Positive Youth Development in Aboriginal Physical Activity and Sport: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Physical activity and, more specifically, sport, can positively impact the body, mind, heart, and spirit of Aboriginal youth. Despite enthusiasm for these benefits, there is a paucity of published information reviewing the relationship between sport and physical activity, and Aboriginal youth development. The purpose of this systematic review was to provide an overview of research examining Aboriginal youth development in physical activity and sport settings. A review of literature was conducted up until July 2015 using 10 key databases and non-indexed Indigenous journals. Articles meeting the following criteria were retained: (a) involved an Indigenous population; (b) explored, either through empirical research or conceptualization, the notion of “positive youth development” and “physical activity”, “sport”, or “recreation”. Thirty-five articles out of the 10,039 documents identified met the inclusion criteria. Thematic analysis revealed that physical activity and sport provides many positive developmental opportunities for Aboriginal youth to thrive (e.g., to incorporate Indigenous values and traditional ways, to strengthen resiliency, to improve all aspects of health, and to promote culture and education), as well as possible negative developmental experiences (e.g., racism, bullying, and exclusion). To our knowledge, this article presents the first review of research examining Aboriginal youth development in sport and physical activity and highlights how the activity context can shape Aboriginal youth development.

Full text

NARRATIVE REVIEW
Positive Youth Development in Aboriginal Physical Activity
and Sport: A Systematic Review
Mark W. Bruner
1
•
Sean Hillier
2
•
Colin P. T. Baillie
3
•
Lynn F. Lavallee
4
•
Brenda G. Bruner
1
•
Katharine Hare
5
•
Robert Lovelace
6
•
Lucie Le
´
vesque
3
Received: 19 October 2015 / Accepted: 7 December 2015
Ó Springer International Publishing 2015
Abstract Physical activity and, more specifically, sport,
can positively impact the body, mind, heart, and spirit of
Aboriginal youth. Despite enthusiasm for these benefits,
there is a paucity of published inform ation reviewing the
relationship between sport and physical activity, and
Aboriginal youth development. The purpose of this sys-
tematic review was to provide an overview of research
examining Aboriginal youth development in physical
activity and sport settings. A review of literature was
conducted up until July 2015 using 10 key databases and
non-indexed Indigenous journals. Articles meeting the
following criteria were retained: (a) involved an Indige-
nous population; (b) explored, either through empirical
research or conceptualization, the notion of ‘‘positive youth
development’’ and ‘‘physical activity’’, ‘‘sport’’, or
‘‘recreation’’. Thirty-five articles out of the 10,039 docu-
ments identified met the inclusion criteria. Thematic anal-
ysis revealed that physical activity and sport provides many
positive developmental opportunities for Aboriginal youth
to thrive (e.g., to incorporate Indigenous values and tradi-
tional ways, to strengthen resiliency, to im prove all aspects
of health, and to promote culture and education), as well as
possible negative developmental experiences (e.g., racism,
bullying, and exclusion). To our knowledge, this article
presents the first review of research examining Aboriginal
youth development in sport and physical activity and
highlights how the activity context can shape Aboriginal
youth development.
Keywords Indigenous  Aboriginal  Adolescence 
Physical activity  Youth development  Health
Introduction
Participation in physical activity through purposeful
movement of the body is associated with a number of
physical and psychosocial benefits (Co
ˆ
te
´
and Fraser-Tho-
mas 2011; Eccles et al. 2003; Eime et al. 2013; Holt 2008).
Over the past decade, there has been an increased focus on
understanding the psycho social development of youth
through sport and physical activity engagement (Holt and
Neely 2011; Taylor et al. 2015). Much of this research has
drawn from developmental systems theory (Lerner and
Castellino 2002) and developmental psychology, and has
undertaken a positive youth development perspective
(PYD). PYD is conceptualized as a strength-based rather
than deficit-based perspective of adolescent development
that recogniz es that all young people hold the potential for
positive, successful, and healthy development (Lerner et al.
2005). This concept has been embraced by adults who
work with youth (teachers, coaches) and there is consid-
erable empirical evidence to support the salient role of
& Mark W. Bruner
markb@nipissingu.ca
1
School of Physical and Health Education, Nipissing
University, 100 College Drive, Box 5002, North Bay,
ON P1B 8L7, Canada
2
Policy Studies, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
3
School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen’s
University, Kingston, Canada
4
School of Social Work, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
5
Motivate Canada, Ottawa, Canada
6
Department of Global Development Studies, Queen’s
University, Kingston, Canada
123
Adolescent Res Rev
DOI 10.1007/s40894-015-0021-9

sport and physical activity in fostering PYD (Eccles et al.
2003; Fredricks and Eccles 2006, 2008).
To date, there is a lack of published literature reporting
on PYD programs specific to Aboriginal youth populations
(Kana’iaupuni 2005; Mayeda et al. 2001). We know little
about the relationship between sport and physical activity
and Aboriginal (defined as persons in Canada who identify
as First Nations (FN), Inuit or Me
´
tis; Dussault et al. 1996)
youth development, or about how sport and physical
activity might be leveraged to address the historical
adversity faced by Aboriginal youth in Canada. This rep-
resents a significant gap in knowledge because the legacy
of several forms of colonization by European settlers in
Canada has impacted the well-being and development of
Aboriginal youth in Canada (Gracey and King 2009).
