the most
important moulds and producers of mycotoxins
in silage (Sarah and Vickers, 2016).
Risk factor for mycotoxin contami-
nations in animal feed
According to Sarah and Vickers, 2016, risk
factors for mycotoxin contaminations in
animal feeds are crop debris, high humidity,
early sowing and dry weather. More resistant
varieties have a lower risk of Fusarium
mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is
reported to be the more carcinogenic than
others. Ducklings are 5 to 15 times more
sensitive to aflatoxins than laying hens.
Stress, physical state, nutritional level and
disease condition also determine the response
of animal to mycotoxin.
Molds growth and formation of
mycotoxins
The major mycotoxin-producing fungal genera
are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.
Many of these fungi produce mycotoxins in
feedstuffs. Molds usually grow and produce
mycotoxin during pre-harvest or during
storage, transport, processing or feeding stages.
Mold growth and mycotoxin production are
related to plant stress caused by weather
extremes, insect damage, inadequate storage
practices and faulty feeding conditions
(Coulumbe, 1993). Molds grow over a
temperature range of 10-40°C (50-104°F), a
pH range of 4 - 8 and moisture content
>13-15%. Most molds are aerobic, and
therefore high-moisture concentrations that
exclude adequate oxygen can prevent mold
growth. Molds usually grow in wet feeds
such as silage or wet byproducts, when
oxygen is available. Aspergillus species
normally grow at lower water activities and
at higher temperatures than the Fusarium
species. Therefore, Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin in corn are favored by the heat and
drought stress associated with warmer
climates (Klich et al., 1994). Aflatoxin
contamination is enhanced by insect damage
before and after harvest. The individual
Penicillium species have variable requirements
for temperature and moisture but are more
likely to grow under post- harvest conditions,
in cool climates, in wet conditions and at a
lower pH. The Fusarium species are
important plant pathogens that can proliferate
pre-harvest, but continue to grow post-
harvest. Fusarium molds are associated
economically important diseases, causing ear
rot and stalk rot in corn and head blight (scab)
in small grains. In wheat, Fusarium is
associated with excessive moisture at
flowering
and early grain-fill stages (CAST, 2003).
Acceptable range of mycotoxins in
foods and animal feeds
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in human
foods according to European Commissions (2007)
is shown in Table 1. (Ukwuru et al., 2017).
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal
feed according to European Commissions
(2007) is shown in Table 2. (Sarah and
Vickers, 2016).
Effect of mycotoxin on animal
health and production
Outbreaks of disease due to the consumption
of contaminated food and feedstuff are a
recurring problem worldwide. The major
factors contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce
low-molecular-weight compounds
as secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins
(Rajeev et al., 2010; Ali, 2018). Subacute
mycotoxicosis causes symptoms in humans
and animals including moderate to severe
liver damage, reproductive problems, appetite
loss, digestive tract discomfort, diarrhoea,
growth faltering, immune suppression,
increased morbidity, and premature mortality
(Miller et al., 1994). Immune suppression
causes increased morbidity and mortality in
animals and humans. Fusarium toxins called
trichothecenes causes severe damage to
actively dividing cells in bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and intestinal
mucosa (Cardwell et al., 2000). Hendrickse
et al. (1991) and Sultana et al. (2015)
reported that protein–energy malnutrition,
kwashiorkor, immune suppression, reduce
assimilation of vitamins A and E,
carcinogenicity and genotoxicity due to
aflatoxicosis
(Linsell et al., 1977). Acute
aflatoxicosis (severe aflatoxin poisoning)
occurs in poultry, swine, and cattle
consuming feeds contaminated with
aflatoxins. The same can appear in humans,
and cases of lethal toxic hepatitis attributed to
consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize
(Marasas et al., 1996). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain
(Phakamile et al., 2007). Effect of Mycotoxins
on animal health and production shown in
Table 3 according to Sarah and Vickers
(2016).
