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Origins of Early Sex-Role Development
... Dennoch baut das soziale Geschlecht eines jeden Menschen zweifelsohne auf dem biologischen Geschlecht auf (siehe z. B. Muldoon & Reilly, 1998 (Lewis & Weinraub, 1979;Ruble & Martin, 1998;Singleton, 1986). ...
... Prozess nimmt seinen Beginn unmittelbar nach der Geburt des Kindes, wenn Eltern geschlechtsspezifisches und -angemessenes Verhalten interpretieren und verstärken (Lewis & Weinraub, 1979 (Fling & Manosevitz, 1972). Mischel (1966) (Doyle & Paludi, 1995;Fagot, Rodgers, & Leinbach, 2000;Huston & Alvarez, 1990 (Huston & Alvarez, 1990). ...
... Forscher wie Kohlberg (1966) und Ullian (Kohlberg & Ullian, 1974) Wahrnehmung der Geschlechtsstabilität sowie schließlich Geschlechtskonstanz (Eaton, 1983;Kohlberg, 1966;Slaby & Frey, 1976 (Eaton, 1983;Lewis & Weinraub, 1979). Kohlberg (1966) Individuen können demnach in Abhängigkeit der Veränderungen in den allgemeinen Geschlechtsrollenstereotypen aktiv ihre Geschlechtsrollenattribute beeinflussen (vgl. ...
Das Geschlechtsrollenselbstkonzept, das sich im Laufe der Sozialisation in Auseinandersetzung mit den vorherrschenden Vorstellungen der umgebenden Kultur entwickelt, steht in Beziehung zu Affekten, Kognitionen und Verhaltensweisen in einer Vielzahl von Bereichen. Bisherige GSK-Instrumente messen jedoch nahezu ausschließlich den positiven Aspekt von Maskulinität und Femininität. Die Definition des allgemeinen Selbstkonzepts gibt diese Limitierung auf positive Valenz nicht vor, und aus gesundheitspsychologischer Sicht sowie der Gruppenforschung ist die Bedeutung negativer Eigenschaften zur Selbstbeschreibung bekannt. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurden sieben aufeinander aufbauende Studien durchgeführt mit dem Ziel ein neues Instrument zu entwickeln, deren Items zum einen kulturell aktuellen Eigenschaften zur Selbstbeschreibung entsprechen und zum anderen die Valenzunterschiede dieser Merkmalsbeschreibungen berücksichtigen. Nach einer kritischen empirischen Überprüfung des deutschen BSRI, um Schwächen der Items ausschließlich positiver Valenz aufzudecken, wurde eine neue Skala entwickelt, die von Beginn an auch negative Selbstbeschreibungen berücksichtigte um der Komplexität des geschlechtlichen Selbst gerecht zu werden. Aufgrund der Einschätzungen zur Typizität und sozialen Erwünschtheit sowie mit ersten Resultaten aus der Selbstbeschreibung wurde die Auswahl der Items für die Teilskalen vorgenommen. In zwei weiteren Studien wurden schließlich die vier neu entwickelten Teilskalen des neuen GSK-Inventars einer Validierung unterzogen. Jeder der Teilskalen wurden theoriegeleitet spezifische Konstrukte zugeordnet und es konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass alle Teilskalen ihren eigenen Beitrag zur Vorhersage psychologischer Konzepte leisten können. So standen beispielsweise die negativen maskulinen Eigenschaften in engerer Beziehung zu Aggressivität und machtbezogenen Werten als die positiven Aspekte der Maskulinität. Als Ergebnis dieser Entwicklung stehen am Ende vier kurze, unabhängige, reliable Teilskalen, die positive als auch negative Aspekte von Maskulinität und Femininität abbilden und mittels sehr unterschiedlicher psychologischer Erlebens- und Verhaltenskonstrukte validiert wurden, die die Unabhängigkeit der Skalen belegen und diese für einen Einsatz in der Forschung empfehlen. Die Einführung einer individuellen Wertkomponente im Zuge der Selbstbeschreibung, angelehnt an das bekannte Erwartungs-mal-Wert Modell der Motivations- und Einstellungsforschung, und die daraus mögliche multiplikative Verknüpfung von Selbsteinschätzung und persönlicher Wichtigkeit der Eigenschaften konnten den Aufklärungswert in Bezug auf unterschiedliche Validierungskonstrukte dagegen nicht verbessern und wurden daher nicht ins das Instrument integriert.
