Nanotechnology-based innovative technologies for high agricultural productivity: Opportunities, challenges, and future perspectives

Abstract

Limited fuel reserves like natural gas and petroleum have made an impact on the production costs of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and hence precision farming (maximizing crop yields and minimizing the usage of pesticides, fertilizers, and herbicides through efficient monitoring procedures) is the preferred option to increase agricultural production. Many technologies have been developed that have the potential to conserve land and water by increasing farm productivity through the application of fewer inputs, ultimately conserving the environment. However, these may not be commercially profitable and may not withstand the demand associated with food production and its distribution around the world. Nanotechnology is a breakthrough in agriculture as it plays a key role in development of new-generation pesticides and safe carriers, removal of contaminants from soil and water bodies, use of clay minerals as receptacles for nanoresources involving nutrient ion receptors, precision water management, regenerating soil fertility, reclamation of salt-affected soils, checking acidification of irrigated lands, and stabilization of erosion-prone surfaces. In recent years, an increasing number of government, scientific, and institutional reports have concluded that nanotechnology could make a significant contribution to alleviating poverty and achieving the Millennium Development Goals but with caution toward the potential risks of nanotechnology for developing countries. There is an urgent need to develop specific risk assessment guidelines for nanomaterials, considering the uptake, bioavailability, and toxicity, which further depends on the particle number, particle stability, and particle size distribution.

Full text

Chapter 19
Nanotechnology-based innovative
technologies for high agricultural
productivity: Opportunities, challenges,
and future perspectives
Saritha Marella
a
, A.R. Nirmal Kumar
b
, and N.V.K.V. Prasad Tollamadugu
a
a
Nanotechnology Laboratory, Institute of Frontier Technologies Regional Agricultural Research Station, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,
Tirupati, India,
b
Department of Crop Physiology, SV Agriculture College, Tirupati, India
1 Introduction
Increased awareness that conventional farming technol-
ogies fail to improve productivity, as well as destruction
of the ecosystems by the existing technologies, has paved
the way for application of nanotechnology in agriculture.
This can revolutionize the agriculture and food industry
by innovative new techniques such as precision farming
techniques, controlled release of agrochemicals, and site-
targeted delivery of various macromolecules needed for
improved plant disease and pest resistance, efficient nutrient
utilization, and enhanced plant growth. Nanoencapsulation
enables efficient use and safer handling of pesticides as well
as promising ecoprotection. It is believed that nanotech-
nology currently is emerging as the sixth revolutionary tech-
nology after the Industrial Revolution of the mid-1700s, the
Nuclear Energy Revolution of the 1940s, the Green Revo-
lution of the 1960s, the Information Technology Revolution
of the 1980s, and the Biotechnology Revolution of 1990s.
Nanotechnology is the manipulation or self-assembly of
individual atoms, molecules, or molecular clusters that can
work from the top down (reducing the size of the smallest
structures to the nanoscale) or the bottom up (manipulating
individual atoms and molecules into nanostructures).
“Nano” generally refers to materials with a size of 0.1 to
100 nm; however, they display variable properties in bulk
(or micrometric and larger) including physical strength,
chemical reactivity, electrical conductance, magnetism,
and optical effects. The smaller size of nanomaterial pos-
sessing larger surface area have different surface composi-
tions, densities of sites, and various reactivity with respect
to adsorption and redox reactions (Hochella Jr et al., 2008;
Waychunas et al., 2005).
However, use of nanomaterials in the agricultural filed is
relatively new and needs further exploration, but this tech-
nology promises controlled release of agrochemicals and
site-targeted delivery of various macromolecules needed
for improved plant disease resistance, efficient nutrient uti-
lization, and enhanced plant growth. Nanoproducts in pre-
cision agriculture include nanofertilizers, nanoherbicides,
nanopesticides, nanoscale carriers, nanosensors, detection
of nutrient deficiencies, etc. Nanotechnology is fast
growing, having a significant commercial impact, which
will certainly increase in the future.
2 Why do we need “Agrinanotech”?
It is almost impossible to imagine modern agriculture of
sustainable production and efficiency without the use of
agrochemicals such as pesticides, fertilizers, etc. However,
every agrochemical has some issues including water con-
tamination or residues on food products that threaten human
health (Kah, 2015). Hence, developing high-tech agri-
culture with the use of engineered smart nanotools could
be an excellent strategy to reduce these risks and enhance
the quality and quantity of yields (Sekhon, 2014).