Prevention and treatment of
mycotoxins
Desired level of mycotoxin in feeds and
foods stuff is zero. But it is impossible in the
environment. The Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2001) provides a
manual on application of hazard analysis
and critical control points (HACCP)
techniques for mycotoxin prevention and
control. Management of mycotoxin in the
cereal crops supply chain may be improved
through preventing contamination and
minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in
feeds (Kabak et al., 2006). Pre-harvesting
mycotoxin accumulation may be reduced by
applying agronomic practices, minimizing
plant stress and fungal invasion in the field.
These includes proper irrigation, insect
control, and pesticide application in some
cases, cultivating resistant or adapted
hybrids, tillage type, and proper fertilization,
timely planting and avoiding delay harvesting.
Fungicides have shown little efficacy in
controlling pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination
in corn, but may be helpful in the
control of
other mycotoxins. The application of
fungicide within mold organism may reduce
the mold growth and mycotoxicosis (Gareis
and Ceynowa, 1994). A major success in
reducing aflatoxins is the use of non-
toxigenic fungi to competitively exclude
toxigenic fungi. The best strategy for
post-harvest control of mycotoxins is proper
storage and handling of feedstuffs to prevent
fungal growth. Management strategies also
include mycotoxin analysis of feedstuffs,
segregation of contaminated lots and treatments
to reduce mold growth. Physical separation
by cleaning or screening grains also helpful.
Use of enzymes, like pancreatinase, carboxy-
peptidase A, epoxidase and lactonohydrolase,
potentially useful to mycotoxin degradation
(Niderkorn et al., 2007). Mycotoxin
detoxification
also applicable by potential use
of microorganisms including Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (aflatoxin), Enterococcus faecium
(aflatoxin and patulin), Eubacterium : BSSH
797 and LS 100 (trichothecenes) and
Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans (ZEA and
OTA). Addition of 0.25-0.5% of calcium
propionate in diets successfully detoxify the
aflatoxin (Galvano et al., 2001). Increasing
nutrients such as protein, energy and
antioxidant usually advisable for mycotoxin
detoxification (Galvano et al., 2001).
Research
has demonstrated that adsorbent
materials such as silicate clays (bentonites
and others), activated carbons or beta-glucan
polymers (extracted from yeast cell wall) can
reduce the effects of mycotoxins (Diaz et. al.,
2004). An in vitro gastrointestinal model is
proposed for better simulation in vivo
conditions and has been used to assess the
mycotoxin binding efficacy by using some
feed additives and mycotoxin binders
(Avantaggiato et al., 2004; Ali and Hasan,
2018). According to scientific report entitled
“A review of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents
used as feed additives: Mode of action,
efficacy and feed/food safety” (EC, 2009), it
was noted that inorganic absorbing agents
(charcoal) seem to be effective for preventing
adverse effects of many toxic agents. Organic
absorbing agents have the ability to stimulate
the immune system. Proven detoxifying
agents may benefit animal health and
indirectly humans (EC, 2007).
Conclusion
The presence of mycotoxins in the food/feed
chain is an unavoidable and serious problem
throughout the world. Practicing good
sanitary measures, build up awareness about
the toxic effects of mycotoxin in humans and
livestock is urgent. Wide gaps exist on
the toxicological effects of mycotoxin-
contaminated
feeds in animal. Research has
been necessity in this field. Feed analysis is
required to check mycotoxin contamination
in impoted animal feeds stuff. Emphasis
should be done on to develop new low-cost
mycotoxin detection kit, which are portable,
reliable, and easy to handle at field level.
References
Avantaggiato, G., Havenaar, R. and Visconti A.
2004. Evaluation of the intestinal absorption of
deoxynivalenol and nivalenol by an in vitro
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materials. Food Chemistry and Toxicology. 42:
817-824.