Aboriginal youth development has been mortgaged by
multigenerational gaps in the transmission of Indigenous
culture, language and identity (McShane et al. 2009; Truth
and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015). A
comprehensive understanding of PYD among Aboriginal
youth must include historical and cultural perspectives. An
emerging body of literature has highlighted the benefits of
physical activit y, especially with organized sport and
recreational opportunities, for Aboriginal youth. For
example, sport has been used to teach personal and social
values such as honesty, courage and respect and been
reported to positively impact the body, mind, heart and
spirit of Aboriginal youth (Cargo et al. 2007; Lavalle
´
e and
Le
´
vesque 2013; Lockard 2000). Further, sport has been
advocated as a valuable medium for holistic development
in realms extending beyond sport (Blodgett et al. 2008).
Through participation in sport, Aboriginal athletes have
reported greater preparation and support in their pursuit of
ambitions (Blodgett et al. 2008). More broadly, physical
activity has also been identified as having the potential to
reduce self-harm, levels of substance abuse and improve
social cohesion in Indigenous communities (Cunningham
and Beneforti 2005).
Despite these benefits, Aboriginal youth have also
reported some negative experiences associated with phys-
ical activity and sport participation. For example, a study
by Blodgett et al. (2008) investigating the sport experience
of elite Aboriginal athletes revealed systematic racism
faced by young Aboriginal athletes. Other studies have
indicated that the participation of Aboriginal youth in sport
has often led to animalistic portrayals of these athletes
(Bloom 1996). The identified negative experiences along-
side others noted among Euro-American populations (e.g.,
stress, anxiety, burnout; Wiersma 2000) highlight the
importance of considering both positive and negative out-
comes associated with Aboriginal youth sport and physical
activity participation.
Current Study
The mixed evidence on Aboriginal youth development
through physical activity, and more specifically, sport,
highlights a need to conduct a thorough review of the lit-
erature to guide the developm ent and implementation of
Aboriginal physical activity and sport programs and
interventions to enhance PYD. The current study will thus
address the following research questions: How are physical
activity and sport related to Aboriginal youth develop-
ment? How can Aboriginal youth development be con-
ceptualized through physical activity and sport? Thus, the
purpose was to provide a systematic review of research
examining Aboriginal youth development in physical
activity and sport settings.
Method
The selection of documents for the review on youth
development in Aboriginal physical activity and sport was
conducted in three phases: Phase 1—Indexed peer-re-
viewed literature, Phase 2—Non-indexed Indigenous lit-
erature, and Phase 3—Grey literature. In Phases 1 and 2,
document inclusion criteria were: (a) involved an
Indigenous population; (b) explored, either through
empirical research or conceptualization, the notion of
‘‘positive youth development’’; (c) specific to the physical
activity or sport domain; (d) peer-reviewed article; and
(e) English or French language. Inclusion criteria in Phase
3 were the same as Phases 1 and 2 with the exception of
criteria d. Given the paucity of published research on
PYD in Aboriginal youth, we included all types of
research studies (i.e., intervention and observational) in
each of the three phases.
Phase 1: Indexed Peer-Reviewed Literature
Phase 1 began with a search for peer-reviewed articles
focusing on the following populations: ‘‘Aboriginal’’, OR
‘‘First Nations’’, OR ‘‘Me
´
tis’’, OR ‘‘Inuit’’, OR ‘‘Ameri-
can Indian’’, OR ‘‘Indian’’ (omitting Indian from India),
OR ‘‘Native American’’, OR ‘‘Indigenous’’ OR ‘‘Indians
of North America’’ OR ‘‘Pacific Islander’’ OR ‘‘Alaskan
Native’’ AND contexts ‘‘Sport’’ or ‘‘Recreation’’ or
‘‘Physical Activity’’, while using the following combina-
tions of topic terms, ‘‘Positive youth development’’ OR
‘‘Leadership’’ OR ‘‘Athlete development’’ OR ‘‘Proso-
cial’’ OR ‘‘Life skills’’ (development) OR ‘‘Sport out-
comes’’ OR ‘‘Psychosocial development’’ OR
‘‘resiliency’’ OR ‘‘empowerment’’ in the article title,
identified keywords, or abstract. Given the breadth of the
Adolescent Res Rev
123

topic and the diverse terminology used to describe this
population, it was important that this literature search use
an array of encompassing population sear ch terms that
focused on a variety of Aboriginal identities from around
the world [i.e., in a Canadian context (‘‘Aboriginal’’,
‘‘First Nations’’, ‘‘Me
´
tis’’, ‘‘Inuit’’), an American context
(‘‘Native American’’ ‘‘Indian’’, ‘‘Pacific Islande r’’), and
terms used internationally (‘‘Indigenous’’)]. The initial
search was conducted in July—September, 2012 and
updated in July 2015 examining all published literature
until this date using 10 databases: (a) Academic Search
Premier, (b) Education Research Complete, (c) ERIC,
(d) MedLine, (e) SportDiscus (f) ProQuest Dissertations
and Thesis (g) ProQuest Nursing and Allied Health
Source, (h) ProQuest Sociology, (i) PsychINFO,
(j) Canadian Research Index (Table 1).
Phase 2: Indigenous Peer-Reviewed Journal Search
Phase 2 of the review constituted a further pursuit of
peer-reviewed articles in Indigenous journals that were
not indexed in Phase 1 databases. Many of the academic
indices do not include Indigenous specific journals. As
such, a list of non-indexed Indigenous peer-reviewed
journals was compiled (Table 2). Twenty-two additional
peer-reviewed journals were identified from this source.
Three more journals were identified by research team
members, yielding a total of 25 journals in this phase.
The 25 journals were then examined using the same
search terms and inclusion criteria outlined in Phase 1
(Table 1). The initial search was conducted in October-
December 2012 and updated in July, 2015. Material
published in the journals since inception were include d
in the search.