The agriculture scientist should consider nanotech-
nology to challenge the following issues: (1) crop yield stag-
nation, (2) declining organic matter, (3) multinutrient
deficiencies, (4) climate change, (5) shrinking arable land
and water availability, (6) resistance to genetically modified
organism (GMO) crops, and (7) shortage of labor.
Nanoscale science and technologies are envisioned to
have the potential to revolutionize agriculture and food
systems (Norman and Hongda, 2013). The concept to merge
Recent Developments in Applied Microbiology and Biochemistry.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821406-0.00019-9
©2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 211

nanomaterials with living plants to enhance their native
functions has taken the name “plant nanobionics”
(Giraldo et al., 2014) and potentially allowed engineering
of faster-growing plants. This paved the way to design
and develop artificial photosynthetic systems, a potential
source of clean energy (Noji et al., 2011;Singha and
Bell, 2016). Nanoparticles containing herbicides, nanopes-
ticide fertilizers, or genes release their content at the target-
specific cellular organelles in plants, termed as “magic
bullets.”
Nanotechnology has already brought revolution in a
wide spectra of life and provides a frontier platform for
the development of products and technologies suitable for
agriculture and the food sector. Scientists and industry
stakeholders are spearheading toward the use of nanotech-
nology in agriculture and food science starting with crop/
food cultivation, production, processing, up to packaging.
Nanotechnology seems promising toward eliminating the
suffering and problems faced by society such as climate
change, population growth, limited availability of nutrients,
pest/insect attack, and postharvest and food processing
losses. For developing countries, advancement in science
and technology can offer potential solutions for discovering
value addition in their current production systems. Nano-
technology approaches applied to agricultural production
could play an essential role for this rationale.
3 Global scenario
An initial analysis of the research and development (R&D)
of nanotechnology in agriculture and the market were per-
formed in 2013 during a workshop on “Nanotechnology for
the agricultural sector: From research to the field” organized
by the JRC-IPTS ( JRC Report, 2014). Recently, regulation
of nanomaterials in the EU as well as in non-EU countries
was taken up by the European Food Safety Authority
(EFSA), which also provides an inventory of current and
potential future applications of nanotechnology in the
agri-food sector (RIKILT and JRC, 2014: 125). Research
work on nanotechnology-based delivery of agrochemicals
was done by developing countries like China, and their field
applications are expected in the next 5 to 10 years. However,
it depends on market demand, profit margin, environmental
benefits, risk assessment, and management policies in the
background of other competitive technologies. The United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 2002 has first
laid the first roadmap for applying nanotechnology to agri-
culture (Manjunatha et al., 2016).
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals
have set targets for meeting the needs of millions of people
worldwide who continue to lack access to safe water,
reliable sources of energy, health care, education, and other
basic human development needs since 2000. An increasing
number of government, scientific, and institutional reports
in recent years have concluded that nanotechnology could
make a significant contribution to alleviating poverty and
achieving the Millennium Development Goals but with
caution toward the potential risks of nanotechnology for
developing countries (UN Millennium Project, 2014).
However, it was seen as more risky and less beneficial than
solar power, vaccination, hydroelectric power, and com-
puter display screens (Currall et al., 2006).
4 Indian scenario
Considering the importance of fertilizers, the Government
of India is heavily subsidizing the cost of fertilizers, partic-
ularly urea. This has resulted in imbalanced fertilization
and, in some areas, nitrate pollution of groundwater due
to excessive nitrogen application. In the past few decades,
use efficiencies of N, P, and K fertilizers have remained
constant as 30%–35%, 18%–20%, and 35%–40%, respec-
tively, leaving a major portion of added fertilizers to accu-
mulate in the soil or enter into aquatic system causing
eutrophication. In this respect, nanoparticles derived from
biopolymers such as proteins and carbohydrates are partic-
ularly attractive with low impact on human health and the
environment.
From the Indian perspective, former president, the late
Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam, emphasized the possible appli-
cation of nanotechnology in the agriculture sector, saying,
“We have to launch vertical missions under an umbrella
organization with public-private investments in at least
10 nanotechnology products in water, energy, agriculture,
health care, space, and defense sectors.”
