Content uploaded by Martin Kamprath
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Martin Kamprath on Mar 15, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
A Competence Portfolio for
Professionals in the
Creative Industries
Dana Mietzner and Martin Kamprath
Within the last decade, the role of the Creative Industries has grown to become an important
part of the economic system. The increasing acceleration of new developments in media and
ICT technologies greatly affected the Creative Industries’ dynamic with a direct impact on the
people working in this sector. Since only a few studies focus on competences needs, more or
less isolated from the trends within the industry, we address the topic of individual compe-
tence shifts in the turbulent environment of the Creative Industries. We investigated the
trends regarding competence shifts and their implications as well as the competences which
are essential for creative professionals. We conducted a broad literature review as well as a
qualitative study, which includes interviews and workshops with industry experts on trends
within the Creative Industries and corresponding dimensions and demands for competences.
We present four requirements that call for shifts in the education of competences. Based on the
discussion of requirements, we present a competence portfolio for the Creative Industries
along the dimensions of professional, methodological and personal-social competences. The
portfolio clearly indicates which competences should be taken into consideration for the
development of curricula and study programmes in the education of creative professionals. A
generalization of these findings suggests new challenges for companies relying on creative
professionals.
Introduction
In the last decade the influence of the Crea-
tive Industries on regional and national
economies has been strengthened by the
increasing acceleration of new developments
in media and ICT technologies that have
changed (media) consumption and behaviour
around the globe. While this radical change is
highlighted in most reports, it indicates a
direct impact on the people working in the
creative sector. In this study, we examine the
topic of individual competence shifts in turbu-
lent environments. The overall aim of this
study is to identify: (a) the shifting trends
in competence needs and their implications,
and (b) which competences are essential for
(future) creative professionals in order to deal
with the dynamic and uncertain nature of the
Creative Industries. The high relevance of this
topic is seen, for example, by governments
worldwide and supranational institutions like
the EU (European Commission, 2010) or the
UN (UNCTAD, 2010), due the large share of
national workforces and extraordinary growth
rates of number of employees who work in the
Creative Industries; by companies in the Crea-
tive Industries that rely heavily on creative
professionals whose individual creativity and
ability are key assets to respond to external
changes and trends (Cunningham et al., 2004;
Preston, Kerr & Cawley, 2009; Hotho &
Champion, 2011); and by educational institu-
tions that design the relevant curricula (Bauer,
Viola & Strauss, 2011; Bridgstock, 2011;
Haukka, 2011). Scholars focusing on the
working perspective in this sector have mainly
addressed the precarious working conditions
(Christopherson, 2009; Randle & Culkin, 2009;
Smith & McKinlay, 2009; Raunig, Ray &
Wuggenig, 2011; Menger, 2012), knowledge
and skill acquisition (O’Mahony & Bechky,
2006; Grugulis & Stoyanova, 2009) and the
training contents and concepts of students
280 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
Volume 22 Number 3 2013
10.1111/caim.12026
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
with creative background (e.g., Bauer, Viola &
Strauss, 2011; Bridgstock, 2011). A few studies
directly addressed the identification of neces-
sary competences. These studies focus mainly
on directly asking which competences are
needed (more or less isolated from industry
trends) (Dobrunz, Schöppner & Wolfram,
2006; Haukka, 2011) or start from a human
resource perspective (Sigmund, 2006).
Our study also addresses the issue of com-
petences in the dynamic Creative Industries.
But in contrast to other studies, we relate our
work to a dynamic perspective about future
industry developments. We deal with the fol-
lowing research questions: Which competence-
specific trends or changing needs affect the
individual competences caused by the turbulent
environment in the Creative Industries? How
should creative professionals cope with these
trends? Under these circumstances, which compe-
tences are necessary in the Creative Industries?
Based on the literature review, we extract four
requirements that call for shifts in the educa-
tion of competences. Built on this, we used this
as a framework for an exploratory qualitative
study with industry experts. We interviewed
experts according to their future industry
perspective and link them with the four
emerging trends from the framework. Finally,
we present a competence portfolio, which
indicates necessary competences along the
dimensions of professional, methodological
and personal-social competences. The portfo-
lio clearly indicates which competences
should be taken into consideration for the
development of curricula and study pro-
grammes in the education of creative profes-
sionals. A generalization of these findings
suggests new challenges for companies relying
on people who belong to the ‘creative class’
(Florida, 2002).
The Creative Industries
Characteristics and Structure of the
Creative Industries
Within the last decade, the role of the Creative
Industries has grown to become an important
part of the economic system. Reports on inter-
national, national and regional levels attest to
the significant influence of the Creative Indus-
tries on regional and national economies (KEA
European Affairs et al., 2006; UNESCO, 2007;
European Parliament, 2008; Power & Nielsén,
2010; UNCTAD, 2010). Due to technological
developments in information and communi-
cation technologies (ICT) and consumer
electronics, the annual growth rate of these
‘copyright industries’ increased between 2002
and 2008 by 14 per cent annually (UNCTAD,
2010). In some countries, such as Great Britain,
Germany and Sweden, the number of people
working in these creative sectors is higher
than in manufacturing, including mechanical
engineering and chemistry (Söndermann
et al., 2009; UNCTAD, 2010). The term ‘Crea-
tive Industries’ particularly includes compa-
nies which create, produce or distribute
cultural and creative products and services
(Söndermann et al., 2009, p. 22).
The Creative Industries receive a great deal
of attention due to their proliferation, as well
as their spillover effects in two spheres. On
the one hand, products and services of the
Creative Industries are highly dependent
on technology-intensive developments, while
also serving as innovation drivers for new
technologies of consumer electronics, ICT and
other high-tech sectors (Caves, 2002; Handke,
2007; Cassarino & Geuna, 2008; KEA European
Affairs, 2009; PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2009).
Content producers and new related services
are the basis for the diffusion of new ICT and
media technologies. Design and marketing
agencies provide technical products with the
intention of creating symbols (Pesendorfer,
1995; Utterback et al., 2006; Ravasi & Rindova,
2008; Verganti, 2009). On the other hand, the
Creative Industries are viewed as a social
ecology, attracting creative potential through
the recruitment of high-skilled workers, which
Florida (2002) called the ‘creative class’. The
creative halo attracts investors and generates
business for restaurants, clubs, theatres, galler-
ies, and other aspects of cultural and economic
life. The Creative Industries can be seen as
the tool to disseminate information, produce
entertainment and launch communication, but
also serve as the key to analysing converging
economic and cultural environments (Deuze,
2009a, p. 146).
Working Conditions in the
Creative Industries
Labour Market Situation
The Creative Industries represent a large share
of national labour markets. In 2006, 6.5 million
people in the 30 European countries worked in
these industries, which are mainly concen-
trated in large urban areas (Power & Nielsén,
2010). Due to the acceleration of technological
development and an increasing media con-
sumption as described above, these trends
impact on the labour markets (Mietzner,
Kamprath & Wagner, 2010). In some countries,
the growth rate of jobs in the Creative Indus-
tries exceeds the rate in other industries, while
the average rate of domestic employment in
the Creative Industries varies. In European
COMPETENCE PORTFOLIO FOR PROFESSIONALS IN THE CREATIVE INDUSTRIES 281
Volume 22 Number 3 2013
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
countries, between 1.2 and 4 per cent of the
workforce are employed in the Creative Indus-
tries (Power & Nielsén, 2010), and in the
United States, around 4 per cent (Siwek, 2011).
The United Nations reports an average share
worldwide of 2–8 per cent, depending on the
statistical data (UNCTAD, 2010, p. 24). It can be
assumed that the actual employment rates of
the Cultural and Creative Industries are still
higher, because employment statistics for these
areas are imprecise and do not fully reflect the
growing number of part-time employees and
freelancers. The official number of employed
persons by definition comprises those who are
self-employed as well as those who have jobs
in which they contribute to the social security
system, surpassing a minimum threshold;
the number does not, however, include mar-
ginally employed persons (Söndermann et al.,
2009).