Phase 3: Grey Literature Search
Phase 3 of the review consisted of grey literature searches
and personal correspondence with experts in Aboriginal
youth development. Phase 3 began in December of 2012
and was updated in July 2015 with a search for non-peer
reviewed journal articles, periodicals, government docu-
ments, and websites using the search terms in Phase 1 and 2
through Google (Table 1). The Google search was limited
to the first four pages of results as per established protocols
reflecting typical patterns of viewing Google results (Jan-
sen and Spink 2006; Jetha et al. 2011) Indigenous agency
and organization documents, and documents identified by
research team members (i.e., who knew of specific orga-
nizations and communities doing work in the area of
Aboriginal youth development and/or Aboriginal sport)
were also collec ted. As a part of the validation process for
Phase 3, two experts in Aboriginal youth development
independently reviewed the list of articles and websites
identified by the researc h team. Once articles in all three
Phases had been retrieved using the population and topic
terms outlined above, abstracts of articles were read to
determine if some inclusion criteria were met. Articles
containing abstracts that met at least some of the inclusion
criteria were then read in their entirety and subjected to a
full content review; articles containing all of the inclusion
criteria were retained for analysis.
Article Analysis
The article s retained in all three Phases were classified by
methodology (i.e., quantitative, qualitative, or mixed
method), and independently coded according to themes
identified within them that positively and negatively affect
Table 1 Systematic review search strategy
Phase Content Database(s) Key terms Inclusion criteria
1 Indexed
Peer-
Reviewed
Journals
1. Academic Search Premier; 2.
Education Research Complete; 3.
ERIC; 4. MedLine; 5. SportDiscus;
6. ProQuest Dissertations and
Thesis; 7. ProQuest Nursing &
Allied Health Source; 8. ProQuest
Sociology; 9. PsychINFO; 10.
Canadian Research Index
(‘‘Aboriginal’’, OR ‘‘First Nations’’,
OR ‘‘Me
´
tis’’, OR ‘‘Inuit’’, OR
‘‘American Indian’’, OR ‘‘Indian’’
[omitting Indian from India], OR
‘‘Native American’’, OR
‘‘Indigenous’’ OR ‘‘Indians of North
America’’ OR ‘‘Pacific Islander’’ OR
‘‘Alaskan Native’’) AND (‘‘sport’’ or
‘‘recreation’’ or ‘‘physical activity’’)
AND (‘‘positive youth
development’’ OR ‘‘leadership’’ OR
‘‘athlete development’’ OR
‘‘prosocial’’ OR ‘‘life skills
[development]’’ OR ‘‘sport
outcomes’’ OR ‘‘psychosocial
development’’ OR ‘‘resiliency’’ OR
‘‘empowerment’’)
(a) Involved an Indigenous
population; (b) Explored, either
through empirical research or
conceptualization, the notion of
‘positive youth development’;
(c) Specific to the sport or physical
activity domain; (d) peer-reviewed
article; (e) English or French
language
2 Non-Indexed
Peer-
Reviewed
Indigenous
Journals
Table 2
3 Non Peer-
Reviewed
Grey
Literature
Google search Same as above, excluding (d)
Adolescent Res Rev
123

youth development in an Indigenous population by two
coders using NVivo 10 software. Following the recom-
mendations of Braun and Clarke (2006), a six-phase
method of identifying, analyzing and reporting themes
within the data was used: (1) familiarizing oneself with the
articles, (2) generating initial codes, (3) searching for youth
development themes in the articles, (4) reviewing themes
with the other coder, (5) defining and counting themes, and
(6) producing the findings for the manuscript. Any dis-
crepancies in the coding of the articles were resolved
through discussion between the two coders and another
author. Consensus was obtained for all articles coded.
Results
Initially, using the keywords and aforementioned study
search criteria, 10,039 documents were identified for this
systematic review. Figure 1 presents the stages of article
identification and selection. Table 3 provides a description
of the 35 art icles retained for coding. The majority of the
articles used a qualitative approach (n = 15) (Blodgett
et al. 2008; Bloom 1996; Brown 2015; Brown and Kraft
2008; Cunningham and Beneforti 200 5 ; Donahue 1997;
Keith 1999; Marchand 2011; McHugh et al. 2013a, b;
Table 2 Non-indexed
indigenous journals searched
during phase 2
Journal Name Inaugural publication year
AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Scholarship 2005
Australian Indigenous Law Review 1996
American Indian Culture and Research Journal 1974
BC Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly 1969
Cultural Survival Quarterly 1972
Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education and Society 2012
First Peoples Child & Family Review 2004
International Journal of Circumpolar Health 1972
Journal of Aboriginal Health 2004
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1979
Indigenous Policy Journal 1989
Indigenous Law Journal 2002
International Journal of Critical Indigenous Studies 2008
International Indigenous Policy Journal 2010
Journal of Indigenous Research 2011
MAI Review 2006
Native Social Work Journal 1997
Native South 2008