5 Role of nanoproducts in precision
agriculture
The livelihood of the farming community has been
adversely affected as agricultural production is
experiencing a plateau today, and hence there is need for
a second Green Revolution (Singh, 2012). Agrinanotech-
nology has wide applications, and a few are represented
in Table 1.
6 Environmental protection
Only a few nanomaterials display a possible toxic effect
(Mura et al., 2013), whereas the majority, when applied,
improve quality and facilitates in detection and repair of
contaminated areas. It was reported that use of synchrotron
microanalyses, Phragmites australis and Iris pseudoacorus,
changed Cu into metallic nanoparticles in and close to the
root zone with the support of endomycorrhizal fungi when
cultivated in polluted soil (Manceau et al., 2008).
212 SECTION CSoil and agriculture microbiology

7 Improved crop yield
Tools and technology provided by nanobiotechnology help
to improve agricultural productivity by genetically modi-
fying plants and transporting genes and drug molecules to
particular locations at the cellular level. Usually metal-
based and carbon-based nanomaterials are produced for
their assimilation, translocation, and storage, in particular,
for their impact on development and improvement in crop
yield (Nair et al., 2010).
8 Seed germination and growth
The percentage of germination is determined by the seed
quality, but in spite of 80%–90% vigor in laboratory condi-
tions, the percentage of germination is very low in the agri-
cultural field. Various researchers have studied the effects of
nanomaterials on plant germination and growth in recent
years, viz., Zheng et al. (2011) studied the effects of nano
and non-nano TiO
2
on the growth of naturally aged spinach
seeds. The growth rate of spinach seeds was inversely propor-
tional to the material size, depicting that the smaller the nano-
material, the better the germination. In tomato (Lycopersicum
esculentum)seeds,SiO
2
nanoparticles were found to enhance
germination (Siddiqui and Al-Whaibi, 2014).
Growth of mung bean and chickpea seedlings was also
enhanced using low concentrations of zinc-oxide nanopar-
ticles with the plant agar method, but a decline in growth
rates of roots and shoots were observed beyond optimal con-
centrations (Mahajan et al., 2011). Manganese nanopar-
ticles were also reported to enhance photosynthesis
(Pradhan et al., 2013) and growth of mung bean (Vigna
radiata). Crop performance was improved on application
of iron nanoparticles compared with that of regular iron salt
(Delfani et al., 2014).
Broccoli, when exposed to multiwalled carbon nano-
tubes under salinity stress, was reported to induce water
uptake and transportation by increasing the net assimilation
of CO
2
and aquaporin transduction, as well as changing the
properties of salt-stressed root plasma membrane to alle-
viate the stress and increasing growth. Elevation in yield
index variables (harvest index, crop index, and mobilization
index) have been observed by Abdel-Aziz et al. on exog-
enous foliar application of chitosan NPs laden with NPK
(nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) fertilizers to the
wheat plant grown in sandy soil.
9 Nanofertilizers
Use of higher doses of fertilizers does not guarantee increased
crop yield but rather leads to serious issues like degradation
of soil and pollution of surface and underground water
resources. Low nutrient uptake efficiency and high losses
are the main drawbacks with conventional mineral fertilizers,
whereas nanofertilizers are supposed to be potent enhancers
of nutrient incorporation by crops and soil microbes, besides
reducing nutrient loss (Dimkpa and Bindraban, 2018).
Owing to their unique features like ultrahigh absorption,
nanofertilizers increase crop production, improve rate pho-
tosynthesis, expand the surface area of leaves, and max-
imize nutrient absorption from soil. Commercialized
nanofertilizers are mainly the micronutrients at the nano-
scale (e.g., Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, Mo, N, and B). It is noteworthy
that, instead of typical conventional crop fertilizers, other
nanomaterials like carbon nano-ions (Tripathi et al., 2017)
TABLE 1 Nanoproducts in precision agriculture.
S. No. Application Function/encapsulated moiety Nanocomponent
1 Nanofertilizers Plant growth and crop yield; Water
retention and food production; Seed
germination and vigor
Carbon nano-ions; Chitosan NPs; TiO
2
; ZnO
nanoparticles; Cu NPs; Nanoclays (zeolite, halloysite,
montmorillonite, and bentonite)
2 Nanopesticides Validamycin
Ethiprole
Carbofuran and Imidacloprid
Porous hollow silica nanoparticles
3 Nanoherbicide Herbicides Poly (e-capro lactone) nanocapsules
4 Nanocarriers Delivery of fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides, plant growth regulators
Clay nanotubes (halloysite)
5 Nano-
biostimulants
Protection of crop plants from
phytopathogens
Ag-NPs; Nanosized Ag-silica hybrid complex (NSS);
Carbon NPs
6 Plant disease
control
Antimicrobial/antibacterial Nano forms of carbon, silver, silica and alumino-
silicates; ZnO and MgO nanostructures
Nanotechnology-based innovative technologies for high agricultural productivity Chapter 19 213

and chitosan NPs (Khalifa and Hasaneen, 2018) could also
increase crop growth and quality.
The additives in fertilizers can increase water retention
(Emadian, 2017) and enhance food production (TiO
2
non-toxic). Naderi and Abedi (2012) reported nanoparticles
improve nutrient absorption efficacy, minimize the costs of
environment protection, and improve the nutritional content
of crops and the quality of taste. Enhanced production in
pearl millet and cluster bean by foliar application of nano-
phosphorus fertilizers was reported by Raliya (2012).
Prasad et al. (2012) using zinc oxide nanoparticles (25-
nm mean particle size) at 1000ppm concentration was able
to promote seed germination, seedling vigor, and plant
growth, and these zinc oxide nanoparticles also proved to
be effective in increasing stem and root growth in peanuts.
Jinghua (2004) observed an increase in the uptake and uti-
lization of nutrients by grain crops when applied with a pat-
ented nanocomposite consisting of N, P, K, micronutrients,
mannose, and amino acids. In India, Bansiwal et al. (2006)
developed a surface-modified zeolite as a carrier of slow-
release phosphatic fertilizer.
The adsorbents zeolite, halloysite, montmorillonite, and
bentonite nanoclays were used to develop nitrogen fertil-
izers characterized by controlled release where nanoclay
purification comes to be a costly affair except zeolite
(Sharmila, 2010). Ajirloo et al. have proven the potential
role of K nanofertilizer and N biofertilizer in improving
the yield components of tomato.
10 Nanopesticides
A “nanoencapsulation” approach, where there is “controlled
release of the active ingredients,” can be used to improve
insecticidal value, which protects active ingredients from
the environment and promotes persistence as well as effective
formulation. Some common benefits of NP-based pesticide
formulations listed by Sasson et al. (2007) are:
(a) increased solubility of water-insoluble active ingredients,
(b) increased stability of formulation, (c) elimination of toxic
organic solvents in comparison with conventionally used pes-
ticides, (d) capability for slow release of active ingredients,
(e) improved stability to prevent early degradation, (f )
improved mobility and higher insecticidal activity due to
smaller particle size, and (g) larger surface area that may
extend their longevity. The use of nanobiopesticide is more
acceptable as it is safe for plants and causes less environ-
mental pollution in comparison with conventional chemical
pesticides (Barik et al., 2008).
Liu et al. (2013) used porous hollow silica nanoparticles
(PHSNs) loaded with validamycin (pesticide) as an efficient
delivery system of a water-soluble pesticide, and Anjali
et al. (2010) reported formulation of artificial polymer-free
nanopermethrin as an effective larvicide, stabilized by
plant-extracted natural surfactants. Nano-based viral diag-
nostics, including multiplexed diagnostics kit development,
revolutionized detection of exact strains of virus and the
stage of application of some therapeutics to stop the disease.
Neem-based microemulsion has been developed and found
effective in controlling sucking pests such as thrips, aphids,
and mites (Gunasekaran and Renganayaki, 2011). Microen-
capsulation has been employed as a versatile tool for hydro-
phobic pesticides (one of the limiting factors in the
development of crop-protecting agents), enhancing their
dispersion in aqueous media and allowing controlled release
of the active compound.
11 Role in plant disease control
Nanoforms of carbon, silver, silica, and alumino silicates
are some of major nanoparticles that control plant diseases;
however, as technology advances, silver nanoparticles have
emerged as antimicrobial agents making their production
more economical. Pal et al. (2007) reported that silver nano-
particles affect many biochemical processes including
changes in plasma membrane in the micro-organisms and
also suppress the expression of ATP production-associated
proteins (Yamanaka et al., 2005). The increased ease in dis-
pensability, optical transparency, and smoothness make
ZnO and MgO nanostructures attractive antibacterial and
anti-odor ingredients (Shah and Towkeer, 2010) in many
products.
Boehm et al. (2003) encapsulated “ethiprole,” an insec-
ticide, using polycaprolactone and polylactic acid nano-
spheres. The “controlled release” (CR) formulations of
carbofuran and imidacloprid by Kumar et al. (2011) signif-
icantly worked against the aphid (Aphis gossypii) and leaf-
hopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula) on potato than
commercial formulations, and it is interesting to note that
carbofuran and imidacloprid were not detectable at the time
of harvesting.
12 Nanoherbicide
Encapsulated herbicides (poly [e-capro lactone] nano-
capsules) resulted in lower toxicity to the alga
(Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata) and higher toxicity to
the microcrustacean (Daphnia similis) as compared with
the herbicides alone (Clemente et al., 2014). Hence, nano-
herbicides can play a major role in removing weeds from
crops in an ecofriendly way without leaving any harmful
residues in the soil and environment (P
erez-de-Luque and
Rubiales, 2009).
13 Nanocarriers
Efficient and controlled delivery of fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides, plant growth regulators, etc. can be achieved
through nanoscale carriers by mechanism of encapsulation
and entrapment, polymer and dendrimer formation, and
surface ionic and weak bond attachments (Pandey et al.,
214 SECTION CSoil and agriculture microbiology

2003;Jordan et al., 2005;Kumar et al., 2014). Clay nano-
tubes (halloysite) were developed as pesticide carriers by
Murphy (2008) at low cost, reducing the amount of pesti-
cides by 70%–80%, further reducing their impact on water
streams. Carriers can be designed in such a way that they
can anchor the plant roots to the surrounding soil structure
and organic matter that can be possible only through under-
standing the molecular and conformational mechanisms
between the delivery nanoscale structure and targeted struc-
tures and matter in soil ( Johnston, 2010).
14 Wastewater treatment
Large amount of fresh water in agriculture is leading to
groundwater pollution through the use of pesticides, fertil-
izers, and other agricultural chemicals, thus novel, sus-
tainable, and cost-effective technologies will be required
to combat this problem (Allah Ditta, 2012). Nanohydrogels
are capable of efficient use of water (Vundavalli et al., 2015)
as they can absorb between 130 and 190 times its own
weight of rainwater or irrigation water and release water
and nutrients in cycles, making agricultural production
more sustainable. Biodegradable hydrogels are especially
promising as they decrease the amount of contaminants
(Montesano et al., 2015;Magalha
˜es et al., 2013) where
these can be applied in drought-prone areas ( Jaleel
et al., 2009).
15 Current advancements in
nanotechnology applications
Agriculture is the backbone of most emerging countries as
>60% of world’s population depends on it for livelihood. At
this juncture, nanotechnology helps in environmental reme-
diation and provides a pathway to value-added crops.
15.1 Biosensors
Owing to many beneficial aspects of nanomaterials, nano-
sensors (wireless nanosensors in particular) have also been
developed to monitor crop diseases, growth, nutrient effi-
ciency, and environmental conditions in the field. Nano-
sensors help in efficient monitoring of crop growth and
soil conditions besides efficient use of water, nutrients,
and agrochemicals by the use of autonomous sensors linked
to GPS systems (Rai et al., 2012).
Quantum dots help in detecting pathogens associated
with different plant diseases like witches’ broom disease
(Phytoplasma aurantifolia), as reported by Rad et al.
(2012), and beet necrotic yellow vein virus Polymyxa betae
(Keskin), as reported by Safarpour et al. (2012).
Heavy metal ions need to be removed using sensitive
and selective biosensor methods for detecting heavy metals
in trace amounts and developing various nanoadsorbents, as
their contamination and accumulation can pose threats to
public health in agriculture soils (Anjum et al., 2016). Thus,
innovations in sensor technology by the aid of nanoma-
terials continue to overcome industrial challenges for food
and water safety; however, many issues are to be addressed
before launching sensing tools, such as selectivity toward
the target species, reaching satisfactory results, dealing with
the complex food mediums, achieving ultrasensitive limits
of detection, and operating in versatile environments
(Farahi et al., 2012).
15.2 Nano-barcodes
Nano-barcodes, an advancement in the field of nanobiotech-
nology, use ID tags for multiplexed analysis of gene
expression and intracellular histopathology where
improvement in plant resistance against various environ-
mental stresses such as drought, salinity, diseases, and
others have been possible. Nanotechnology-based gene
sequencing is expected to effectively identify and utilize
plant gene trait resources in the near future that could be
rapid and cost-effective (Branton et al., 2008).
15.3 Zig Bee
Zig Bee is a wireless mesh network, working with the
concept of “Smart Fields” and “Soil Net,” consisting of
one or more sensors for environmental data (temperature,
humidity, etc.), a signal conditioning block, a micropro-
cessor/microcontroller with an external memory chip,
and a radio module for wireless communication between
the sensor nodes and/or a base station. It is low cost, uti-
lizes low power, and can be used to identify and monitor
pests, drought, or increased moisture levels (Kalra
et al., 2010).
15.4 Nanobiostimulants
Plants develop innate immune responses like synthesis of
antioxidants, generation of defense enzymes, and rein-
forcement of cell walls to provide natural defense mecha-
nisms (Kumaraswamy et al., 2018), which could be
nonspecific and can be manipulated to protect crop plants
from a broad spectrum of phytopathogens (Sathiyabama
and Charles, 2015). Kumari et al. (2017) biosynthesized
silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) with bactericidal activity,
which could also boost immunity of plants. A significant
increase in production of phenolic compounds, total chloro-
phyll content, and oxidative enzymes, and a decrease in
pathogen infection were observed when tomato plants were
pretreated with 5 mg/mL Ag NPs. Chu et al. (2012) also
found that pretreatment with 10 mg/mL nanosized
Ag-silica hybrid complex (NSS) resulted in enhanced resis-
tance of Arabidopsis plants to the pathogen P.syringae pv in
tomato compared with the control. The chitosan nanopar-
ticles (CNPs) were more effective immune elicitors than
Nanotechnology-based innovative technologies for high agricultural productivity Chapter 19 215

chitosan for disease management in plants with almost
10 times lower dose than chitosan solution (Chandra
et al., 2015). Enhanced bioaccessibility and bioaccumu-
lation of lower doses of CNPs can be attributed to higher
efficacy and higher level of interaction of CNPs with plant
cells than chitosan.
16 Current status of agrinanotechnology
A search on patents during 2011–12 reveals that about
32.64% are parts of devices related to nanotechnology, agri-
culture, nutrition, and biotechnology, whereas only 36%
comprised metal oxides, fertilizers, pesticides, and drugs
(Benckiser, 2012). National Academy of Agricultural Sci-
ences (NAAS) investigated that about 90% of the nano-
based patents and products originate from seven countries
(China, Germany, France, Japan, Switzerland, South Korea,
and USA), whereas India’s investments and advancement is
not yet close to satisfactory (NAAS, 2013). The overall
increase in the number of patents in food and agriculture
in 2011–15 was 30.85% with China research, the highest
score of 18 nanoagriculture patents in 2015, whereas
Germany and Canada show little activity in this field. Gov-
ernment and industry has been spending millions of dollars
to apply nanotechnologies in areas such as agricultural pro-
duction, food processing, and packaging (Mukhopadhyay,
2014;Schulte, 2005). According to the current develop-
ments and public perception of nanotechnology (Besley,
2010), nanotech innovations will be the most important tool
in the modern agriculture and agri-food processing industry
(Parisi et al., 2015) in the near future.
17 Framework on policies
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has
opened up an exclusive platform to target nanotechnology
applications in agriculture encompassing major themes such
as synthesis of nanoparticles for agricultural use, quick
diagnostic kits for early detection of pests and diseases,
nanopheromones for effective pest control, nano-agri-inputs
for enhanced use efficiencies, precision water management,
stabilization of organic matter in soil, nanofood systems,
and biosafety, as well as establishing policy framework.
Green/microbial synthesis of nanomaterials where they
are naturally encapsulated with mother protein, are sup-
posed to be more stable and safer to the biological system
for their use in agriculture. Regulation of nanoagrochem-
icals should be based on the scientific evidence regarding
the efficiency, safety, and benefits from the whole formu-
lation (i.e., active ingredients and formulation base) and
not merely on the basis of core size of the active individual
nanoparticles.
18 Potential risks
Nanoparticles have been shown to possess genotoxic
potential (Karlsson, 2010) that can gain direct access to
DNA after being transported into the nucleus (Chen and
von Mikecz, 2005). The high surface-area-to-volume ratio
of the nanoparticles are known to produce reactive oxidative
species, which induce DNA damage in the form of single-
and double-stranded DNA breaks, base modifications, and
DNA crosslinks (Toyokuni, 1998).
The residue of nanoparticles cannot be cleared by
common rinsing methods and enter into the human body,
which finally may get into the spleen, brain, liver, heart,
vitals, etc., through the blood and lymphatic system. Some
nanomaterials (even nanosilver at high doses) have negative
effects on biological systems and the environment like
chemical hazards and generation of free radicals in living
tissue leading in DNA damage. The pathways by which
nanoparticles may enter the human body are via inhalation,
swallowing, absorption from skin, and deliberate injection
during medical processes or release from implants. Hence,
nanotechnology should be carefully evaluated before
increasing the use of nanoagromaterials (Dekkers
et al., 2016).
The common challenges related to commercializing
nanotechnology are high processing costs, problems in the
scalability of R&D for prototype and industrial production,
and concerns about public perception of environment,
health, and safety issues. Agricultural production and food
products are the most sensitive fields as accumulation and
uptake of newly engineered nanomaterials by plants may
adulterate the food chain and cause risk to human health
and the environment (Peng et al., 2017).
19 Risk assessment
Caution is required in the synthesis and use of nanoparticles
in agriculture for commercial/industrial products, as our
current level of knowledge is not enough to predict the
potential environmental impacts of nanoparticles
(Bernhardt et al., 2010;Nowack and Bucheli, 2007).
Numerous ethical and social concerns regarding health
and environmental safety have been raised in the market-
place against nanotechnology-enabled consumer products.
Thus, the public demands proper labeling and safety stan-
dards on packages to identify health and environmental con-
cerns of nano-enabled products (Throne-Holst and
Rip, 2011).
It is mandated to realize the importance of risk
assessment of nanotechnology by government and regu-
latory authorities (regulatory agencies, certification bodies)
as well as environmental, health, and safety councils (such
as Environment Health Services), non-governmental
216 SECTION CSoil and agriculture microbiology

organizations, and scientific authorities all over the world
(Sharma et al., 2012).
20 Future prospects
The possible perspectives in agri-food technology framed
on the basis of “use less and gain more” and can be illus-
trated in Fig. 1.
21 Conclusion
Despite plenty of information available on the toxicity of
nanoparticles to plant systems, studies conducted on mech-
anisms by which nanoparticles exert their effect on plant
growth and development are meager. Agricultural edu-
cation failed to attract sufficient brilliant minds over the
world, and hence there is an urgent need to develop human
resources with an understanding of the complexities of agri-
cultural production system successfully using nanotech-
nology applications. It might take a few decades for
agrinanotechnology to move from lab to land; however, sus-
tained funding and understanding on the part of policy
planners and science administrators, along with reasonable
expectations, would be crucial for this nascent field to
blossom. Increased patent applications from nanotech-
nology (approximately 10-fold) signify the potential in
nanotechnology-enabled commercial products and applica-
tions (Chen et al., 2008;Dang et al., 2010). However, low
investment in research infrastructure, lesser returns from
the agriculture sector, high cost of production, and ineffi-
cient technology transfer (Parisi et al., 2015;Kah, 2015)
are the main factors that limit the development of nanotech-
nology in the agricultural field.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the substantial and useful work from all the
researchers whom we quoted in this review. No funding has been pro-
vided for performing this study.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no relevant competing financial interests to
disclose.
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Nanotechnology-based innovative technologies for high agricultural productivity Chapter 19 219

Further reading
Abdel-Aziz, H.M., Hasaneen, M.N., Omer, A.M., 2016. Nano chitosan-
NPK fertilizer enhances the growth and productivity of wheat plants
grown in sandy soil. Span. J. Agric. Res. 14, 0902.
Ajirloo, A.R., Shaaban, M., Motlagh, Z.R., 2015. Effect of K nano-fertilizer
and N bio-fertilizer on yield and yield components of tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L.). Int. J. Adv. Biol. Biomed. Res.
3, 138–143.
220 SECTION CSoil and agriculture microbiology