Working Conditions
Exploring the working conditions of the Crea-
tive Industries has its limitations. There is no
single industry, but rather several, each having
its own ecology of labour markets and
contracting networks (Jeffcutt & Pratt, 2002).
Differences in firm size, location and manage-
ment style occur not only between the sectors
but also within them. One aspect that all the
Creative Industries have in common, however,
is the view that creative employees are their
most important asset. Firms within the Crea-
tive Industries fail if their employees do
not come up with ideas that can be turned
into profitable, marketable commodities
(Bridgstock, 2011).
The working conditions of these creative
professionals can be described as having a
high proportion of part-time jobs and self-
employed professionals (see also Throsby,
2001; Jeffcutt & Pratt, 2002). Part-time employ-
ment between the different professions and
sub-industries varies greatly and is hard to
estimate (numbers are typically between 9 and
18 per cent, and up to 32 per cent; Michel &
Flasdick, 2009, p. 8).A much more pronounced
trend is the outsourcing of work to the self-
employed. The high degree of uncertainty in
the field leads to company practices that rely
on offshore and subcontracted labour, out-
sourcing various elements of the production
process to save costs and distribute risks (Du
Gay & Pryke, 2002). Former employees have
been laid off, only to be hired again as self-
employed workers (Michel & Flasdick, 2009, p.
7; Mundelius, 2009, p. 3). The widespread
organization of work in projects (DeFillippi &
Arthur, 2002) and the implicated ‘flexibiliza-
tion’ of employment relationships, on the one
hand, is interpreted as a general trend towards
a ‘new self-employment’ and an increasing
flexibility of cost (Ekinsmyth, 2002; Pongratz &
Voß, 2003). On the other hand, a large share of
creative professionals see the issue of self-
employment as a way to cope with their eve-
ryday creative tasks, getting them involved in
temporary projects that enhance their skills
and competences and fostering a certain bohe-
mian lifestyle (Eikhof & Haunschild, 2006;
Grugulis & Stoyanova, 2009; Menger, 2012).
These lifestyles depend on income that
varies extremely in these industries, not only
between different professions and creative
submarkets but also between comparable pro-
fessionals. The so-called superstar phenom-
enon describes the circumstances in which
only a few earn very much, but there are many
who earn little (Adler, 2006; Mundelius, 2009).
Because creative work deals with human
attention, and human attention represents a
much more abstract, elusive and intangible
product (Napoli, 2009, pp. 165–7), little control
over success and reward is given to content
generators (Caves, 2002). In the face of high
risk and unstable financial reward, the attrac-
tiveness of working in the Creative Industries
is based on a high intrinsic motivation. Appre-
ciation for the work is more important than
material success. Professionals in this sector
are willing to accept these conditions to ensure
personal autonomy and to avoid a stifling of
their creativity (Zotto & van Kranenburg,
2008). Working in this sector means having a
more visible status in public and becoming a
noticeable part of the consumer’s life (Picard,
2005). Social reputation, access to informal net-
works and self-fulfilment are all of higher
importance than payment and job security
(Christopherson, 2009; Randle & Culkin,
2009).
Competences in the
Creative Industries
Competences: Definitions and Dimensions
In a complex, highly dynamic, and insecure
environment, people must make decisions,
adapting the actions of groups, teams or
organizations to unforeseeable situations. Suc-
cessful adaptation in such situations results
from the ability of individuals to develop and
change their behaviour, knowledge base and
actions (Heyse & Erpenbeck, 2009, p. XI ff.).
The distinction between competence develop-
ment and qualification lies in the improvement
in the ability to act. Competence develop-
ment should be seen as a continuous process,
whereas qualification is a time-limited process
segment of competence development aimed at
282 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
Volume 22 Number 3 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
acquiring a certifiable qualification (Gessler,
2008, p. 47). For instance, a certification of a
media designer may say nothing about his/
her self-organization or creativity. Conse-
quently, Heyse and Erpenbeck (2009, p. XIII)
define competences as abilities of self-
organization that are important in open
problem and decision situations in complex
systems. They can be seen as underlying char-
acteristics that are causally related to criterion-
referenced, effective or superior performance
(or all three) in a job or situation (Spencer &
Spencer, 1993; Reio & Sutton, 2006). Particu-
larly in the human resource development
literature, the construct of competences is
modelled by different competence classes.
Due to the many job requirements within the
various sub-markets of the Creative Industries,
we follow the classification schema as a meta-
construct to be able to operationalize and
structure the competences that, in return, are
needed to enable qualification to fulfil these
job requirements.
Heyse and Erpenbeck (2009) propose a
competence atlas with 64 competences, which
is divided into the following four dimensions:
• personal competence,
• socio-communicative competence,
• professional and methodological compe-
tence, and
• activity competence and action competence.
This very detailed yet universal classification
of competences is only marginally suitable for
improving practical orientation. Besides the
identification of 64 competences, the sorting
of these competences into four categories
provides a helpful way to identify industry-
specific competences. Gessler (2008) discusses
useful competence categorization systems
and subdivides competences into professional
competence,methodological competence,social
competence and personal competence. Building
on this categorization scheme, the few studies
on competences in the Creative Industries
attempt to link this theoretical approach to
practical relevance. Sigmund (2006) uses an
approach where a distinction is made between
a person’s four areas of competence: profes-
sional competence,methodological competence,
social competence and personality competence.
The Creative Industries study of Dobrunz,
Schöppner and Wolfram (2006) subdivides the
requirements of creative professionals into pro-
fessional competence,methodological competence
and soft skills. According to the theoretical
principles of competence research, soft skills
in this study should be assigned to personal
and social competences. Haukka (2011)
used a different categorization based on the
‘Employability Skills Framework’ (Business
Council of Australia and the Australian
Chamber of Commerce and Industry) and
calls them key skills and personal attri-
butes. Key skills cover the professional
and methodological competences, while per-
sonal attributes reflect social and personal
competences.
In this study, we pick up on both the results
of competence research and the practice-
oriented approaches of the studies carried out
by Dobrunz, Schöppner and Wolfram (2006)
and Sigmund (2006). We assume that, in prac-
tice, only a minor distinction can be made
between personal competences and social
competences to justify a separation of these
two types of competence. Hence, we consider
these two competences jointly and follow the
idea proposed by Dobrunz, Schöppner and
Wolfram (2006), as the overlapping of the two
areas is apparent in Sigmund’s differentiation
between social and personal competences. We
argue that there can be no social competences
without the personal competences. Personal
and social competences are contingent upon
one another and cannot be considered in iso-
lation from one another in practice. In the
study carried out by Dobrunz, Schöppner and
Wolfram, personal and social competences
were subsumed under a superordinate group
of soft skills. The purpose of this is presumably
not to confuse the surveyed enterprises with
the high degree of detail of a competence atlas.
We refer to this competence group as the
personal-social competences and subsume them
under the personal and social competences
and the associated soft skills.
In the case of professional and methodologi-
cal competences, we follow the reverse path
from that described in the literature, which ties
methodological competence to professional
competence (Heyse & Erpenbeck, 2009). We
follow the argumentation of Gessler (2008)
that, although professional and methodologi-
cal competences are connected, they are not
exclusively so. In other words, professional
and methodological competences must be
considered separately because methodological
competence can be found in both social com-
petences (e.g., conflict resolution, discussion
techniques) and in personal competences
(e.g., time and self-management, relaxation
techniques). Nevertheless, according to the
definition mentioned above, professional com-
petences and methodological competences
can indeed be examined in a differentiated
manner. In summary, the following compe-
tence classes will be used as categories for
the competence portfolio: professional compe-
tences, methodological competences and
personal-social competences.