... In many western cultures, pre-conceived gender-based expectations and sex-typed behaviours toward sons or daughters are evident immediately after birth. Indeed, a baby's biological sex affects adult's perceptions of the infants physical and behavioural traits (Lambert, Yackley, & Hein, 1971;Rubin, Provenzano, & Luria, 1974) and predicts their responses to solicitation (Cherry & Lewis, 1976;Condry, Condry, & Pogatshnik, 1983;Lewis & Weinraub, 1979). In line with these early sociopsychological studies, our results also highlight early-appearing parental expectations concerning sex-specific differences in a biological signal: the cry. ...
... It is recognized that there are differences between men and women. The cause of these differences, however, is not readily apparent (See, for example, Constantinople, 1979;Lewis & Weinraub, 1979). A key question in the literature on sex differences is whether differences are genetically or culturally determined. ...
... Gender socialization theory suggests that isolation is endogenously formed through acquired systems and cultural influences in society [15]. The formation of gender roles is mainly the result of social and cultural construction [16]. A Female's low status is not a congenital reason but a result of acquired education. ...
... There is considerable evidence to indicate that this phenomenon is global. Several studies find that gender socialization in most societies encourage differential socialization between the sexes, where girls and boys are treated differently and encouraged to pursue gendered activities (Block, 1983;Lewis and Weinraub, 1979;Williams and Best, 1990). These patterns of gender socialization may influence environmental behavior, such as ecopreneurship, as men are socialized to dominate the environment (Davidson and Freudenburg, 1996;McStay and Dunlap, 1983) and women are socialized to maintain and nurture life, relationships and the community (McStay and Dunlap, 1983). ...
Purpose
Drawing on the multiplicity of context approach, this study investigates whether female entrepreneurs are more likely than male entrepreneurs to create environmentally oriented organizations. This study aims to examine how context, measured by gender socialization stereotypes and post-materialism, differentially affects the kinds of organizations entrepreneurs choose to create.
Design/methodology/approach
To test the hypotheses, this study utilizes Global Entrepreneurship Monitor data from 2009 ( n = 17,364) for nascent entrepreneurs, baby businesses owners and established business owners in 47 counties. This study also utilizes the World Values Surveys to measure gender ideologies and post-materialist cultural values at the country level. To test the hypotheses, a logistic multi-level model is estimated to identify the drivers of environmental venturing. Data are nested by countries, and this allows random intercepts by countries with a variance components covariance structure.
Findings
Findings indicate that female entrepreneurs are more likely to engage in ecological venturing. Societies with high levels of post-materialist national values are significantly more likely to affect female entrepreneurs to engage in environmental ventures when compared to male entrepreneurs. Moreover, traditional gender socialization stereotypes decrease the probability of engaging in environmental entrepreneurship. Likewise, female entrepreneurs in societies with strong stereotypes regarding gender socialization will more likely engage in environmental entrepreneurship than male entrepreneurs.
Research limitations/implications
The present study uses a gender analysis approach to investigate empirical differences in environmental entrepreneurial activity based on biological sex. However, this research assumes that gender is the driver behind variations in ecopreneurship emphasis between the engagement of males and females in venturing activity. The findings suggest that female entrepreneurs pursuing ecological ventures are more strongly influenced by contextual factors, when compared to male entrepreneurs. Future research can build upon these findings by applying a more nuanced view of gender via constructivist approaches.
Originality/value
This study is one of the few to investigate ecologically oriented ventures with large-scale empirical data by utilizing a 47-country data set. As a result, it begins to open the black box of environmental entrepreneurship by investigating the role of gender, seeking to understand if men and women entrepreneurs equally engage in environmental venturing. And it responds to calls that request more research at the intersection of gender and context in terms of environmental entrepreneurship.