Pimatisiwin: A Journal of Aboriginal and Indigenous Community Health 2003
Plains Anthropologist 1955
Settler Colonial Studies 2011
Tribal Law Journal 1998
Te Kaharoa 2008
UCLA’s Indigenous Peoples Journal of Law, Culture & Resistance 2004
Wicazo Sa Review 1985
Fig. 1 Stages of article identification and selection
Adolescent Res Rev
123

Table 3 Articles investigating aboriginal youth development through sport and physical activity
Phase First author Year Title Journal name Methods
classification
(intervention
study)
Youth age
range (when
specified)
Themes
present
1 Blodgett, A. 2008 From practice to praxis community-
based strategies for aboriginal
youth sport
Journal of Sport
& Social
Issues
Qualitative N/A T, E, N,
B
1 Brown, L. 2008 Active Living as an institutional
challenge: lessons from the Robert
Wood Johnson Foundation’s
‘‘Celebrate Fitness’’ Program
Journal of
Health
Politics,
Policy, and
Law
Qualitative
(Intervention)
N/A HF, E,
B
1 Cunningham, J. 2005 Investigating indicators for
measuring the health and social
impact of sport and recreation
Programs in Australian indigenous
communities
International
Review for the
Sociology of
Sport
Qualitative N/A R, HF,
ED
1 Donovan, D. 2015 Healing of the Canoe: preliminary
results of a culturally grounded
intervention to prevent substance
abuse and promote tribal identity
for native youth in Two Pacific
Northwest Tribe
American
Indian and
Alaskan
Native Mental
Health
Research
Quantitative
(Intervention)
Grades 9–12 T, R, E
1 Feinstein, S. 2009 Resiliency and Native American
Teenagers
Reclaiming
Children and
Youth
Mixed
Methods
Grades 9–12 T, R,
ED
1 Gray, A. 2003 Fitness, dietary intake, and body mass
index in urban Native American
youth
Journal of the
American
Dietetic
Association
Quantitative 5–18 years HF, B
1 Keith, S. 1999 Native American women in sport Journal of
Physical
Education,
Recreation &
Dance
Qualitative N/A T, HF,
E, B
1 Kiran, A. 2010 Traditional indigenous games
promoting physical activity and
cultural connectedness in primary
schools—cluster randomised
control trial
Health
Promotion
Journal of
Australia
Quantitative
(Intervention)
9–12 years T, ED
1 Marchand, D. 2011 Circle of courage infusion into the
Alberta Indigenous games 2011
Reclaiming
Children and
Youth
Qualitative N/A T, E
1 McHugh, T. 2013a,
b
An exploration of the meanings of
sport to Urban aboriginal youth
Qualitative
Research in
Sport,
Exercise and
Health
Qualitative 12–15 years T, HF,
E, N,
B
1 Moilanen, K. 2014 Extracurricular activity availability
and participation and substance use
among American Indian
adolescents
Journal of
Youth and
Adolescence
Quantitative 12–19 years R
1 Ritchie, S. 2010 Developing a culturally relevant
outdoor leadership training program
for aboriginal youth
Journal of
Experiential
Education
Qualitative N/A T, R, E,
B
1 Skinner, K. 2006 Barriers and supports for healthy
eating and physical activity for first
nation youths in Northern Canada
International
Journal of
Circumpolar
Health
Qualitative Grades 6–8 HF, ED,
E, B
Adolescent Res Rev
123

Table 3 continued
Phase First author Year Title Journal name Methods
classification
(intervention
study)
Youth age
range (when
specified)
Themes
present
1 Teufel, N. 1998 Development of a primary prevention
program: insight gained in the Zuni
diabetes prevention program
Clinical
Pediatrics
Quantitative
(Intervention)
13.2–21.2 years HF, ED
1 Tighe, J. 2012 Alive and kicking goals: preliminary
findings from a Kimberly suicide
prevention program
Advances in
Mental Health
Qualitative
(Intervention)
N/A R, ED,
E
1 Weaver, H. 2010 Healthy living in two worlds: testing
a wellness curriculum for Urban
Native Youth
Child
Adolescence
and Social
Work Journal
Quantitative
(Intervention)
9–13 years T, HF,
ED
1 Young, N. 2013 A Process for Creating the Aboriginal
Children’s Health and Well-Being
Measure (ACHWM)
Canadian
Journal of
Public Health
Qualitative 8.2–17.7 years T, HF
2 Bloom, J. 1996 ‘‘Show what an Indian can do’’:
sports, memory, ethnic identity at
federal Indian boarding schools
Journal of
American
Indian
Education
Qualitative N/A T, E, N
2 Critchley, K.A. 2006 Personal Health practices around
physical activity as perceived by the
aboriginal children of Prince
Edward Island
Journal of
Aboriginal
Health
Mixed
Methods
6–18 years HF, ED
2 Donahue, P. 1997 New warriors, new legends:
basketball in three Native American
works of fiction
American
Indian
Research and
Culture
Journal
Qualitative N/A T, E
2 McHugh, T. 2013a,
b
Enhancing the relevance of physical
activity research by engaging
aboriginal peoples in the research
process
Pimatisiwin Qualitative 14–18 years T, HF,
E, B
2 Nicholls, S. 2007 Sport as a tool for HIV/AIDS
education: a potential catalyst for
change
Pimatisiwin Qualitative N/A HF, ED,
E
2 Simmonds, H. 2014 Te Kete Whanaketanga - Rangatahi MAI Review Mixed
Methods
12–18 years T, HF,
ED, E
3 Brown, D. 2015 Ride for future generations Native Peoples
Magazine
Qualitative N/A R
3 Indigenous
Wellness Group,
Lavalle
´
e, L.
2013 Six Nations/Ohsweken running club
pilot program final report
Quantitative
(Intervention)
9–14 years T, R,
HF, E
3 Government of
Saskatchewan.