Ali, M.Z. 2018. The Seroprevalence Study of
Reticuloendotheliosis Virus Infection in
Chicken in Bangladesh. Egyptian Journal of
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Ali, M.Z. and Hasan B. (2018). Follow up of
maternally derived antibodies titer against
economically important viral diseases of
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Bryden, W.L. 2009. Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses:
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food chain. General, Applied and Systems
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(CAST) 2003. Mycotoxins: risks in plant,
animal and human systems. Task force report,
ISSN 0194-4088, Ames, Iowa: Council for
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Cardwell, K.F. 2000. Mycotoxin contamination of
foods in Africa: Antinutritional factors. Food
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Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 setting
maximum levels for certain contaminants in
foodstuffs as regards Fusarium toxinsin maize
and maize products Official Journal of the
European Communities. 2007: 14-17.
Diaz, D., Hagler, W., Blackwelder, J., Eve, J.,
Hopkins, B., Anderson, K., Jones, F. and
Whitlow, L. 2004. Aflatoxin binders II:
reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by
sequestering agents of cows consuming
aflatoxin in feed. Mycopathologia. 157: 233–
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Gareis,
M. and Ceynowa, J. 1994. Effect of the
fungicide Matador (tebuconazole/ triadimenol)
on mycotoxin production by Fusarium
culmorum. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 198:
244–248.
Galvano, F., Galofaro, V., Bognanno, M., De
Angelis, A. and Galvano, G. 2001. Survey of
the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy
products marketed in Italy, Second year of
observation.
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Contaminants. 18:
644–646.
Hussein,
H.S. and Brasel, J. M. 2001. Toxicity,
metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on
humans and animals. Toxicology. 167: 101-134.
Hendrickse, R.G. 1991. Clinical implications of
food contamination by aflatoxins. Annals
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Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France.
Kabak, B., Dobson, A.D. and Var, I. 2006.
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of food and animal feed: a review. Critical
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(eds.) Fumonisins in food. New York: Plenum
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Rahman, M.M., Ali, M.Z., Rahman, M.L.,
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their mycotoxicoses- An overview. International
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Zhang, N.I., Dai, J.F., Yun Wang, Shahid Ali
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Karrow and Lv-Hui Sun. 2018. Toxins 2018,
10, 113; doi:10.3390/toxins10030113.
Bhat, R. Ravishankar, Rai, V. and Karim, A.A.
2010. Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Present
status and future concerns. comprehensive
reviews in food science and food safety.
9,:57-81.
Sarah Pick and Mary Vickers. 2016. Mycotoxin
contamination in animal feed and forages.
beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk
Sultana, S., Rahman, M.M. and Ali, M.Z. 2015.
Evaluation of Gentian Violet and Copper
Sulphate as Fungi Inhibitor in Broiler Diet.
International Journal of Animal Biology. 1(4):
146-149.
Ukwuru, M.U., Ohaegbu, C.G., and Muritala, A.
2017. An Overview of Mycotoxin
Contamination of Foods and Feeds. Journal of
Biochemical and Microbial Toxicology. 1: 101.
Whitlow, L.W., Hagler, W.M. and Diaz, D.E.
2010. Mycotoxins in feeds. September 15,
2010, Feedstuffs: 74-84.

Introduction
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites
produced by fungi (molds). Only few molds
produce mycotoxins, and they are referred to
as toxigenic. The primary classes of mycotoxins
are aflatoxins of which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
is the most prevalent, zearalenone (ZEA),
trichothecenes,
deoxy- nivalenol (DON) and
T-2 toxin (T-2), fumonisins, ochratoxins
(OTA) (Whitelow et al., 2010). These can
cause toxicity in a variety of species. Feeds
and forages can become contaminated with
mycotoxins in the field, during harvest,
drying
and transport, as well as during storage
(Sarah
and Vickers, 2016). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain.