COMPETENCE PORTFOLIO FOR PROFESSIONALS IN THE CREATIVE INDUSTRIES 283
Volume 22 Number 3 2013
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
State-of-the-Art Competences in the
Creative Industries
Literature Review: Study Selection and Overview
A considerable portion of the literature deals
with the competences and qualifications of
journalists because this group, in particular,
receives a great deal of public attention. Jeff
Javis, a renowned American journalist and
thinker, criticized the profession’s failure to
embrace new technologies and tools, which
has an impact on routine work in the editorial
office. ‘Everyone should have a sufficient
command of these aids to be able, at any time,
to tell the story in the most appropriate way’
(Jarvis in Langer, 2009). Bönte (2009) sees
future challenges in the internalization and
perfection of multi-media thinking, in the con-
stant updating of legal knowledge, in the per-
sonnel management of various professional
groups, in the practice of business manage-
ment, and in the continual communication
about quality and standards. These challenges
are met by an organization that supports
dealing with such challenges. Maximum
transparency, an overall strategy, investments
and innovations (new products, new proc-
esses, new technologies and business models)
and, above all, contact with the target groups
are decisive for the future of enterprises in the
Creative Industries. This also means that com-
panies must accept that graduates and trainees
need a sufficient amount of time working in
the enterprise and that it is not possible to train
them in such a way that they fit perfectly into
the position they are hired to fill (O’Mahony
& Bechky, 2006; Bridgstock, 2011). Table 1
presents an overview of relevant studies in
this field.
Literature Review: Results and Meta-Analysis
All identified studies report a change or
enhancement in the competences of creative
professionals. More or less these shifts were
caused by the changes of the creative sector
and its convergent industries, as discussed at
the beginning of the article. The studies make
obvious the fact that heterogeneity of the
market results in a broad variety of compe-
tences. The weak point of these studies is the
high degree of generalization required for dif-
ferent job profiles, such as music producers
and web designers. Using the term ‘Creative
Industries’ means generalizing findings,
although sub-sectors such as television, radio,
Internet or video games vary enormously
(Jeffcutt & Pratt, 2002; Preston, Kerr & Cawley,
2009). A review of the relevant studies and
literature demonstrates a need for changes in
the education of the upcoming generation of
professionals in the Creative Industries.
Drawn from the recommendations of the
literature, we could identify four major
competence-shifting trends that are relevant as
competence requirements in all Creative
Industries (see Figure 1). To gain an under-
standing of how the relevant competences
change, we need to explore how these trends
affect the competences.
Interdisciplinary Fundamentals
According to several of the above-mentioned
authors who work in the Creative Industries,
certain fundamentals are required for all fields
of work. According to Schröter (2004), this
includes, first and foremost, a basic knowledge
of the law, knowledge of business administra-
tion, such as project management, and a
certain measure of enthusiasm for technology
(von Reibnitz, 2004; Burdick, 2009; Bauer,
Viola & Strauss, 2011). In particular, entrepre-
neurial thinking is gaining importance. This
does not necessarily mean that the applicant
must have previously been entrepreneurially
successful. The factor of importance is that the
applicant be able to take charge of situations
and deal with them head-on (Hesse inter-
viewed by Ahrens, 2009, p. 31; von Rimscha &
Siegert, 2011).
The Need for an Open Mind about the New
The fields of work within the Creative Indus-
tries are greatly heterogeneous, and yet they
depend on each other, leading to sustained
success only when combined. Their instability
is compounded by the fact that new techno-
logies cause these fields of work to shift
(Bartosova, 2011). The field possesses fewer
and fewer distinct definitions, existing job
descriptions are being expanded, and media
workers’ command of new technologies must
be at least as good as that of the recipients. A
working environment in a state of flux needs
co-workers who do not perceive changes in
their environment as a threat, but respond to
them with flexibility. This includes the willing-
ness to work in fields outside of the original
training occupation or even outside of the
Creative Industries (Haukka, 2011).
Permanent Transformation of
Job-Specific Knowledge
The permanent transformation of job-specific
knowledge competence is intimately tied to
specialization and openness to new develop-
ments. It constitutes the nexus between
increasing complexity and learning in the
consequent interdisciplinary working of the
teams, in terms of balancing technical, creative
284 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
Volume 22 Number 3 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Table 1. Relevant Studies on Competences in the Creative Industries
Authors Research Focus Object of Investigation Methodological Approach Selected Key Findings
Haukka (2011) 䊏Investigation of the education,
training and work experiences
of aspiring creatives
䊏Creative Industries
companies and
students in Australia
䊏Survey with 507 students
䊏Survey with 50 employers
䊏Gap between the level of specific competences that companies need and the
degree to which the competences were taught in colleges and universities.
䊏Regardless of qualification level, employment outcomes for Creative Arts
graduates were lower than outcomes for graduates for all fields combined.
䊏Almost half of employers found it difficult to recruit aspiring creatives with
the ‘right’ skills.
䊏Half of the employers prefer more individual creative talent and/or the
necessary job skills than certificates and university degrees.
Skillset &
Creative and
Cultural
Skills (2010)
䊏Strategic skills assessment for
the Creative Industries
䊏Creative Industries 䊏Qualitative and quantitative research results
from former analysis and official statistical
data
䊏Sector-endorsed primary research from
Skillset, Creative and Cultural Skills and
Skillfast-UK
䊏Secondary data
䊏The authors deliver causes for serious concern about the technical skills
necessary to improve digital impact on production processes.
䊏Often highly specialized knowledge is needed, which can be recruited only
from a small labour pool.
䊏Importance of management and leadership skills to monetize the content and
reflect on new business models.
䊏A shortage of skills has major implications for productivity, e.g., increase of
workloads for others colleagues, loss in business numbers.
Preston, Kerr
and Cawley
(2009)
䊏Roots of service innovation 䊏Digital media
companies
䊏Employee-centric
approach
䊏Case study approach
䊏Study of an online media service in the
branch plant of MNC (1997–1999)
䊏Studies of digital media content innovation
initiatives in three Irish firms (1999–2002)
䊏Study of jobs, functions, and occupations in
23 digital media firms (2002)
䊏Study of innovation and knowledge in 10
mobile content and enabling technologies
firms (2003–2005)
䊏Innovation processes in the digital games
industry (ongoing)
䊏Important role of heterogeneous mix of knowledge(s); including the
important role of intangible (tacit, creative, non-technological) knowledge
inputs, as well as design and business/market knowledge.
䊏Technical skills, competences and expertise are necessary but not sufficient for
successful industrial innovation strategies.
䊏Occurring changes and challenges brought by technology have to be guided
by knowledge in authoring, design, publishing, packaging and business.
Dobrunz,
Schöppner
and Wolfram
(2006)
䊏Demands and requirements
of competences for media
companies in the region of
Berlin-Brandenburg, one of
the main Creative Industries
clusters in Germany
䊏Media companies 䊏Survey with 120 media companies
䊏Evaluation of job offers in newspapers and
websites
䊏Gap between the level of specific competences that companies need and the
degree to which the competences were taught in colleges and universities.
䊏Companies backlog demand concerning the deficient coverage of soft skills in
the education institutions.
䊏Lack of methodical competences; although practical relevance and computing
knowledge are most important, they are not satisfactorily covered in the
curricula.
䊏Companies search for ‘enquiring, keen and creative personalities who do not
need to fulfil every professional requirement, but are willing to learn lifelong’
(Dobrunz, Schöppner & Wolfram, 2006).
Sigmund
(2006)
䊏Qualification requirements and
prospects from companies
regarding which competences
should be taught in educational
institutions
䊏Media companies
䊏University curricula
䊏Qualitative approach, 18 interviews with
industry experts
䊏Literature review
䊏Evaluation of curricula
䊏No clear job profiles with which a university curriculum can identify.
䊏Within the companies, long-term planning plays only an inferior role.
䊏No attention paid to the future demand of competences of graduates.
䊏Formulation of competency clusters based on the literature review:
professional, methodical, social, personal and additional competences.