2008 Saskatchewan children and youth
participation in sport, recreation
and cultural activities
Mixed
Methods
5–19 years T, HF,
E, B
3 Government of
Ontario
2010 Helping improve quality of life for
aboriginal youth
Mixed
Methods
(Intervention)
N/A HF, E
3 Lavalle
´
e, L. 2009 Health and social impacts and fitness
testing at the 2008 North American
Indigenous Games
Quantitative N/A T, R,
HF, E,
ED
3 Navara, G. 2009 CARA Program Evaluation-Nipissing
First Nation
Mixed
Methods
(Intervention)
N/A R, HF,
E, B
Adolescent Res Rev
123

Nicholls and Giles 2007; Ritchie et al. 2010; Skinner et al.
2006; Tighe and McKay 2012; Young et al. 2013) and
reported research from Canada (n = 20) (Blodgett et al.
2008; Critchley et al. 2006; Government of Ontario 2010;
Government of Saskatchewan 2008; Indigenous Wellness
Group and Lavalle
´
e 2013; Lankford and Neal 1998;
Lankford et al. 2010; Lavalle
´
e et al. 2009; Marchand 2011;
McHugh et al. 2013a, b; Navara et al. 2009; Nicholls and
Giles 2007; Praxis Consulting 2014; Right to Play 2015;
Ritchie et al. 2010; Skinner et al. 2006; World Leisure
Professional Services 2000, 2002; Young et al. 2013). Ten
of the reviewed articles described PYD interventions or
programs (Brown and Kraft 2008; Donovan et al. 2015;
Indigenous Wellness Group and Lavalle
´
e 2013; Govern-
ment of Ontario 2010; Kiran and Knights, 2010; Navara
et al. 2009; Right to Play 2015 ; Teufel and Ritenbaugh
1998; Tighe and McKay 2012; Weaver and Jackson 2010).
When specified, the age of youth participants did not
exceed 21 years. The most prevalent themes throughout the
35 articles were Empowerment (n = 29) (Blodgett et al.
2008; Bloom
1996; Brown and Kraft 2008; Cunningham
and Beneforti 2005; Donahue 1997; Donovan et al. 2015;
Feinstein et al. 2009; Government of Ontario 2010;
Government of Saskatchewan 2008; Indigenous Wellness
Group and Lavalle
´
e 2013; Keith 1999; Kiran and Knights
2010; Lankford and Neal 1998; Lankford et al. 2010;
Lavalle
´
e et al. 2009; Marchand 2011; McHugh et al.
2013a, b; Navara et al. 2009; Nicholls and Giles 2007;
Praxis Consulting 2014; Right to Play 2015; Ritchie et al.
2010; Simmonds et al. 2014; Skinner et al. 2006; Teufel
and Ritenbaugh 1998; Tighe and McKay 2012; World
Leisure Professional Services 2000, 2002), Overall Health
and Fitness (n = 23) (Brown and Kraft 2008; Critchley
et al. 2006; Cunningham and Beneforti 2005; Government
of Ontario 2010; Government of Saskatchewan 2008; Gray
and Smith 2003; Indigenous Wellness Group and Lavalle
´
e
2013; Keith 1999; Lankford and Neal 1998; Lankford et al.
2010; Lavalle
´
e et al.
2009; McHugh et al. 2013a, b; Navara
et al. 2009; Nicholls and Giles 2007; Praxis Consulting
2014; Simmonds et al. 2014; Skinner et al. 2006; Teufel
and Ritenbaugh 1998; Weaver and Jackson 2010; World
Leisure Professional Services 2000, 2002; Young et al.
2013), and Traditional Culture and Values (n = 22)
(Blodgett et al. 2008; Bloom 1996; Donahue 1997;
Donovan et al. 2015 ; Feinstein et al. 2009; Government of
Saskatchewan 2008; Indigenous Wellness Group and
Lavalle
´
e 2013; Keith 1999; Kiran and Knights 2010;
Lankford and Neal 1998; Lankford et al. 2010; Lavalle
´
e
et al. 2009; Marchand 2011; McHugh et al. 2013a, b;
Praxis Consulting 2014; Ritchie et al. 2010; Simmonds
et al. 2014; Weaver and Jackson 2010; World Leisure
Professional Services 2000, 2002; Young et al. 2013).
Table 3 continued
Phase First author Year Title Journal name Methods
classification
(intervention
study)
Youth age
range (when
specified)
Themes
present
3 Praxis Consulting 2014 2014 North American indigenous
games evaluation report
Mixed
Methods
N/A T, R,
HF, E,
ED
3 Right to Play 2015 PLAY Program Quantitative
(Intervention)
N/A E
3 World Leisure and
Recreation
Association
Professional
Services (WPS)
1998 The 1998 Arctic Winter Games: a
study of the benefits of participation
Mixed
Methods
N/A T, R,
HF, E
3 World Leisure
Professional
Services (WPS)
2000 2000 Arctic Winter Games
Whitehorse: personal and social
benefits of participation
Quantitative N/A T, R,
HF, E
3 World Leisure
Professional
Services (WPS)
2002 2002 Arctic Winter Games: Nuuk,
Greenland and Iqaluit, Canada
personal and social benefits of
participation
Mixed
Methods
N/A T, R,
HF, E
3 World Leisure
Professional
Services (WPS)
2010 2010 Arctic winter games: personal,
social, and community benefits of
participation
Quantitative N/A T, R,
HF, E
T tradition, R resiliency, HF overall health and fitness, ED education, E empowerment, N negative outcomes, B barriers
Adolescent Res Rev
123

Less prevalent themes included Resi liency and Mental
Health (n = 16) (Brown 2015; Cunningham and Beneforti
2005; Donovan et al. 2015; Feinstein et al. 2009; Indige-
nous Wellness Group and Lavalle
´
e 2013; Lankford and
Neal 1998; Lankford et al. 2010; Lavalle
´
e et al. 2009;
Moilanen et al. 2014; Navara et al. 2009; Praxis Consulting
2014; Ritchie et al. 2010; Simmonds et al. 2014; Tighe and
McKay 2012; World Leisure Professional Services 2000,
2002), Education (n = 12) (Critchley et al. 2006; Cun-
ningham and Beneforti 2005; Feinstein et al. 2009; Kiran
and Knights 2010; Lavalle
´
e et al. 2009; Nicholls and Giles
2007; Praxis Consulting 2014; Sim monds et al. 2014;
Skinner et al. 2006; Teufel and Ritenbaugh 1998; Tighe
and McKay 2012; Weaver and Jackson 2010), Barriers
(n = 10) (Blodgett et al. 2008; Brown and Kraft 2008;
Government of Saskatchewan 2008; Gray and Smith 2003;
Keith 1999; McHugh et al. 2013a ,
b; Nav ara et al. 2009 ;
Ritchie et al. 2010; Skinner et al. 2006), and Negative
Outcomes (n = 3) (Blodgett et al. 2008; Bloom 1996;
McHugh et al. 2013a).
Phase 1: Indexed Peer-Reviewed Literature
As shown in Fig. 1, a search of the 10 databases yielded 17
articles that were retained in Phase 1. One hundred and
forty-one articles were excluded as they did not meet the
search criteria—either did not focus on youth development
(e.g., only mentioned youth development briefly in the
discussion section of the article), or did not focus on
Indigenous peoples) (see Fig. 1; Table 3).
Phase 2: Indigenous Peer-Reviewed Journal Search
A search of the non-indexed Indigenous literature yielded
six articles that were retained in Phase 2. Seventeen articles
were excluded as they either did not focus on youth
development (e.g., only mentioned youth development
briefly in the discussion section of the artic le), or did not
focus on Indigenous peoples (see Fig. 1; Table 3).
Phase 3: Grey Literature
Two experts in Aboriginal youth development indepen-
dently reviewed a total of 88 websites and nine articles
identified as relevant by the research team to determine if
any others sources had been missed or warranted inclusion.
The experts and a member of the research team identified a
total of 11 additional organization websites. A search of the
suggested websites yielded nine additional articles, bring-
ing the total to 18 articles. After full screening of the 18
identified youth development articles against the study
criteria and upon determining if youth development was a
major focus of the article, 12 articles were retained in
Phase 3. Six articles were excluded as they did not focus on
youth development or did not focus on Indigenous peoples
(see Fig. 1; Table 3).
Thematic Coding of Included Articles
Using NVivo 10 software, two coders reviewed the 35
articles retained from all three phases, coding them for
themes related to positive youth development in an
Indigenous population. Seven themes were identified from
the literature: (1) Empowerment, (2) Overall Health and
Fitness, (3) Traditional Culture and Values, (4) Education,
(5) Barriers to Participation, (6) Resiliency and Mental
Health, and (7) Negative Physical Activity and Sport
Experiences. Each theme, with associated examples, is
described below.
Empowerment
This theme highlighted Aboriginal youth development
leadership skills, overcoming barriers, and building self-
worth. For example, Brown and Kraft (2008) documented
Celebrate Fitness, a program that provided funding for
Native America n teens to develop and conduct grassroots
initiatives under the supervision of Native American adults.
Skinner et al. (2006) also discussed how, in a remote, sub-
arctic First Nations community, the barriers and supports
for nutrition and physical activity are heightened and
interrelated, thus contributing to much larger social con-
structs such as emp owerment and trust. Skinner et al. (2006)
also mentioned that empowerment should be incorporated
into the design of public health initiatives as it is a key issue
for many Aboriginal communities in Canada. As another
example of empowerment, the planning committee for the
Alberta Indigenous Games, as discussed by Marchand
(2011) recognized the value and potential that practicing
Indigenous cultures has on Aboriginal youth. The focal
point of the Alberta Indigenous Games was the imple-
mentation of the Circle of Courage values, which identified
Indigenous traditions that foster social harmony and
extraordinary personal achievement. The Circle of Courage
values were incorporated into the Games’ activities such as
sports, music and dance. This philosophy promoted an
environment of encouragement, empowerment and accep-
tance for all. In the Arctic Games reports (Lankford and
Neal 1998; Lankford et al. 2010; World Leisure Profes-
sional Services 2000, 2002), participants indicated that the
experience was fun, provided positive experiences includ-
ing new friendships and ultimately led to the development
of leadership skills.
Adolescent Res Rev
123

Overall Health and Fitness
This theme highlighted the improvement of Aboriginal
youth’s physical health (e.g., reduction in diabetes),
through becoming active and avoiding health-damaging
behaviors such as tobacco use. As an example, the Zuni
Diabetes Prevention Program is a community-based pri-
mary prevention project designed to reduce the prevalence
of diabetes risk factors among high school-aged youth
(Teufel and Ritenbaugh 1998). Brown and Kraft (2008)
also discussed this theme as they described how empow-
erment of youth leaders is proving to be an effective
approach to improving health and fitness as it reduces
tobacco use as well as gun violence. Another example of
this theme was presented in Weaver and Jackson’s (2010)
work, which outlined ‘‘Healthy Living in Two Worlds’’, a
project developed to increase physical activity and healthy
eating practices while also decreasing or preventing
recreational tobacco use in urban, Northeastern Native
American youth. In evaluating a running program with
First Nations youth, the Indigenous Wellness Group and
Lavalle
´
e (2013) noted that youth participants improved
their physical health along with positive impacts on spiri-
tual, emotional and mental health.