Animal feeds, the raw ingredients used in
manufacturing, namely, maize, wheat,
sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, bagasse, wheat
bran, gluten feed and pet foods are
contaminated with mycotoxin- producing
fungi and their toxins: aflatoxins, fumonisins,
zearalenone and ochratoxins (Phakamile et
al., 2007). Disease outbreaks due to the
consumption of contaminated foods and feeds
stuff are a recurring problem worldwide. The
major factor contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce low-molecular-weight compounds as
secondary metabolites, with confirmed toxic
properties referred to as mycotoxins (Rajeev
et al., 2009). Mycotoxin contaminations of
foods and feeds remain a great concern to
food safety and of public health and
economic significance. Health implications of
mycotoxins are diverse. Mycotoxicity of
foods have tremendous effect on international
trade, resulting in huge losses. A number of
strategies for preventing mycotoxins have
been proposed but the awareness for
implementation is very low. The use of media
to create awareness is a viable option
(Ukwuru et al., 2017). Mycotoxins are toxic
to both animals and humans and that are
mainly produced by five genera: Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and
Alternaria (Ruima et al., 2018). Fungi
proliferate to produce secondary metabolites
under favorable environmental conditions,
when temperature and moisture are suitable
(Bryde, 2009). The amount of toxin produced
will depend on physical factors (moisture,
relative humidity, temperature and
mechanical damage), chemical factors
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, composition of
substrate, pesticide and fungicides), and
biological factors (plant variety, stress,
insects, spore load). These toxins (aflatoxin,
ochratoxin, fumonisin, deoxynivalenol)
produced by fungal species remain stable
throughout the processing periods and
cooking of feeds and foods. Fungal infection
and subsequent production of mycotoxin can
occur at the field during crop growth or
harvesting, and may continue during storage.
The occurrence of this mycotoxin at a
considerably high level of concentration in
foods can cause toxic effects ranging from
acute to chronic manifestations in humans
and animals (Richard, 2007). Animals that
have been fed with Mycotoxin contaminated
feeds release products which can be dietary
sources of some mycotoxin (Prelusky, 1994).
The economic impact of mycotoxin is
diverse; loss of human and animal life,
reduced livestock production, disposal of
contaminated foods and feeds and investment
in research (Hussein et al., 2001). So many
efforts have been made towards control and
reduction of mycotoxin contamination of
foods but the ubiquitous nature of toxigenic
fungi enables their wide occurrence. It is also
noted that in most rural areas of the world, no
effort is made towards the control of toxigenic
fungi in food contamination. This paper has
reviewed mycotoxin contamination in animal
feeds.
Mycotoxins contaminations in
animal feeds
Animal feed contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins usually found in grain during
growth and storage, silage and straw
preparation. Feeds become contaminated
with mycotoxin during preservation and
storage. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin
A, trichothescenes and zearalenone are
considered as the most alarming mycotoxins
that affect livestock production. Mycotoxin
production is influenced by pre-and post-
harvest temperature, agronomic practice,
carbon dioxide and moisture and humidity
levels. Generally, mycotoxin contamination is
most likely to occur in warm, wet conditions.
It is thought ruminants are less susceptible to
mycotoxins than other species, because the
bacteria which make the rumen function can
degrade certain mycotoxins into a less toxic
form,
providing some protection (Rahman et
al., 2018). However, some mycotoxins can
resist
breakdown and prolonged exposure to
mixtures
of mycotoxins can impair the
function of the rumen microbes (Sarah and
Mary, 2016).
Source of contaminations with
mycotoxin
Mycotoxins are very stable compounds that
can survive on the grain long time after the
initial mould has disappeared, so the absence
of mould does not mean the crop is clean.
Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence may be
greater when wet weather delay harvesting.
Storage fungi can grow on cereals from about
14.5% moisture content (7.5-8% in oilseed)
and these can causes losses of germinates
capacity, furthermore may produce mycotoxins.
Ochratoxin- A may be produced by the storage
of mould Penicillium verrucosum if grain
exceeds 18% moisture content.
Moreover, the
significant risk occurs during ambient
air-drying which may takes weeks to dry.