This dissertation focuses on gender, design and technology through the artifact of video games — technology products of masculine engineering culture, and the gendered link between those that make video games (Production) and those that play them (Reception). My research examines a sector of the video game industry devoted to pre-adolescent girls, which 20 years ago was the site of feminist entrepreneurship hoping to remedy the gender imbalance in ICT (Information and Communication Technology). While parity has been achieved in media consumption, technological production firmly remains a masculine pursuit. This three-phase constructivist study begins with the personality preferences (MBTI) and sex-role orientation (BSRI) of women in game development, highlighting their exceptional resilience to gender stereotypes, and concludes with an ethnographic study of children playing independent, gender-neutral video games at an afterschool program in Paris. Using pragmatic semiotic epistemology, this dissertation argues that the belief-habits of negative gender and technology stereotypes are the principal roadblock to gender diversity in ICT – limiting the number of women willing to transgress gender norms into masculine professions and creating a self-fulfilling prophecy through parents’ gender-socialization that reifies the belief in masculine technological passion and skill while developing unequal gendered technological access and encouragement. The dissertation concludes with strategies for gender-neutralizing technology, including design heuristics for gender neutrality in children’s digital experiences.
Journalism’s Lost Generation discusses how the changes in the industry not only indicate a newspaper crisis, but also a crisis of local communities, a loss of professional skills, and a void in institutional and community knowledge emanating from newsrooms. Reinardy’s thorough and opinionated take on the transition seen in newspaper newsrooms is coupled with an examination of the journalism industry today. This text also provides a broad view of the newspaper journalism being produced today, and those who are attempting to produce it.
The study of sex- and gender-role identity development subsumes a multitude of psychological differences between the sexes. Although based on sexual dimorphism, these differences are critically influenced by factors more profound than biological givens. These primarily include normal versus abnormal development, social stereotypes, and sex-role behavior. This chapter will discuss the influence of biological and social factors on psychosexual development in childhood. It will also investigate ways in which children come to develop particular perceptions, attitudes, affects, and behaviors consistent with their gender-role identity, focusing on the interaction of biological substrates and constitutional endowment with environment. This will be followed by brief reviews of the three major theories of gender-role development, psychoanalytic, social learning, and cognitive development. Issues concerning the development of sex-role stereotypes in early childhood will also be surveyed, with reference to both normal and pathological gender-role development in childhood and to the consequences when disturbances go untreated.
Introduction
Psychologic study of hermaphrodites sheds some interesting light on the venerable controversy of hereditary versus environmental determinants of sexuality in its psychologic sense.Human hermaphrodites of whatever variety are persons born with some degree of sexual ambiguity, anatomically and physiologically. Since they are neither exclusively male nor exclusively female, hermaphrodites are likely to grow up with contradictions existing between the sex of assignment and rearing, on the one hand, and various physical sexual variables, singly or in combination, on the other. These physical sexual variables are five in number, namely, (1) chromosomal sex, (2) gonadal sex, (3) hormonal sex and pubertal feminization or virilization, (4) the internal accessory reproductive structures, and (5) external genital morphology.In view of the various ambisexual contradictions that may be found in hermaphroditism, one may ask whether the gender role and orientation that a hermaphrodite establishes during the course of growing up is concordant
Notes that although older studies present consistent evidence that girls are advanced in language acquisition, newer findings are equivocal. This discrepancy might be due to a change in methodological approach. Older studies provide data on mean length of utterance (MLU) in sizable samples of toddlers. Since this methodological approach has proved to be sound in view of recent advances in developmental psycholinguistics, it was surprising to find that none of the newer studies had adopted it. To see if the discrepancy in the literature was due to a change in method or in children, the method of the older studies was applied to a contemporary sample. 66 younger toddlers (mean age 23.8 mo) and 64 older toddlers (mean age 28.57 mo) with sexes matched for age, class, and race were studied. Younger toddler girls were significantly advanced in MLU (words or morphemes) and also in upper bound (UB), length of longest utterance (words or morphemes). Older toddler girls were significantly advanced in UB, with the increment in MLU approaching significance. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).