Traditional Culture and Values
This theme highlighted youth learning about Aboriginal
culture and heritage such as language, music, dance, and
traditions. As an example, Kiran and Knights (2010) doc-
umented the importance of implementing culturally rele-
vant programs in primary schools. The use of a Traditional
Indigenous Games program increased retention rates of
Indigenous students in schools as well as raised awareness
of culture, and improved cultural pride (Kiran and Knights
2010). This theme can also be seen in the work of McHugh
et al. (2013a) as the authors discussed the importance of
sharing circles in the context of physical activity and the
sacred meanin g they have for many Indigenous cultures.
The work of Young et al. (2013) utilized this theme as their
physical activity research was guided by the Medicine
Wheel, a culturally relevant model of health and well-being
where each quadrant represents a domain of health: spiri-
tual, emotional, physical and mental. Culture and the
importance of traditional territories, was also integral for
connecting with ancestors and experiencing personal
growth as part of the Future Generations Ride horse pro-
gram (Brown 2015). Lavalle
´
e et al. (2009) and Praxis
Consulting (2014) conducted research on the 2008 and
2014 North American Indigenous Games respectively and
found that sport that incorporates cultural activit ies and
protocols increased cultural pride, awareness and made
youth feel more comfortable in the sporting environment.
Resiliency and Mental Health
This theme highlighted suicide prevention, as well as
overcoming addictions and depression. As an example, the
work of Cunningham and Beneforti 2005) highlighted how
sport and recreation has the potential to reduce self-harm
and substance use among Aboriginal youth. Further, the
article by Feinstein et al. (2009) focused on the importance
of opportunities for education and involvement in extra-
curricular activities as being essential to Native American
teenage resiliency. This theme was also present in the work
of Ritchie et al. (2010) which recommended mental health
promotion strategies developed through a community-dri-
ven approach to build Aboriginal youth resilience and
cultural identity to prevent suicide. Another example of
this theme can be seen through discussion of the project
Alive and Kicking Goals! (AKG), a positively-framed
suicide prevention peer education project that attempts to
improve the provision of mental health services availa ble
for at-risk youth in the Kimberly region of Australia (Tighe
and McKay 2012).
Education
This theme highlighted the importance of continuing edu-
cation for Aboriginal youth, of succeeding in school, and of
learning that occurs in programs outside of school. For
example, the work of Kiran and Knights (2010) highlighted
the protective role an Aborigina l child’s sense of con-
nectedness to school plays in preventing problematic
behaviors and disengagement with education. Critchley
et al. (2006) discussed the importance of physical educa-
tion programs both during and after school hours as these
physical activities may play a significant role in improving
Aboriginal students’ atti tudes, discipline and behaviors.
Barriers to Participation
This theme h ighlighted the many real or perceived obsta-
cles that Aboriginal youth struggle with in regard to being
physically active. As an example, Skinner et al. (2006)
discussed the heightened barriers to healthy living in
remote communities where access to physical activity
opportunities can be limited. The increased barriers may be
due to a lack of capacity and support at the community
level. Another example of a barrier to participation in
physical activity can be seen in Gray and Smith’s (2003)
work as they cited neighborhood safety as a major concern
for the Aboriginal youth who live in low-income, high-
crime areas. In these particular situations, watching tele-
vision or taking part in other sedentary activities may offer
a safe environment as well as relief for the parents (Gray
and Smith 2003). The Government of Saskatchewan (2008)
Adolescent Res Rev
123

highlighted the four most frequently cited barriers to being
physically active for Aboriginal children as lack of time,
cost of participation, lack of local programs and lack of
transportation.
Negative Physical Activity and Sport Experience
This theme encompassed any negative experiences for
Aboriginal youth as a result of physical activity participa-
tion. Several examples included racism, bullying, and
exclusion. In the work of Blodgett et al. (2008), an Abo-
riginal elite athlete discussed the racism experienced dur-
ing sport participation; ‘‘When people know you’re native
they’re going to say something to you. Those are the times
you’ve got to prepare for. You’re not going to fold your
tent and go home.’’ Bloom (1996) highlighted the themes
of negative sport and physical activity outcomes by
drawing on the earlier work of Churchill et al. (1979) who
argued that although Indian school athletes were success-
ful, the media images did little for Native Americans
themselves other than promote a vision of animalistic,
racially defined, purely physical beings.
Discussion
The period of adolescence has traditionally been framed as
one of risk rather than one of opportunity (Takanishi 1993;
Jessor 1998; Wolfe et al. 2006). The prevailing para digm
shift toward a PYD perspective now casts youth as
resources to be developed rather than problems to be
solved (Damon 2004). Childhood and adolescence are
considered opportunities for growth in which youth can
gain competencies to earn a living, gain know ledge of
themselves and their place in society, learn to nurture
others, and engage in civic activities (Ham ilton et al. 2004;
Jones and Lavallee 2009). The goal of optimal youth
development is to ‘‘enable individuals to live healthy,
satisfying, and productive lives as youth and later as
adults’’ (Hamilton et al. 2004, p. 3). This goal is particu-
larly meaningful for Aboriginal youth who have been
disadvantaged by the legacy of historic trauma (Aguiar and
Halseth 2015). Using this PYD perspective, developmental
researchers have reported many positive and some negative
outcomes associated with sport and physical activity
engagement (Holt and Neely 2011).
The purpose of this review was to provide a systematic
review of the research examining Aboriginal youth devel-
opment in physical activity and sport settings. An analysis
of the articles revealed a diversity of themes highlighting
how physical activity, especia lly through sport and
recreational opportunities, can shape Aboriginal youth
development. With a focus on empowerment, well-being,
as well as traditional culture and values, this review illus-
trates a shift from deficit-reduction approaches that have
disempowered youth by labelling behavior as problematic
and in need of being ‘‘fixed’’ (Kana’iaupuni 2005; Mayeda
et al. 2001). Applied to physical activity and sport, this
positive conceptualization may help facilitate the promo-
tion of Indigenous values and the use of local community
expertise in program design. For example, the Canoe
Journey curriculum developed by Donovan et al. (2015)
utilized community members in developing culturally-
grounded programming that is preferred, and often more
effective, than conventional programs based on mainstream
values (Lowe et al. 2011, 2012). As a result, the findings
and literat ure identified provide program developers and
practitioners with examples of physical activity and sport
that successfully promote Aboriginal youth development in
the field and that highlight the importance of culturally
meaningful opportunities. For example, the programs out-
lined in the grey literature illustrate how physical activity
and sport programs can be translated to a community
context with positive outcomes (Brown 2015; Government
of Ontario 2010; Government of Saskatchewan 2008;
Lavalle
´
e et al. 2009; Navara et al. 2009; Praxis Consulting
2014; Right to Play 2015). The implementation of a multi-
phased systematic approach encompassing both academic
and grey literature provided a deeper understanding of the
role of physical activity and sport on Aboriginal youth
development.
Despite the novelty of our review, it is important to
acknowledge the limitations of the evidence and of the
review. Although the search strategy was compreh ensive
and included grey literature, conference proceedings or
articles written in languages other than English or French
were not included. In addition, the review did not distin-
guish between the findings from observation and inter-
vention studies. We recognize that Indigenous
communities conduct research and evaluation and that this
review of literature does not include grey literature that is
not available via the Internet or is unabl e to be found via
our search methods. Finall y, we recognize the limitation of
language or terminology and how programs that might
focus on what we understand to be positive youth devel-
opment could be conceptualized quite differently in Abo-
riginal communities. However, the articles included in the
review were diverse and used a range of methodological
approaches and indicators of youth development through
physical activity and sport. Further, the self-reported nature
of measures and/or cross-sectional designs used in these
studies warrant that the findings be interpreted with
caution.
Adolescent Res Rev
123

Conclusion
To our knowledge, this study represents the first review of
the Aboriginal physical activity and sport literature per-
taining to positive youth development. This review furthers
our understanding of the relationship that physical activity
and sport has with Aboriginal youth development. This
systematic review also highlights several important rec-
ommendations for future research (Grant and Booth 2009).
In addition to a need for further qualitative research to
deepen the conceptual understanding of Aboriginal youth
development through physical activity and sport, there
appears to be a need for greater evaluation of Aboriginal
physical activit y and sport programs. The lack of research
in this area may be related to the limited availability of
validated measur es of Aboriginal youth development
through physical activity and sport and an absence of
published evidence reporting on the internal and external
validity of Aboriginal physical activit y sport interventions
for enhancing PYD. Future research addressing thes e areas
will enhance our knowledge of how sport and physical
activity settings can shape Aboriginal youth development.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank Dr. Claire Crooks and
Michele Cook for providing feedback and sharing their knowledge of
the Aboriginal youth development literature. The authors also wish to
thank Michael Mahkwa Auski, Kevin Emiry, Christine Head, Donna
Ivimey, Aaron Paibomsai, and Tristan Tremblay for their assistance
with the article collection. This research is supported by a grant from
the Canadian Institutes for Health Research (CIHR), Institute of
Aboriginal Peoples’ Health (IAPH), and Health Canada—First
Nations and Inuit Health Branch (FNIHB) (CIHR Grant #AHI—
120532).
Author Contributions MWB conceptualized and designed the
review, supervised overall data acquisition, conducted the analysis,
provided interpretation of findings, drafted the manuscript, has given
final approval of the submitted manuscript and agrees to be
accountable for all aspects of the work. SH supervised Phase I data
acquisition and applied inclusion criteria to screen Phase I documents,
critically revised the manuscript and agrees to be accountable for all
aspects of the work. CPTB completed Phase II data acquisition and
Phase I, II, III data acquisition update and applied inclusion criteria to
screen documents, participated in the thematic analysis, helped with
interpretation of findings, participated in drafting parts of the manu-
script, critically revised the manuscript, has given final approval of
the submitted manuscript and agrees to be accountable for all aspects
of the work. LFL conceptualized and designed the review, supervised
overall data acquisition, critically revised the manuscript, has given
final approval of the submitted manuscript and agrees to be
accountable for all aspects of the work. BGB conceptualized and
designed the review, supervised data acquisition, critically revised the
manuscript, has given final approval of the submitted manuscript and
agrees to be accountable for all aspects of the work. KH helped
conceptualize and design the review, critically revised the manuscript,
has given final approval of the submitted manuscript and agrees to be
accountable for all aspects of the work. RL helped conceptualize and
design the review, critically revised the manuscript, has given final
approval of the submitted manuscript and agrees to be accountable for
all aspects of the work. LL conceptualized and designed the review,
supervised Phase II data acquisition, contributed to data analysis and
interpretation of findings, participated in drafting parts of the manu-
script, critically revised the manuscript, has given final approval of
the submitted manuscript and agrees to be accountable for all aspects
of the work.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflicts of interest The authors report no conflict of interests.
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