COMPETENCE PORTFOLIO FOR PROFESSIONALS IN THE CREATIVE INDUSTRIES 285
Volume 22 Number 3 2013
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
and business skills (Preston, Kerr & Cawley,
2009). In addition to special skills, specialists
need the ability to think in an overarching,
networked way (Ring et al., 2004, p. 67; Deuze,
2007, 2009b) and to install routines for on-the-
job learning and self-initiated up-skilling
(O’Mahony & Bechky, 2006; Grugulis &
Stoyanova, 2009). This can be trained through
early project work in which students from
various fields participate (Schröter, 2004, p. 29)
or by acquiring experience abroad (Haukka,
2011).
Specialists versus Generalists
Increasing task ranges, convergence and com-
plexity imply that more and more co-workers
with differing qualifications will participate
in joint projects (Wolf, 2009). Co-operation in
such a multidisciplinary team will demand
considerable communication skills from each
member (Jeffcutt, 2004, p. 71). This is in con-
trast to the image of the video journalist, who,
as an ‘all-in-one solution’, is the epitome of the
media generalist, thus raising the question of
whether or not training in the future should be
broader, and thus inevitably more superficial,
or if specialists should be trained in specific
fields. Advocates of the generalists argue that
this development is driven mainly by efforts to
save money, due to technological develop-
ment, making it possible for a single person to
produce contributions of acceptable quality in
a short amount of time (Dobrunz, Schöppner
& Wolfram, 2006; Burdick, 2009). But practi-
tioners are increasingly noticing that special-
ists will continue to be necessary due to an
increasing concentration of professionals and
increasing opportunities for specialization
(Potts & Cunningham, 2008, p. 242). Special-
ized knowledge, however, has to be adapted
and enhanced repeatedly, so that, as von
Reibnitz (2004, p. 24) put it, one can notice a
step towards the generalist again.
Qualitative Study on Future
Competences in Creative Industries
Methods, Sample and Research Instruments
After our literature review on (1) the charac-
teristics of the Creative Industries, (2) working
conditions, and (3) competences in the Crea-
tive Industries, the aim was to explore the nec-
essary future competences of people working
in this highly dynamic working environment
in order to compile a portfolio of competences.
After the identification of the industry
experts from different sub-industries and
associations, the implementation of semi-
standardized interviews occurred. Semi-
standardized interviews allow more space for
own phrases, additional questions and the
identification of so far hidden or unknown
issues. The key results of the literature review –
requirements for future competences or
competence-shifting trends (Figure 1) – were
used as the underlying framework for the
interview guidelines. In contrast to the other
studies, we interviewed experts with knowl-
edge of future industry developments and per-
sonnel responsibility rather than experts with
a human resource background. Open-ended
Figure 1. Requirements for Future Competences
286 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
Volume 22 Number 3 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
questions ensured stimulation for new insights
and perspectives. In addition, we used other
available materials (e.g., business information,
appropriate websites) for the implementation
and assessment of the interviews. Over the
course of this study, we conducted 17 expert
interviews (conducted in 2010–2011) to learn
how the experts assessed future changes in the
industry and their impact on the development
of individual competences. In addition, we
asked about changes in employee demand, a
fact that graduates and trainees must confront,
due to the high dynamics of these industries, as
described in earlier sections. We also explored
necessary improvements in the curricula of
universities. Table 2 presents a list of the sub-
industries and positions of the experts, along
with their company sizes, as indicated by the
numbers of employees.
Secondly, we discussed key results in expert
workshops (conducted in 2010–2011) both
after the literature analysis and after the quali-
tative analysis. With the help of eight industry
experts, we further validated the outcome in
an iterative process and discussed conclusions
for the competence portfolio.
The analysis of the interview material and
workshop minutes occurred through a quali-
tative content analysis. In qualitative content
analysis, data is selected from the texts and
then processed and evaluated (Waring &
Wainwright, 2008). A database was established,
based on the origin texts (interview tran-
scripts), containing only information that was
relevant to the research questions. In addition,
the information base was structured by a
search grid, which was used for the extraction
of the information. Extraction is defined as ‘to
read a text and decide which of the informa-
tion contained in it is relevant for the investi-
gation’ (Gläser & Laudel, 2004, p. 194). This
information is associated with the categories of
a search grid shown in Figure 2.
The category system is based on theoretical
pre-considerations, and it helps, therefore, to
answer the research questions. The category
system is, however, open at the same time (i.e.,
it can be changed if, in the text, information
appears which is relevant, but in the analysis
grid, cannot be ascertained). This extraction is
also the first interpretation step. The extraction
of the data occurs with the help of the software
tool, Atlas TI. The software supports an
exploratory and non-linear research approach
(Muhr & Friese, 2001, p. 396; Muhr, 2008).
Key Results Regarding Future Competences
in Creative Industries
Interdisciplinary Fundamentals
The respondents regard the internalization of
multi-medial thinking, technical expertise and
Table 2. List of Interviewed Creative Industries Experts
No. (Sub) Industries Institution Employees Position of the
Interviewee
01 Digital Games Association 6–9 CEO
02 Newspaper Company 500 and more Head of department
03 Telecommunication Company 500 and more Head of department
04 Creative Industries Institute 20–49 CEO
05 Digital Games Company 500 and more Head of department
06 Creative Industries Association 10–19 CEO and project manager
07 Creative Industries Association 6–9 Project manager
08 Film and TV Production Company 200–499 Head of department
09 Film and TV Production Association 10–19 Deputy CEO
10 Books Company 500 and more Head of department
11 TV Broadcast Company 100–199 CEO
12 Radio Broadcast Company 500 and more Head of department
13 Interactive Design Company 200–499 Head of department
14 Interactive Design Company 200–499 Project manager
15 Media and Internet
Technologies
Company 20–49 CEO
16 Media and Internet
Technologies
Company 20–49 Deputy CEO
17 Interactive Design Company 1 Freelancer
COMPETENCE PORTFOLIO FOR PROFESSIONALS IN THE CREATIVE INDUSTRIES 287
Volume 22 Number 3 2013
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
the development of basic business administra-
tion and legal knowledge as the biggest
changes in the industry. Its use in, and produc-
tion for, various media channels will be even
more decisive in the future. This change has
already been observed in many enterprises in
the introduction of new modes of work and
technologies in order to spread products
multi-medially. Industry employees, therefore,
must acquire the requisite technical skills in
order to be able to deal with these issues. At an
organizational level, future tasks should be
viewed in a broader perspective as well. Today,
project managers must integrate and control
multiple, diverse digital components in order
to keep the products from falling apart. This
also holds true for content production, i.e., for
editors to develop their own project control
techniques and technological expertise. It has
also been noted that the legal departments of
the enterprises are in part overtaxed by the
many queries coming from individual depart-
ments. Consequently, knowledge of media law
communicated through training is essential.
One problem here is that employees often
resist change due to the multitude of new
requirements.
In summary, all workers’ knowledge about
the new markets must become established.
The functioning modes of the Internet and
media have to play an important role in all
Creative Industries-specific curricula.
The Need for an Open Mind about the New
The unwillingness of some enterprises to
accept change is shown by an insufficient
openness to new themes and technologies.
Regarded as the most important criterion by
the respondents today, it is precisely this open-
ness that the respondents wish to become a
fundamental individual attitude. Enthusiasm
about new alternatives and ideas and the
desire to understand new media forms are
viewed as a meta-competence. A respondent
describes openness as follows: ‘For one thing,
it is, as it were, life-long learning, that means,
one naturally has to continue developing on
and on in the existing professions and profes-
sional profiles, and one needs to keep abreast
of new developments in technology, law,
economy and content’ (Interviewee 9).
Permanent Transformation of
Job-specific Knowledge
The interviewees gave widely varying assess-
ments of whether or not new professional
profiles would be created. On the one hand,
more and more technology-driven tasks are
required in the post-production sectors that
were previously performed by several special-
ists but are now performed by one person.