Straw may contain higher concentrations
of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Aspergillus, Penicillium
and fusarium are considered to be the most
important moulds and producers of mycotoxins
in silage (Sarah and Vickers, 2016).
Risk factor for mycotoxin contami-
nations in animal feed
According to Sarah and Vickers, 2016, risk
factors for mycotoxin contaminations in
animal feeds are crop debris, high humidity,
early sowing and dry weather. More resistant
varieties have a lower risk of Fusarium
mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is
reported to be the more carcinogenic than
others. Ducklings are 5 to 15 times more
sensitive to aflatoxins than laying hens.
Stress, physical state, nutritional level and
disease condition also determine the response
of animal to mycotoxin.
Molds growth and formation of
mycotoxins
The major mycotoxin-producing fungal genera
are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.
Many of these fungi produce mycotoxins in
feedstuffs. Molds usually grow and produce
mycotoxin during pre-harvest or during
storage, transport, processing or feeding stages.
Mold growth and mycotoxin production are
related to plant stress caused by weather
extremes, insect damage, inadequate storage
practices and faulty feeding conditions
(Coulumbe, 1993). Molds grow over a
temperature range of 10-40°C (50-104°F), a
pH range of 4 - 8 and moisture content
>13-15%. Most molds are aerobic, and
therefore high-moisture concentrations that
exclude adequate oxygen can prevent mold
growth. Molds usually grow in wet feeds
such as silage or wet byproducts, when
oxygen is available. Aspergillus species
normally grow at lower water activities and
at higher temperatures than the Fusarium
species. Therefore, Aspergillus flavus and
aflatoxin in corn are favored by the heat and
drought stress associated with warmer
climates (Klich et al., 1994). Aflatoxin
contamination is enhanced by insect damage
before and after harvest. The individual
Penicillium species have variable requirements
for temperature and moisture but are more
likely to grow under post- harvest conditions,
in cool climates, in wet conditions and at a
lower pH. The Fusarium species are
important plant pathogens that can proliferate
pre-harvest, but continue to grow post-
harvest. Fusarium molds are associated
economically important diseases, causing ear
rot and stalk rot in corn and head blight (scab)
in small grains. In wheat, Fusarium is
associated with excessive moisture at
flowering
and early grain-fill stages (CAST, 2003).
Acceptable range of mycotoxins in
foods and animal feeds
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in human
foods according to European Commissions (2007)
is shown in Table 1. (Ukwuru et al., 2017).
The acceptable level of Mycotoxins in animal
feed according to European Commissions
(2007) is shown in Table 2. (Sarah and
Vickers, 2016).
Effect of mycotoxin on animal
health and production
Outbreaks of disease due to the consumption
of contaminated food and feedstuff are a
recurring problem worldwide. The major
factors contributing to contamination are
microorganisms, especially fungi, which
produce
low-molecular-weight compounds
as secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins
(Rajeev et al., 2010; Ali, 2018). Subacute
mycotoxicosis causes symptoms in humans
and animals including moderate to severe
liver damage, reproductive problems, appetite
loss, digestive tract discomfort, diarrhoea,
growth faltering, immune suppression,
increased morbidity, and premature mortality
(Miller et al., 1994). Immune suppression
causes increased morbidity and mortality in
animals and humans. Fusarium toxins called
trichothecenes causes severe damage to
actively dividing cells in bone marrow,
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and intestinal
mucosa (Cardwell et al., 2000). Hendrickse
et al. (1991) and Sultana et al. (2015)
reported that protein–energy malnutrition,
kwashiorkor, immune suppression, reduce
assimilation of vitamins A and E,
carcinogenicity and genotoxicity due to
aflatoxicosis
(Linsell et al., 1977). Acute
aflatoxicosis (severe aflatoxin poisoning)
occurs in poultry, swine, and cattle
consuming feeds contaminated with
aflatoxins. The same can appear in humans,
and cases of lethal toxic hepatitis attributed to
consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize
(Marasas et al., 1996). Mycotoxin contamination
of feeds results in economic loss and
transmission of toxins in the food chain
(Phakamile et al., 2007). Effect of Mycotoxins
on animal health and production shown in
Table 3 according to Sarah and Vickers
(2016).