Today, for instance, pre-programmed settings
or routines are retrieved and automatically
executed. On the other hand, a representative
of a publishing house reported that changes
in curricula were already noticed when the
change was made in the job title from ‘special-
ist clerk for publishing’ to the new ‘specialist
clerk for media’. Changes in relevant curricula
were also expected in journalism and in the
professional profile of the editor, according to
this representative. Some interviewees pointed
out that, while new fields of work have possi-
bly emerged, they are too specific, and thus no
Key challenges for the industries
Adaptability to change
Future products and services
Future PerspecƟves of
the CreaƟve Industries
Interdisciplinary fundamentals
Technical know-how
Trends in technology development
Role of radical and incremental innovaƟon
Technology and
InnovaƟon
Future employment r elaƟonship
Generalist vs. specialist
Interfac e competence
Development of soŌ skills
Aƫtudes and moƟvaƟons of creaƟve professionals
User behavior
Future
Job Requirements
Figure 2. Search Grid
288 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
Volume 22 Number 3 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
corresponding new professional profiles are
likely to appear. Only representatives of the
games industry pointed out a deficit in train-
ing in the field as of yet, stating that when there
is training, its content is inadequately struc-
tured. Overall, the development of new pro-
fessional profiles is very uncertain, even if
different conclusions could be drawn, consid-
ering the multitude of courses available. In any
case, the enterprises surveyed share the
opinion that this development of new voca-
tional fields should not be overestimated, but
rather the existing professional profiles should
be adapted.
Moreover, some interviewees explain
that creative workers are experiencing an
increased demand for new technologies and
other new branches of industry. Telecommu-
nications and hardware manufacture enter-
prises are seeking media professionals and
communications specialists whose media-
related competences must bundle both the
technological field and the content side to
evaluate new content and products.
Specialists versus Generalists
Perhaps the most controversial question posed
was whether or not, in the future, the need for
more generalists would outweigh the need for
more specialists. While the literature analysis
revealed a strong position in favour of the spe-
cialist, the interviewees’ stance was not so
clear. Instead, difficulties were encountered in
defining how specialized the training of a gen-
eralist could be, or to what extent a specialist
should be able to think in general terms. One
participant asked, ‘What is “knowing every-
thing” supposed to mean? After all, there are
always limits’ (Interviewee 2). The rationale for
the generalist is often based on a cost factor –
for instance, the cutter’s job in TV newscasts
can also be done by a journalist. Progress in
both technology and operations facilitate this.
‘For this purpose, you must know how to
do everything, but you don’t have to be an
expert in this field – all you need to know is,
“What can I do with this?” ’ (Interviewee 3)
‘Yes, technology makes things easier. As
technology simplifies operations, you don’t
need a specialist anymore, who handles
only the cutting operation or only the
sound. Instead, everything is done by com-
puters, and you just need people who
operate those computers.’ (Interviewee 11)
But at this point, the production representative
counters with the following argument:
‘Yes, sure, this video journalist, . . . in the
past, they would have a sound engineer, a
camera man, and a journalist, and perhaps
also a placement worker – four of them
going off on an assignment to photograph a
dead cow, and now this is done by one. And
that’s enough for a dead cow. But will that
always be enough for more complex opera-
tions?’ (Interviewee 9)
The majority of the interviewees, however,
favoured specialists, specifying nevertheless
that they must be able to communicate with
specialists from other fields. This point, in par-
ticular, will be an increasingly important
aspect of specialization. Another approach to
specialization is to co-ordinate the individual
specialists at the management level. There is a
tendency for the debate on the importance of
generalists versus specialists to be dependent
on quality requirements or on the complexity
of the product. The higher the quality require-
ments or the more complex the product (a
complex technical component in most cases),
the more likely specialists will be sought. The
question of whether a generalist or a specialist
is needed will depend on the required quality
of the content and on whether or not the cus-
tomers are prepared to pay accordingly.
The Competence Portfolio for the
Creative Industries
Creative professionals must acquire the requi-
site competences in order to be able to deal
with the identified four requirements and
trends. Based on the discussion of require-
ments and trends which are the result of the
literature review and interviews, in expert
workshops we explored necessary individual
competence shifts in turbulent environments.
Based on this, we extracted and developed a
competence portfolio, which delivers a set of
competences that are indicated as critical for
the future of this sector and respond to the
four identified requirements. The portfolio
clearly indicates which competences should be
taken into consideration for the development
of curricula and study programmes in the edu-
cation of creative professionals. The compe-
tences upon which we have elaborated can be
classified according to the competence classes
shown in Figure 3.
With the competence portfolio, profession-
als in the Creative Industries can enhance their
adaptability in turbulent environments. In a
broader setting, while companies in the Crea-
tive Industries rely heavily on the creativity
that is ingrained in their employees and free-
lancers (Küng, 2007; Hotho & Champion,
2011), strengthening the individual compe-
tences will impact the firm’s efficiency, the
organizational innovation capabilities and the
corporate strategy (Doyle, 1995; Soosay, 2005).
COMPETENCE PORTFOLIO FOR PROFESSIONALS IN THE CREATIVE INDUSTRIES 289
Volume 22 Number 3 2013
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Increasing flexibility at the corporate level
helps to respond to external changes in the
fields of technology, business models, con-
sumer behaviour and competition. In other
words, the success of companies responding to
the business environment starts with the
empowerment of the individual.
Discussion of the Quintessential
Features of the Competence
Portfolio in Creative Industries
We started this article with the importance of
the Creative Industries for the wider economy
in terms of diffusion of new electronic devices
and ICT (Cassarino & Geuna, 2008; Hopkins &
Fynes, 2010) but also in terms of labour market
potential for millions of entrepreneurs, self-
employed workers and employees, whom we
all call creative professionals. We referred to
the importance of individual competences and
approaches for creative professionals, which
are seen as the origin or cornerstone for
new product and service developments
(Cunningham et al., 2004; Preston, Kerr &
Cawley, 2009; Hotho & Champion, 2011).
Considering this competence portfolio
for individuals, more self-organizing work
arrangements will affect the relationship
structure between labour power and the firm,
described in the concept of the ‘entreployee’
(see Voß & Pongratz, 1998; Pongratz & Voß,
2003). A high degree of uncertainty in a
fast-changing sector, the ‘flexibilization’
of employment relationships, ‘new self-
employment’ and a high intrinsic motivation
to work push creative professionals to acquire
specific or a variety of competences to cope
with these changes.
Considering the competence portfolio in
terms of curricula developments, the portfo-
lio clearly incorporates and emphasizes the
individual creative professional’s adaptability
to deal with the turbulent and highly
dynamic environment of the Creative Indus-
tries. An adequate curriculum should address
comprehensive competence-based learning
approaches to encourage, for example, the
strategic, proactive and networked thinking
and capabilities in the management of cross-
media projects as well as sector-specific
knowledge.
Some scholars see the acquisition of multi-
ple skills as a result of a neo-liberalization of
the Creative Industries in terms of creativity
following values of entrepreneurialism, indi-
vidualization and reliance on commercial
sponsorship (McRobbie, 2002). Others refer
to the possibility of reducing the risk of
Figure 3. Competences for Creative Professionals
290 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
Volume 22 Number 3 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
exogenous shocks and high dependence on
one industry or firm (Wang & Barney, 2006) or
point to the dependence on a competitive
environment (Wasmer, 2006). Hence, an
optimal competence portfolio will lead to the
individual balance of acquiring the right set
and variety of skills as shown by Hracs (2012)
for creative and non-creative tasks of inde-
pendent music production.
Surprisingly, in our qualitative study and in
contrast to the literature review was the con-
troversial discussion of the generalist versus
specialist issue. While the literature analysis
revealed a strong position in favour of the spe-
cialist, the industry experts’ stance was not so
clear. While the rationale for the generalist is
often based on cost factors, specialists are
more likely to be sought in terms of complex
products and high-quality requirements. In
other words, whether a general or a hardly
specialized creative professional is needed will
depend on the expected quality of the product
and on whether or not the clients are willing to
pay accordingly.
Nevertheless, some findings can be general-
ized – attracting creative professionals (in a
‘creative class’ sense) can become a multidi-
mensional issue. In sectors where knowledge
is complex and/or creative, and the final
output is mainly unknown, companies have to
be attractive for creative professionals for two
reasons. First, hiring the best creative profes-
sionals can improve the firm’s final output;
second, it can strengthen the reputation and
brand of the firm, signalling the competence to
achieve this output. These ‘firm celebrities’
own intangible assets, such as reputation,
status and legitimacy, and have better access to
talent because they influence the willingness
of ‘entreployees’ to exchange resources with a
firm (Rindova, Pollock & Hayward, 2006, pp.
53 ff.). The ‘signalling-driven careers’ of crea-
tive professionals (Jones, 2002) made obvious
that a single company will rarely be in the
position to attract an outstanding professional
for a long period of time. Intrinsically moti-
vated creative professionals can be engaged
only for a limited time on reputation-
promising projects. Firms have to deal with
the challenge of this ‘fluid employability’ by
(1) establishing a flexible pool of creative pro-
fessionals (Dell’Era & Verganti, 2009), (2) con-
tinuing to foster some kind of ‘firm celebrity
status’, and (3) possibly broadening the crea-
tive’s horizon in terms of expert knowledge
and inspiration.
With this study, we contribute to close the
gap of competence change in the Creative
Industries by identifying new requirements
and asking which individual competences are
necessary. We follow a different approach than
similar studies that we identified in our litera-
ture review. We chose an exploratory research
design by identifying four main trends of com-
petence development that are the result of the
changing turbulent business environment.
These trends create new demands and require-
ments but are partly contrasting and lead to
conflicts. As a result, we develop a compe-
tence portfolio that integrates sector-specific
requirements but remain general enough for
the heterogeneous creative sub-markets. At
the same time, this generalization between dif-
ferent creative occupations represents one
limitation of the study. The other limitation is
the relatively small number of interviewed
experts who come from various Creative
Industries. Further research should more
specifically address sub-sectors to address
industrial, locational or scalar specificity.
Additionally, while we could answer the ques-
tion of which competences should be devel-
oped, we were not able to answer to what extent
and how. A mechanism should be developed
to constantly monitor business environmental
changes, while at the same time evaluating
the need for shifts in competences or skill
demands.
Acknowledgements
This article is based on findings generated
within the project Media EXIST, financed by
the German Ministry of Economy and Tech-
nology and co-financed by the European
Social Fund. This article benefited from the
valuable comments and suggestions made by
Brian Hracs and Charles Davis. The authors
would also like to thank the three anonymous
reviewers for improvements to this article, and
the Editors of the special issue who provided
constructive feedback and help.
References
Adler, M. (2006) Stardom and Talent. In Ginsburgh,
V. and Throsby, D. (eds.), Handbook of the Econom-
ics of Art and Culture. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp.
895–906.
Ahrens, P. (2009) Medien- und Verlagsbranche.
Hochschulanzeiger, 100, 30–1.
Bartosova, D. (2011) The Future of the Media Pro-
fessions: Current Issues in Media Management
Practice. International Journal on Media Manage-
ment, 13, 195–203.
Bauer, C., Viola, K. and Strauss, C. (2011) Manage-
ment Skills for Artists: ‘Learning by Doing’?
International Journal of Cultural Policy, 17, 626–
44.
Bönte, A. (2009) Anforderungen an den Fern-
sehnachwuchs aus öffentlich-rechtlicher Sicht. In
COMPETENCE PORTFOLIO FOR PROFESSIONALS IN THE CREATIVE INDUSTRIES 291
Volume 22 Number 3 2013
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Goderbauer-Marchner, G. (ed.), Qualität – Ethik –
Talentmanagement: Trends und Kontinuität in der
Medienaus- und -weiterbildung. Arcos Verlag,
Landshut, pp. 81–5.
Bridgstock, R. (2011) Skills for Creative Industries
Graduate Success. Education +Training, 53, 9–26.
Burdick, M. (2009) Aus- und Weiterbildung in Medien
und IT in Berlin-Brandenburg. Medienboard
Berlin-Brandenburg GmbH & media.net berlin-
brandenburg e.V. [WWW document]. URL
http://www.medianet-bb.de/uploadDir/File/
mn_studie2009_017Maerz_druck_v2.pdf
[accessed on 19 January 2012].
Cassarino, I. and Geuna, A. (2008) Background
Paper on ICT and Creative Industries. Stuttgart,
MFG Baden-Württemberg mbH [WWW
document]. URL http://www.lets-create.eu/
fileadmin/_create/downloads/BGP_ICT_and_
Creative_Industries_2008.pdf [accessed on 2
April 2012].
Caves, R.E. (2002) Creative Industries: Contracts
between Art and Commerce. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, MA.
Christopherson, S. (2009) Working in the Creative
Economy: Risk, Adaptation, and the Persistence
of Exclusionary Networks. In McKinlay, A. and
Smith, C. (eds.), Creative Labour: Working in the
Creative Industries. Palgrave Macmillan, Basing-
stoke, pp. 72–90.
Cunningham, S.D., Cutler, T., Hearn, G., Ryan, M.
and Keane, M. (2004) An Innovation Agenda for
the Creative Industries: Where is the R&D? Media
International Australia incorporating Culture and
Policy, 112, 174–85.
DeFillippi, R.J. and Arthur, M.B. (2002) Paradox
in Project-Based Enterprise: The Case of Film
Making. In Henry, J. and Mayle, D. (eds.), Man-
aging Innovation and Change. Sage, Thousand
Oaks, CA, pp. 189–202.
Dell’Era, C. and Verganti, R. (2009) The Impact of
International Designers on Firm Innovation Capa-
bility and Consumer Interest. International Journal
of Operations & Production Management, 29, 870–
93.
Deuze, M. (2009a) Convergence Culture and Media
Work. In: Holt, J. and Perren, A. (eds.), Media
Industries – History, Theory, and Method. Wiley-
Blackwell, Malden, MA, pp. 144–56.
Deuze, M. (2009b) Media Industries, Work and Life.
European Journal of Communication, 24, 467–80.
Deuze, M. (2007) Media Work. Polity, Cambridge.
Dobrunz, J., Schöppner, H. and Wolfram, A. (2006)
Anforderungen an den Mediennachwuchs – die medi-
a.net Employability-Studie. Berlin, media.net
berlinbrandenburg e.V.
Doyle, P. (1995) Marketing in the New Millennium.
European Journal of Marketing, 29, 23–41.
Du Gay, P. and Pryke, M. (2002) Cultural Economy:
Cultural Analysis and Commercial Life. Sage, Thou-
sand Oaks, CA.
Eikhof, D.R. and Haunschild, A. (2006) Lifestyle
Meets Market: Bohemian Entrepreneurs in Crea-
tive Industries. Creativity and Innovation Manage-
ment, 15, 234–41.
Ekinsmyth, C. (2002) Project Organization, Embed-
dedness and Risk in Magazine Publishing.
Regional Studies, 36, 229–43.
European Commission (2010) Green Paper – Unlock-
ing the Potential of Cultural and Creative Industries.
Brussels, European Commission [WWW docu-
ment]. URL http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-
policy-development/doc/GreenPaper_creative_
industries_en.pdf [accessed on 15 May 2012].
European Parliament (2008) Report on cultural
industries in Europe. Brussels, European Parlia-
ment [WWW document]. URL http://www.
cultureactioneurope.org/images/stories/
advocatepdf/ep-report-creative-industries.
pdf?e4b73c3745ac4bc374714928e835769b=
96e50a3e738b81756597722b2e88c611 [accessed on
5 May 2010].
Florida, R. (2002) The Rise of the Creative Class: And
How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure, Community
and Everyday Life. Basic Books, New York.
Gessler, M. (2008) Das Kompetenzmodell. In Bröck-
ermann, R. and Müller-Vorbrüggen, M. (eds.),
Handbuch Personalentwicklung: Die Praxis der
Personalbildung, Personalförderung und Arbe-
itsstrukturierung. Schäffer-Poeschel Verlag, Stutt-
gart, pp. 43–62.
Gläser, J. and Laudel, G. (2004) Experteninterviews
und qualitative Interviews als Instrumente rekonstru-
ierender Untersuchungen. VS Verlag für Sozialwis-
senschaften, Wiesbaden.
Grugulis, I. and Stoyanova, D. (2009) ‘I Don’t Know
Where You Learn Them’: Skills in Film and TV. In
McKinlay, A. and Smith, C. (eds.), Creative Labour:
Working in the Creative Industries. Palgrave Mac-
millan, Basingstoke, pp. 135–55.
Handke, C. (2007) Surveying Innovation in the Crea-
tive Industries [WWW document]. URL http://
www.business.mmu.ac.uk/emaee/papers/
26Handke.pdf [accessed on 6 October 2010].
Haukka, S. (2011) Education-to-Work Transitions
of Aspiring Creatives. Cultural Trends, 20, 41–
64.
Heyse, V. and Erpenbeck, J. (2009) Kompetenztrain-
ing: 64 modulare Informations- und Trainingspro-
gramme für die betriebliche, pädagogische und
psychologische Praxis, 2nd edn. Schäffer-Poeschel
Verlag, Stuttgart.
Hopkins, J.L. and Fynes, B. (2010) What’s Driving
Mobile Content on the Irish Telecoms Value
Chain? International Journal of Entrepreneurship
and Innovation Management, 12, 170–89.
Hotho, S. and Champion, K. (2011) Small Busi-
nesses in the New Creative Industries: Innovation
as a People Management Challenge. Management
Decision, 49, 29–54.
Hracs, B.J. (2012) A Creative Industry in Transition:
The Rise of Digitally Driven Independent Music
Production. Growth and Change, 43, 442–61.
Jeffcutt, P. (2004) Knowledge Relationships and
Transactions in a Culture Economy. Media Inter-
national Australia incorporating Culture and Policy,
112, 67–82.
Jeffcutt, P. and Pratt, A.C. (2002) Managing Creativ-
ity in the Cultural Industries. Creativity and Inno-
vation Management, 11, 225–33.
Jones, C. (2002) Signaling Expertise: How Signals
Shape Careers in Creative Industries. In Peiperl,
M., Goffee, R. and Anand, N. (eds.), Career Crea-
tivity: Explorations in the Remaking of Work. Oxford
University Press, Oxford, pp. 209–28.
292 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
Volume 22 Number 3 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
KEA European Affairs (2009) The Impact of
Digital Distribution – A Contribution [WWW
document]. URL http://www.keanet.eu/docs/
impactondigitaldistribution.pdf [accessed on 19
March 2012].
KEA European Affairs, Turku School of Econo-
mics and MKW Wirtschaftsforschung (2006)
The Economy of Culture in Europe [WWW
document]. URL http://ec.europa.eu/culture/
key-documents/doc873_en.htm [accessed on 15
March 2012].
Küng, L. (2007) Does Media Management Matter?
Establishing the Scope, Rationale and Future
Research Agenda for the Discipline. Journal of
Media Business Studies, 4, 21–39.
Langer, U. (2009) Jeff Jarvis: Journalisten sollten neu-
gierig auf neue Technologien sein [WWW docu-
ment]. URL http://medialdigital.de/2009/06/
10/jeff-jarvis-journalisten-sollten-neugierig-auf-
neue-technologien-sein/ [accessed on 25
September 2009].
McRobbie, A. (2002) Clubs to Companies: Notes
on the Decline of Political Culture in Speeded
Up Creative Worlds. Cultural Studies, 16, 516–
31.
Menger, P.-M. (2012) Artistic Labor Markets and
Careers. In Moeran, B. and Alacovska, A. (eds.),
Creative Industries – Critical Readings – Work. Berg,
London, pp. 129–61.
Michel, L.P. and Flasdick, J. (2009) Zwischen Boom
und Krise: Der Medien(arbeits)markt im 21. Jahrhun-
dert. Essen, MMB-Institut für Medien- und
Kompetenzforschung [WWW document]. URL
http://www.mmb-institut.de/monitore/
branchenmonitor/MMB-Branchenmonitor_
2009_I.pdf [accessed on 19 October 2011].
Mietzner, D., Kamprath, M. and Wagner, D. (2010)
Zukunftsperspektiven und Kompetenzentwicklungen
in der Medienbranche: Eine Szenarioanalyse. Gesells-
chaft von Freunden der Hochschule für Film u.
Fernsehen ‘Konrad Wolf’.
Muhr, T. (2008) ATLAS.ti [WWW document].
URL www.atlasti.de [accessed on 6 September
2012].
Muhr, T. and Friese, S. (2001) Computerunter-
stützte Qualitative Datenanalyse. In Hug, T. (ed.),
Wie kommt die Wissenschaft zu ihrem Wissen. Sch-
neider Verlag Hohengehren, Baltmannsweiler,
pp. 380–99.
Mundelius, M. (2009) Kultur- und Kreativberufler und
deren Erwerbsrealitäten – Berlin im regionalen Ver-
gleich. Berlin, Deutsches Institut für Wirtschafts-
forschung [WWW dopcument]. URL http://
www.diw.de/sixcms/detail.php?id=diw_01.c.
95114.de [accessed on 10 February 2012].
Napoli, P.M. (2009) An Industry Perspective – Cali-
brating the Velocity of Change. In Holt, J. and
Perren, A. (eds.), Media Industries – History,
Theory, and Method. Wiley-Blackwell, Malden,
MA, pp. 161–70.
O’Mahony, S. and Bechky, B.A. (2006) Stretchwork:
Managing the Career Progression Paradox in
External Labor Markets. The Academy of Manage-
ment Journal, 49, 918–41.
Pesendorfer, W. (1995) Design Innovation and
Fashion Cycles. American Economic Review, 85,
771–92.
Picard, R.G. (2005) Unique Characteristics and Busi-
ness Dynamics of Media Products. Journal of
Media Business Studies, 2, 61–9.
Pongratz, H.J. and Voß, G.G. (2003) From Employee
to Entreployee: Towards a Self-Entrepreneurial
Work Force? Concepts and Transformation, 8, 239–
54.
Potts, J. & Cunningham, S.D. (2008) Four Models of
the Creative Industries. International Journal of
Cultural Policy, 14, 233–47.
Power, D. and Nielsén, T. (2010) Priority Sector
Report: Creative and Cultural Industries. Stockholm,
European Cluster Observatory [WWW docu-
ment]. URL http://ukrkult.net/sites/default/
files/filez/documents/creativeandcultural-
industries.pdf [accessed on 5 February 2012].
Preston, P., Kerr, A. and Cawley, A. (2009) Innova-
tion and Knowledge in the Digital Media Sector –
An Information Economy Approach. Information,
Communication & Society, 12, 994–1014.
PricewaterhouseCoopers (2009) Indian Entertain-
ment and Media Outlook 2009 [WWW document].
URL http://www.pwc.com/en_IN/in/assets/
pdfs/PwC-Indian-Entertainment-and-Media-
Outlook-2009.pdf [accessed on 25 March 2010].
Randle, K. and Culkin, N. (2009) Getting In and
Getting On in Hollywood: Freelance Careers in
an Uncertain Industry. In McKinlay, A. and
Smith, C. (eds.), Creative Labour: Working in the
Creative Industries. Palgrave Macmillan, Basing-
stoke, pp. 93–115.
Raunig, G., Ray, G. and Wuggenig, U. (2011) Cri-
tique of Creativity: Precarity, Subjectivity and Resist-
ance in the ‘Creative Industries’. MayFly Books,
London.
Ravasi, D. and Rindova, V.P. (2008) Symbolic Value
Creation. In Barry, D. and Hansen, H. (eds.), The
SAGE Handbook of New Approaches in Management
and Organization. Sage Publications, Los Angeles,
CA, pp. 270–84.
Reio, T.G. and Sutton, F.C. (2006) Employer Assess-
ment of Work-Related Competencies and Work-
place Adaptation. Human Resource Development
Quarterly, 17, 305–24.
Rindova, V.P., Pollock, T.G. and Hayward, M.L.A.
(2006) Celebrity Firms: The Social Construction of
Market Popularity. The Academy of Management
Review, 31, 50–71.
Ring, W.-D., Burr, K., Cabanis, R.M., Düchs, U.,
Glauner, B. and Hirsch, C. (2004) Auf welche
Fähigkeiten kommt es in der Medien-
branche wirklich an? Podukumsdiskussion.
In Goderbauer-Marchner, G., Richter, H. and
MedienCampus Bayern e.V. (eds.), Profile, die die
Medienbranche heute braucht: Reader zur Personal-
leiterkonferenz des MedienCampus Bayern e.V. im
Herbst 2004 in München. Arcos Verlag, Landshut,
pp. 63–76.
Schröter, J. (2004) Medienmacher im Spannungs-
feld. In Goderbauer-Marchner, G., Richter, H.
and MedienCampus Bayern e.V. (eds.), Profile, die
die Medienbranche heute braucht: Reader zur Person-
alleiterkonferenz des MedienCampus Bayern e.V. im
Herbst 2004 in München. Arcos Verlag, Landshut,
pp. 26–37.
Sigmund, I. (2006) Ausbildung für die Medienwirt-
schaft. In Altmeppen, K.-D. and Karmasin, M.
COMPETENCE PORTFOLIO FOR PROFESSIONALS IN THE CREATIVE INDUSTRIES 293
Volume 22 Number 3 2013
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
(eds.), Medien und Ökonomie. VS Verlag für Sozial-
wissenschaften, Wiesbaden, pp. 169–92.
Siwek, S.E. (2011) Copyright Industries in the
U.S. Economy: The 2011 Report [WWW
document]. URL http://www.iipa.com/pdf/
2011CopyrightIndustriesReport.PDF [accessed
on 13 May 2012].
Skillset & Creative and Cultural Skills (2010) Strate-
gic Skills Assessment for the Creative Industries
[WWW document]. URL http://www.skillset.
org/uploads/pdf/asset_14617.pdf?2 [accessed
on 8 March 2012].
Smith, C. and McKinlay, A. (2009) Creative Indus-
tries and Labour Process Analysis. In McKinlay,
A. and Smith, C. (eds.), Creative Labour: Working
in the Creative Industries. Palgrave Macmillan, Bas-
ingstoke, pp. 3–28.
Söndermann, M., Backes, C., Arndt, O. and
Brünink, D. (2009) Culture and Creative Industries
in Germany. Berlin, Federal Ministry of Econom-
ics and Technology [WWW document]. URL
http://www.bmwi.de/English/Redaktion/Pdf/
research-report-577-culture-creative,property=
pdf,bereich=bmwi,sprache=en,rwb=true.pdf
[accessed on 15 May 2012].
Soosay, C.A. (2005) An Empirical Study of Indi-
vidual Competencies in Distribution Centres to
Enable Continuous Innovation. Creativity and
Innovation Management, 14, 299–310.
Spencer, L.M. and Spencer, S.M. (1993) Competence
at Work: Models for Superior Performance. John
Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
Throsby, D. (2001) Economics and Culture. Cam-
bridge University Press, Cambridge.
UNCTAD (2010) The Creative Economy Report 2010
[WWW document]. URL http://www.unctad.
org/en/docs/ditctab20103_en.pdf [accessed on 6
May 2012].
UNESCO (2007) Culture and Creative Industries
in Germany [WWW document]. URL http://
www.unesco.de/fileadmin/medien/
Dokumente/Bibliothek/
culture_and_creative_industries.pdf [accessed on
5 May 2010].
Utterback, J., Vedin, B.-A., Ekman, S., Alvarez, E.,
Sanderson, S.W., Theter, B. and Verganti, R.
(2006) Design-Inspired Innovation. World Scien-
tific, Singapore.
Verganti, R. (2009) Design Driven Innovation: Chang-
ing the Rules of Competition by Radically Innovating
What Things Mean. McGraw-Hill, London.
von Reibnitz, A. (2004) Das Medienhaus der
Zukunft. In Goderbauer-Marchner, G., Richter,
H. and MedienCampus Bayern e.V. (eds.), Profile,
die die Medienbranche heute braucht: Reader zur Per-
sonalleiterkonferenz des MedienCampus Bayern e.V.
im Herbst 2004 in München. Arcos Verlag,
Landshut, pp. 7–25.
von Rimscha, M.B. and Siegert, G. (2011) Orienta-
tions of Entertainment Media Workers: Entertain-
ment Media Workers – Disrespect and Neglect.
Media, Culture & Society, 33, 1009–26.
Voß, G.G. and Pongratz, H.J. (1998) DerArbeitskraf-
tunternehmer. Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und
Psychologie, 50, 131–58.
Wang, H.C. and Barney, J.B. (2006) Employee Incen-
tives to Make Firm-Specific Investments: Implica-
tions for Resource-Based Theories of Corporate
Diversification. The Academy of Management
Review, 31, 466–76.
Waring, T. and Wainwright, D. (2008) Issues and
Challenges in the Use of Template Analysis: Two
Comparative Case Studies from the Field. The
Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods,6,
85–94.
Wasmer, E. (2006) General versus Specific Skills in
Labor Markets with Search Frictions and Firing
Costs. American Economic Review, 96, 811–31.
Wolf, J. (2009) Neue Medienwelt mit neuen Mitarbe-
itern? Anforderungen an Personalauswahl und
-entwicklung in der TV-Branche. In Goderbauer-
Marchner, G. (ed.), Qualität – Ethik – Talentman-
agement: Trends und Kontinuität in der Medienaus-
und -weiterbildung. Arcos Verlag, Landshut, pp.
75–80.
Zotto, C.D. and van Kranenburg, H. (2008) Intro-
duction. In Zotto, C.D. and van Kranenburg, H.
(eds.), Management and Innovation in the Media
Industry. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp. ix–xxiv.
Dana Mietzner is Professor for Innovation
Management and Regional Management at
the University of Applied Sciences Wildau.
She has managed various research projects
in Life Sciences, IT and Creative Industries.
Dana finished her studies in business
administration and gained professional
experience in her position as a project
manager and business developer in a mar-
keting company. After that, she worked as a
senior researcher and project manager at
the Centre for Entrepreneurship and Inno-
vation at the University of Potsdam in
Germany for seven years. Her research
interests are in technology and innovation
management, strategic foresight with a
special focus on scenario building and plan-
ning. Dana has been involved in several
foresight projects in the academic area as
well as for companies and public bodies.
Dana also developed study programmes in
the field of innovation management and
strategic foresight.
Martin Kamprath is researcher and PhD
candidate at the University of Potsdam. He
was also visiting researcher at the Univer-
sity of Film and Television (HFF) Potsdam-
Babelsberg and at Ryerson University,
Toronto. Previously, he worked in strategic
marketing and in business development
departments of leading media and enter-
tainment companies. His research fields
include mapping and designing of business
models, socio-technological aspects of
value creation and interdisciplinary work in
the Creative Industries and Life Sciences.
294 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
Volume 22 Number 3 2013 © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