Prevention and treatment of
mycotoxins
Desired level of mycotoxin in feeds and
foods stuff is zero. But it is impossible in the
environment. The Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO, 2001) provides a
manual on application of hazard analysis
and critical control points (HACCP)
techniques for mycotoxin prevention and
control. Management of mycotoxin in the
cereal crops supply chain may be improved
through preventing contamination and
minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in
feeds (Kabak et al., 2006). Pre-harvesting
mycotoxin accumulation may be reduced by
applying agronomic practices, minimizing
plant stress and fungal invasion in the field.
These includes proper irrigation, insect
control, and pesticide application in some
cases, cultivating resistant or adapted
hybrids, tillage type, and proper fertilization,
timely planting and avoiding delay harvesting.
Fungicides have shown little efficacy in
controlling pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination
in corn, but may be helpful in the
control of
other mycotoxins. The application of
fungicide within mold organism may reduce
the mold growth and mycotoxicosis (Gareis
and Ceynowa, 1994). A major success in
reducing aflatoxins is the use of non-
toxigenic fungi to competitively exclude
toxigenic fungi. The best strategy for
post-harvest control of mycotoxins is proper
storage and handling of feedstuffs to prevent
fungal growth. Management strategies also
include mycotoxin analysis of feedstuffs,
segregation of contaminated lots and treatments
to reduce mold growth. Physical separation
by cleaning or screening grains also helpful.
Use of enzymes, like pancreatinase, carboxy-
peptidase A, epoxidase and lactonohydrolase,
potentially useful to mycotoxin degradation
(Niderkorn et al., 2007). Mycotoxin
detoxification
also applicable by potential use
of microorganisms including Flavobacterium
aurantiacum (aflatoxin), Enterococcus faecium
(aflatoxin and patulin), Eubacterium : BSSH
797 and LS 100 (trichothecenes) and
Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans (ZEA and
OTA). Addition of 0.25-0.5% of calcium
propionate in diets successfully detoxify the
aflatoxin (Galvano et al., 2001). Increasing
nutrients such as protein, energy and
antioxidant usually advisable for mycotoxin
detoxification (Galvano et al., 2001).
Research
has demonstrated that adsorbent
materials such as silicate clays (bentonites
and others), activated carbons or beta-glucan
polymers (extracted from yeast cell wall) can
reduce the effects of mycotoxins (Diaz et. al.,
2004). An in vitro gastrointestinal model is
proposed for better simulation in vivo
conditions and has been used to assess the
mycotoxin binding efficacy by using some
feed additives and mycotoxin binders
(Avantaggiato et al., 2004; Ali and Hasan,
2018). According to scientific report entitled
“A review of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents
used as feed additives: Mode of action,
efficacy and feed/food safety” (EC, 2009), it
was noted that inorganic absorbing agents
(charcoal) seem to be effective for preventing
adverse effects of many toxic agents. Organic
absorbing agents have the ability to stimulate
the immune system. Proven detoxifying
agents may benefit animal health and
indirectly humans (EC, 2007).
Conclusion
The presence of mycotoxins in the food/feed
chain is an unavoidable and serious problem
throughout the world. Practicing good
sanitary measures, build up awareness about
the toxic effects of mycotoxin in humans and
livestock is urgent. Wide gaps exist on
the toxicological effects of mycotoxin-
contaminated
feeds in animal. Research has
been necessity in this field. Feed analysis is
required to check mycotoxin contamination
in impoted animal feeds stuff. Emphasis
should be done on to develop new low-cost
mycotoxin detection kit, which are portable,
reliable, and easy to handle at field level.
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9An overview of Mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds