Content uploaded by Marcus L. Stephenson
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Marcus L. Stephenson on May 28, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
Deciphering ‘Islamic hospitality’: Developments, challenges and
opportunities
Marcus L. Stephenson
*
The Business School, Middlesex University Dubai, P.O. Box 500697, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
highlights
Islamic hospitality has evolved with formal characteristics and institutional properties.
Islamic hotels and Shari’a-compliant products and services have significant scope for further development.
Halal food consumption is a central feature of Islamic hospitality, despite a climate of ‘halal hysteria’in the West.
Latent demand for Islamic hospitality exists in Muslim and Non-Muslim markets in the West.
Stakeholders must assure Muslim consumers of the legitimacy of halal-friendly products and services.
article info
Article history:
Received 1 September 2012
Accepted 7 May 2013
Keywords:
Islamic hospitality
Muslims
Hotels
Food
Events
Halal
abstract
This paper examines the principles and practices of Islamic hospitality, outlining the diverse ways in
which Islam intersects with ‘hospitality’and the ‘hospitality industry’. The intangible elements of Islamic
hospitality are initially discussed, particularly the importance of the hosteguest relationship and
differing cultural interpretations. The discussion then evaluates the tangible aspects of Islamic hospitality
through identifying trends, developments and challenges within the hotel sector, the food production
and service sector, and the festivals and events sector. The work adopts a global perspective, examining
Islamic hospitality with reference to both OIC (Organization of Islamic Cooperation) countries and non-
OIC countries. The paper also considers new sector opportunities and acknowledges the social difficulties
associated with the development of Islamic hospitality within the Western world, notably Islamophobia.
Finally, the paper indicates ways forward for future research.
Ó2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
In the summer of 2011, a prestigious UK hospitality and tourism
management school hosted an international conference focusing
on the social scientific study of tourism. Although the event was
successful, the scheduling of a ‘hog roast’dinner for conference
delegates, including Muslim participants, seemingly illustrates the
prevailing lack of sensitivity concerning the delivery of interna-
tional forms of hospitality. Such situations could discourage in-
dividuals from feeling welcome and being part of the collective
experience. The crucial function of the mealtime in signifying social
order and expressing friendship, has indeed been identified by
Mary Douglas (1972) in her seminal work: ‘Deciphering a Meal’.
Crucially, those inhospitable experiences that affrontone’s religious
values expose the cosmopolitan complexities embodied within the
hosteguest relationship.
It is pertinent to acknowledge the social relevance of the Islami-
zation of publicspace, particularly in the context of the contemporary
world of mobility. Informatively, van Nieuwkerk (2008,p.174)draws
reference to the popularity of Islamic art, cinema, music and tourism
to exemplify the growing importanceof the “Muslim culturalsphere”.
Therefore, this assessment implies skepticism towards reductionist
analyses for largely focusing on understanding the secularization of
the public sphere, and for assuming that these spaces are fully
influenced by notions and practices of religious neutrality and ma-
terial rationality (see for instance, Habermas, 1992).
In understanding ways in which places and products are
becoming predisposed to Islamic influence, it is imperative to
acknowledge the demographic position of the Muslim population.
According to the Pew Research Centre, the Muslim population
totaled around 1.6 billion in 2010 and was predicted to rise to 2.2
billion by 2030, i.e., from 23.4% to 26.4% of the global population.
*Tel.: þ971 4 361 6252; fax: þ971 4 367 2956.
E-mail address: m.stephenson@mdx.ac.
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman
0261-5177/$ esee front matter Ó2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.05.002
Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164
During this period, Europe’s Muslim population is expected to in-
crease from 6% to 8% (Economist, 2011). Accordingly, 60% of Mus-
lims originate from Asia and one fifth from the Middle East and
North Africa. Also, 400e600 million Muslims live as minorities in
other regions: 38.1 million in Europe, 8 million in the US and 1
million in Canada, for instance (Asif, 2011a). According to the Office
for National Statistics, the Muslim population in the UK increased
from 1.55 million in 2001 to 2.7 million in 2011 (Booth, 2012).
Muslim consumers are one of the fastest growing market seg-
ments. Market research conducted in early 2010, concluded that
one important target group for businesses and global marketers is
the ‘under 30s’segment, representing 42% of the Muslim popula-
tion (Khan & Janmohamed, 2011). The global revenue from Muslim
tourists for 2011 was estimated at US$126bn, constituting 12.3% of
the total global outbound tourism revenue, which is almost twice
that of China’s global revenue and forecasted to rise by 4.79%
annually for the following eight years. It was also estimated that
tourists from the Middle East and North Africa account for around
60% of total global Muslim outbound expenditure for 2011. For the
same year, Saudi Arabia is considered the largest outbound tourism
source country, with an estimated tourist expenditure of $US 23.8
billion, followed by Iran, UAE, Indonesia and Kuwait (Dinar
Standard and Crescentrating LLC., 2012).
The Islamic community is traditionally guided by Shari’alaw,
which is derived primarily from the Qur’an. Other important
sources of Islamic law include the statements of Prophet Moham-
med, which are included in the al-Sunnah or customs emphasizing
the prophetic tradition of Islam, and the sanctions of jurists rep-
resenting the Muslim community. Sanad, Kassem, and Scott (2010,
p. 20) note that, “.Shari’a is a mercy and is intended for the in-
terests of people in both life and the hereafter. It is neither harsh
nor strangling”. Shari’a thus establishes a social structure for
Muslim communities and acts as a moral guideline for daily life. It
places emphasis on human conduct and instructs behavior asso-
ciated with many aspects of the social environment: food, drink,
dress, entertainment, hygiene, etiquette and communication. Clear
regulations enshrined within Shari’a law concern what is ‘permis-
sible’or ‘lawful’(translated as ‘halal’in Arabic) and what is
‘forbidden’or ‘unlawful’(translated as ‘haram’). Importantly, this
paper will demonstrate how hospitality can be interpreted through
Islam, whether in terms of its tangible or intangible elements,
thereby shedding light on both the philosophical elements and
corporeal functions of hospitality.
Tourism’s relationship with Islam has generated significant ac-
ademic interest (Al-Hamarneh, & Steiner, 2004;Aziz, 2001;Battour,
Ismail, & Battor, 2010a,2010b;Din, 1989;Sanad et al., 2010;
Timothy & Iverson, 2006;Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010).
However, understanding the relationship between hospitality and
Islam has attracted far less attention, despite the existence of
several enquiries dealing with specific elements of that relation-
ship: the attributes of Shari’a-compliant hotels and their com-
mercial interest (Henderson, 2010), halal food and its influence on
the tourism industry and destination choice (Bon & Hussain, 2010),
and Islamic hospitality as a regional strategy for indigenous tourism
development in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) (Stephenson,
Russell & Edgar, 2010). Given that the tourism and hospitality in-
dustries are co-dependent, and that hospitality is often a funda-
mental component of the tourism experience, there is a need to
appreciate how Islamic principles and practices are manifest within
the context of hospitality and its development.
Although hospitality is popularly associated with the commer-
cial provision of accommodation, food and beverage, one crucial
dimension concerns aspects of conviviality and hospitability.
Indeed, social scientists recognize the social dynamics of hospitality
(Derrida, 2000a,2000b;Friese, 2004). Therefore, this paper initially
examines ways in which aspects of conviviality intersect with Is-
lamic principles. The work then indicates how Islam is represented
and formalized within the commercial provision of hospitality,
particularly within the hotel, food and event sectors, acknowl-
edging also the challenges and potential developments that the
Islamic hospitality sector faces. The discussion finally comments on
the wider societal concerns that threaten the constructive
advancement of an Islamic hospitality industry.
2. Intangible elements of Islamic hospitality
2.1. Traditional interpretations
In terms of its intangible dimensions, Islamic hospitality tradi-
tionally concerns aspects of congeniality and reverence. O’Gorman
(2007) acknowledges the historic role that caravanserais served in
the Muslim world, providing free short-term hospitality for in-
transit travelers and pilgrims. The travel narratives of the Muslim
explorer, Ibn Battuta (2004, p. 4), who traveled throughout parts of
Asia, North and West Africa, and Eastern and Southern Europe from
1325 to 1354, testify to the way in which hospitality was enacted in
the Muslim world. Travelers were “hospitably welcomed”and
“entertained”at hospices and rest houses, which were sustained by
“generations of benefactors”. Despite the dangers associated with
the lawlessness of travel, caravans fostered “kindliness”and “gen-
erosity”that underpinned “mutual relations”between fellow
Muslims. According to Vukoni
c (2010,p.40e41):
The attitude of Islam toward hospitality arises from the Hajj,
which is one of the basic obligations for an Islamic follower. One
of the ways for a Muslim to reach Jannah (paradise) is “by
showing hospitality (to a traveler or a guest)”(Selection of the
Prophet’sHadith, hadith 146). Hadith 146 explicitly states:
“There is no wellbeing in a family which does not welcome and
treat guests well”. It is understandable that special care should
be provided to people on the Hajj, but Islam is categorical here:
“Hospitality extends for three days. What is beyond that is
charity”(Selection of the Prophet’s Hadith, hadith 1000).
author’s original emphasis
Hospitality does not significantly surpass social boundaries.
Derrida’s (2000a;2000b) work on the sociological meaning of
hospitality identifies a conceptual distinction between ‘absolute’
and ‘conditional’forms of hospitality. He suggests that hospitality is
normally conditional as the mere existence of a ‘host-guest’rela-
tionship in some way implies impermanence, instruction, modus
operandi and obligation. Importantly, the laws and teachings of
Islam serve to instruct and condition how such people should be
approached and received, and how adherents of Islam should
mediate various places and situational contexts.
Contemporary forms of Islamic hospitality are inextricably asso-
ciated with the obligatorynature of travel, including pilgrimage (e.g.,
Hajj and Umrah). Other religiously motivated journeys are known as
‘Ziyara’, associated with visiting auspicious places and sites of reli-
giosity (shrines and mosques), and traveling to places to meet reli-
gious scholars or participate in religious events and festivals. There
are also spiritual journeys associated with ‘Rihla’, involving quests
for knowledge, business, health and research (Haq & Wong, 2010).
Here, perceptions of hospitality are traditionally embedded within
the relationship between travel and education, where there is an
important emphasis on the accumulation of wisdom through travel.
This perspective stands in marked contrast to more modernistic
forms of tourism motivation, especially the desire for pseudo expe-
riences (Boorstin, 1977), ego-enhancement (Dann, 1977) and hedo-
nism (Turner & Ash, 1975). Accordingly, commercially contrived
M.L. Stephenson / Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164156
forms of Western hospitality encourage self-centric tourism expe-
riences, and these experiences often signify conspicuous consump-
tion and self-indulgence (see Turner & Ash, 1975).
Din (1989), however, suggests that Islamic forms of travel can
endeavor to promote cross-cultural communication and mutual
understanding, attempting to endorse a sense of unity among the
Ummah (Muslim community). His description of Islamic travel is
compelling:
In sanctioning compassionate treatment for the traveler and in
placing a high premium in travel, Islam enjoins a system of
reciprocal hospitality which would promote fraternal affinity
among the Ummah, and would enable even the poor and the less
fit to travel (1989, p. 552e553).
author’s original emphasis
2.2. Cultural interpretations of Islamic hospitality
Islamic hospitality can also be interpreted in relation to social
context and culture. Ali’s (2008) ethnographic study, for instance,
which focuses on the tourism practices of a UK Pakistani community,
indicates how journeys to the ancestral homeland of Pakistan are
culturally appropriate activities involving the visiting of friends, im-
mediate relatives and extended family members located in numerous
towns and villages. Pakistani visitors were expected to furnish rela-
tives with gifts and accompany relatives when visiting other kinfolk
and attending ceremonial occasions (such as births, deaths and
weddings). Visiting homes of kin to offer condolences for deceased
members of the family or community, andvisiting their graves, would
often involve reciting prayers from the Qur’an.Suchconventionsof
hospitalityand forms of travelserve the culturalpurpose of helping to
secure familial relations, sustain kinship membership and enable
individuals to reaffirm their religious responsibilities.
There are thus differing ethnic, regional and national in-
terpretations and attributes of Islamic hospitality. In Iran, for
instance, there is a system of deference to others characterized by
the concept ‘ta’arof’, a mechanism of politeness articulated both
verbally and non-verbally (Asdjodi, 2001, p. 91). Ta’arof is exem-
plified through expressions of respect (‘ehteraam’), shyness or
ceremoniousness (‘rudarbaayesti’), humility (‘tavaazo’), hospitality
(‘mehmaan-navaazi’), and guest-friendship (‘mehmaan-dusti’).
Hospitality encounters not only signify good conduct from hosts
but also their desire to be accepted by guests. As an act of politeness
and social responsibility, ta’arof continues to be expressed despite
the fact that there may be occasions when the host does not want to
act in such a way (Behnam & Amizadeh, 2011). The elaborate of-
fering of food is an integral element of such encounters (see
Simpson-Herbert, 1987).
Pan-Arab notions of hospitality also shed light on the hetero-
geneous nature of Islamic hospitality. Mason (2011, p. 356) claims:
While it is important not to fall prey to Orientalist romanticisa-
tions of the Arab world, notions of hospitality (dhaifa) and gen-
erosity (karam) are of central importance within Arab culture..
Given the importance of hospitality within Arab culture, and the
continuing sense of the wider Arab ‘nation’transcending state
boundaries, it is not surprising that the migration and reception
of fellow Arabs is constructed within a discourse of hospitality.
author’s original emphasis
Mason further acknowledges that, although “hospitality pat-
terns and regimes in the Middle East have attracted surprising little
academic attention”(2011, p. 356), some scholarly insights have
focused on the hospitality traditions of Arab culture (see for
instance, Barakat, 1993) and specific locales where Arab hospitality
is enacted: from a street in Marakech (see Fernea Warnock, 1975)to
a village in Iraq (see Fernea Warnock, 1989).
As hospitality has become more structured, systematic and
formal, especially due to the globalization of tourism and mobility,
it is informative to examine ways in the hospitality industry man-
ifests Islamic principles and practices.
3. Tangible elements of hospitality
3.1. The Islamic hotel sector: principles and practices
In examining ways in which Islamic principles and instructions
can be integral to the hospitality industry, it is essential to
acknowledge how specific forms of religiosity are expressed and
how tangible forms of hospitality are produced and consumed.
Therefore, Islamic philosophy can play a potent role in the hotel
sector, though this would depend on the extent to which Shari’a
law applies.
Consequently, for a hotel to be classified as Shari’a-compliant it
would normally have to contain the following features associated
with five key components:
1. Human Resources: traditional uniforms for hotel staff; dress
code for female staff; prayer time provision for Muslim em-
ployees; restricted working hours for Muslim staff during
Ramadan; staff (and guest) adherence to moral codes of
conduct; and guest-centric strategies underpinning service
delivery.
2. Private Rooms (bedrooms and bathrooms): separate floors with
rooms allocated to women and families; markers (i.e., Qibla
stickers) indicating the direction of Mecca; prayer mats and
copies of the Qur’an; conservative television channels; geo-
metric and non-figurative patterns of decoration (e.g., callig-
raphy); beds and toilets positioned away from facing Mecca;
toilets fitted with a bidet shower or health faucet; and halal-
friendly complementary toiletries.
3. Dining and Banqueting Facilities: halal food with no pork; soft
beverages only (i.e., no provision or consumption of alcohol);
dining quarter provision for women and families, in addition to
communal area provision; art that does not depict human and
animal form; and no music expressing seductive and contro-
versial messages.
4. Other Public Facilities: no casino or gambling machines;
separate leisure facilities (including swimming pools and spas)
for both sexes; female and male prayer rooms equipped with
the Qur’an (also available at the front desk); built-in wudhu
facilities located outside prayer rooms; toilets facing away from
Mecca; and art that does not depict human and animal form.
5. Business Operation: ethical marketing and promotion; corpo-
rate social responsibility strategies (linked to Islamic values)
and philanthropic donations; and transactions and in-
vestments in accordance to principles and practices associated
with Islamic banking, accounting and finance.
Shari’a compliance indicates that the funding used to operate
hotels needs to be based on Islamic financial principles, where the
hotel company must contribute a proportion of the revenue to
‘chartable acts’(known as ‘zakat’). Zakat stresses the importance of
sharing equal benefits and helping others, particularly those in
need. Also, financial transactions should not involve the charging of
‘predetermined interest’(known as ‘riba’)(Maysami & Kwon,1999).
Given that Islamic banks are risk averse and prone to less specu-
lative forms of financial investment, they can be perceived as an
opportunity to provide long-term benefits.
M.L. Stephenson / Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164 15 7
Islamic principles interpret how specific business processes
such as marketing and advertising should operate. Promotional
strategies must be based on honest information, which is institu-
tionally challenging for the hospitality industry as it is often
vulnerable to false advertising. A UK study, for instance, inferred
that it is not uncommon for hotel brochures to produce false claims
concerning hotel facilities (Caterer and Hotelkeeper, 2005). A US-
based enquiry noted that hotel photographs and marketing de-
scriptions of various classifications of hotels were misleading,
because they were not consistently realistic and were prone to
exaggeration (Stoller, 2011). Kavoossi and Frank’s (1990) compar-
ative observations indicated that advertising campaigns in the
West (notably US) often overstate matters in contrast to the mar-
keting activities of Persian Gulf states, which traditionally focus on
the genuineness of the product. However, in instances where
deception does occur in Islamic states, such cases are often taken
seriously. In Qatar, for instance, it was reported that eight seafood
restaurants were closed down by the authorities because they
misled customers with the wrong information, such as the type of
fish consumed (Toumi, 2012).
If a hotel intends to reflect Shari’a principles then it would have
to seriously address its service delivery and product offerings. Ho-
tels catering for spas and beauty care treatment, for example,
would need to ensure that cosmetics and toiletries consist of halal
products free from animal extracts. Some mainstream companies
are developing products sensitive to a Muslim market. Colgate-
Palmolive, for instance, produces halal-certified toothpaste and
non-alcoholic mouthwash. One other potential development con-
cerns gender segregation within hotels, or even the evolution of
gender-specific hotels. There is an anticipated trend for ‘women-
only-hotels’in the Middle East, popularized by the 2008 opening of
the Luthan Hotel and Spa in Saudi Arabia, claiming to be the first of
its kind in the Middle East (Hammond, 2008). However, segregated
accommodation is not a new concept within the hospitality in-
dustry. There are a range of hotels in the West that offer ‘women-
only-floors’, responding to the need for security and privacy (e.g.,
Hamilton Crowne Plaza in Washington DC, Hotel Bella Sky in
Copenhagen and the Georgian Court Hotel in Vancouver).
The full likelihood of hotels currently pursuing all the necessary
Shari’a-compliancy criteria is doubtful. Nonetheless, there are
likely to be various gradations of compliancy. Henderson (2010)
indicates that, although there are no formally accepted or agency
officiated stipulations testifying to an archetypal Shari’a-compliant
hotel, some Islamic states have existing legal frameworks indi-
cating ways in which hotels must operate. Hotels in Iran and Saudi
Arabia, for instance, normally request couples who are intending to
stay at the hotel to produce documentary evidence proving that
they are married. As no formal certification framework for Shari’a
hotels commonly exists, it would be prudent in the medium-term
for professional practice and academic study to utilize the
concept, ‘Islamic hotel’. Such terminology implies conceptual flex-
ibility and symbolizes the diversity of the Islamic world. However,
any serious movement towards the development of Shari’a-
compliant hotels could progressively change the way in which Is-
lamic hospitality is structured, operated and managed. For the
moment, however, and as noted below, the hotel sector is starting
to awaken to opportunities to develop Islamic hospitality.
3.2. Current developments and challenges within the hotel sector
Along with the support of a joint venture between Kempinski
Hotels and Guidance Hotel Investment Company, Shaza Hotels, a
Parisian-based operator, is focusing on developing and managing a
range of alcohol-free hotels in the Middle East and North Africa. It
opened its first hotel in Madinah in Saudi Arabia in December 2010
(Bundhun, 2010a), and is thus strategically targeting religious sites
to establish adjacent hotel businesses. Also, along with the UAE-
based hotel developer, Range Hospitality, Shaza Hotels is working
to establish hotels around pilgrimage sites in Iraq (Gulf News,
2010). One hotel company that indicates that it is Shari’a-
compliant is the De Palma Group of Hotels in Malaysia, which
operates hotels located in Ampang, Kuala Selangor, Kuching and
Shah Alam. The hotels have a range of Islamic features and services
(e.g., dress code, rooms equipped with prayer items and halal
certified food). The De Palma Hotel Ampang has been granted a
license to conduct Friday prayers together with a full time Imam
(http://www.depalmahotel.com). It attracts congregations of
around 1200e2000 for Friday prayer, and conducts religious classes
on Al-Quran recital and Islamic reflection and remembrance
(Sahida, Rahman, Awang, & Man, 2011).
The potential to develop Islamic hospitality on a concentrated
scale within specific Islamic societies is considerable. In Dubai, for
instance, five of its top ten markets for 2011 originate from the Is-
lamic countries of Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Oman and Pakistan.
Saudi Arabia, for instance, was the largest market of around 873,152
guests, and the combined guest total for the five countries was
2,068,480 guests (Khaleej Times, 2012). One notable Islamic hotel
that already exists is the four-star establishment, Al Jawhara Gar-
dens Hotel, operated by Lootah Hotel Management Company.
Around 60% of its clientele are apparently non-Muslim, encouraged
by a friendly atmosphere and family environment (Asif, 2011b).
Stephenson et al. (2010) note that the development of Islamic
hotels could also attract those Western tourists whose motivations
focus on well-being and cultural appreciation, and a health
conscious lifestyle. Health, wellness and spiritual forms of tourism
have become popular over the past two decades. There has been an
increased interest in ‘lifestyles of health and sustainability’, known
as the ‘Lohas’segment (see IPK International, 2010). This trend is
reflected in the Islamic hospitality market. In Indonesia, for
example, ‘halal spas’are increasingly popular, offering unique
Islamic-friendly services (e.g., headscarf styling) and utilizing a
range of halal-friendly cosmetics which are free from pork de-
rivatives, such as collagen, glycerin, keratin and tallow (Woo, 2011).
Singapore has started to offer halal-friendly accommodation,
where 366 hotels and resorts have been awarded Malaysian halal
certificates, 289 of these have been issued directly by the State Is-
lamic Religious Department and include such established hotel
brands as Pullman and Thistle Hotels (Halal Focus, 2011a). The
hospitality-based group, Retaj Marketing and Project Management,
which is located in Qatar, plans to develop 20 Islamic hotels in
Turkey (Sambidge, 2011). Some countries are planning to develop
Islamic resorts. Lootah Hotel Management, for instance, announced
plans to establish a Shari’a-compliant resort in the Maldives,
partnering with the Maldives’Kalaidhu Investment Private Ltd. The
resort has a projected cost of around $85 million, involving the
construction of 50 luxury villas within a private enclave incorpo-
rating dining, recreational and yachting facilities (Zawya, 2011).
For many moderate Muslim countries (e.g., Turkey, Oman, Qatar
and the UAE) substantial development is required before an Islamic
hotel sector is fully conceived as a key feature of the tourism
destination landscape. Oman recently announced its first alcohol-
free five-star hotel, which in itself is an interesting development
(Kola, 2010). Although Islamic hotels have not been fully developed
in the West, their evolution could be viewed as a direct response to
latent market demand. In 2009, visitors to the UK from the Middle
East spent more than $1.3 billion (Halal Focus, 2010), indicating the
potential development of Islamic-friendly hotels in keylocations in
Europe and other countries frequented by Muslim tourists (e.g.,
China, Russia and Thailand). In order for Muslim travelers to feel
comfortable, however, studies infer that they could appreciate
M.L. Stephenson / Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164158
hotels being located near to Mosques (see Mohsin, 2005;
Weidenfield, 2006), and public bathrooms with separate water
facilities to allow for ablution prior to formal prayers (Battour et al.,
2010a).
Nevertheless, grandiose plans that place significant emphasis on
extravagance and luxury could be counterproductive to the
expansion of self-effacing forms of hospitality pertinent to Islamic
hotel sector development. Consequently, the fundamental objec-
tive would be to produce moderate developments, which focus
more on the essence of Islam and at the same time reflect a sense of
community pride and value.
3.3. Halal food production and consumption: trends and
developments
Islamic law emphasizes that food should be pure in form and
content, declaring the following forms of consumption ‘haram’:
blood, carrion or dead animals, swine and all its related by-
products, animals that kill prey (including predatory birds), and
all amphibious animals. It is also deemed haram if animals are
slaughtered without religious pronouncements. The Qur’anic
perspective on intoxicants is unequivocal:
Satan’s plan is (but) to excite enmity and hatred between you,
with intoxicants and gambling, and hinder you from the re-
membrance of Allah, and from prayer: will you not then
abstain?
Qur’an, Surah 5, section 91
Halal food production is no longer a regional practice but an
international requirement, and one of the most crucial components
of the Islamic hospitality sector. In early 2010, the halal food market
had an estimated value of around US$635 billion, representing 16%
of the global food industry, and the halal market value in America
was estimated at US$17.6 billion (Asif, 2011a). Together with locally
adapted culinary practices, halal food can be re-authenticated into
a distinguished cuisine servicing a broader market segment of
tourists and made available at various outlets (e.g., hotels, restau-
rants, take-away outlets, food courts, aircraft dining and cafes).
Information released in 2009 estimated that nearly 85% of halal
food is produced in non-Muslim countries. Australia, for instance,
has been the leading supplier and exporter of halal meat since 2003
(Halal Focus, 2009).
Offering halal dining experiences to Muslims living in Western
countries could create a competitive edge for some companies. As
part of their regional agenda concerning local market adaptation,
the McDonalds Corporation introduced halal dishes in some of its
restaurants in such cosmopolitan cities as London (UK), Michigan
(US) and Sydney (Australia) (IOS Minaret, 2008). In 2009, Kentucky
Fried Chicken offered halal menus in 8 of its UK restaurants (BBC
News Magasine, 2009). Nonetheless, some large companies in the
West are moving towards a more comprehensive halal food agenda,
not just in terms of adopting an Islamic-friendly approach (i.e., halal
menu options) but in terms of Shari’a-compliancy (i.e., halal res-
taurants). The opening of Domino Pizza in 2010, a halal-only outlet
in Hall Green, Birmingham (UK), signifies a significant step forward
in this direction (Cooper, 2009).
Therefore, it is myopic to assume that the transition towards the
development of halal products is simply an altruistic response
by the industry to recognize the religious needs of consumers.
Halal food products may well have a wider appeal to non-Muslims
because of safety and sanitation issues, where cross-contamination
is less likely (Asif, 2011b). Marhaba, a Dutch company that sells
halal biscuits and chocolates, managed to attract a quarter of its
customers from the non-Muslim segment (Power, 2009). The fast
food restaurant chain, Chicken Cottage, which originally opened its
halal restaurant in 1994 in London (UK), uses the word ‘halal’as
part of its logo but does not blatantly advertise this association. It
now has 140 restaurants worldwide, including Canada, Pakistan,
Saudi Arabia and Slovakia (Marketing Weekly, 2010). The Saffron
Road brand of halal meat products also targets a wider market of
consumers, especially as it is retailed through one of the largest
premium natural food chains, Austin Whole Foods Market
(Amanullah, 2011). The retail of halal products through supermar-
kets and hypermarkets represents a shift in the supply chains of
halal products, which were traditionally available in small specialist
ethnic stores.
One emerging trend is the development and expansion of
Muslim-centric produce, illustrated in the production of the Evoca
Cola drink. This product utilizes natural ingredients including ex-
tracts from black seeds. This seed literally translates as ‘seed of
blessing’because it is noted in the hadiths of Prophet Muhammad
to have healing benefits (Wilson and Liu, 2010). The Evoca Cola
drink currently sells in Algeria and France and is also being sold at
major UK stores (e.g., Asda). Mecca Cola, which bears the slogan:
“Shake your Conscience”, also sells internationally and pledges 10%
of its profits to charities operating in the Palestinian territories, and
10% to charities located in countries where the drink is sold (Özkan
and Foster, 2005). Another related trend concerns the production of
‘eco-halal food’, which is based on organic farming, non-
mechanical slaughter and production, and stringent cleansing
methods. This approach is perceived to be more holistic than the
halal certified method of mechanical slaughter, which became
popular due to high demand. Eco-halal food reflects the social value
of ‘tayyib’(Amanullah, 2011), a term that is conceptually grounded
in the Qur’an to imply wholesome (i.e., good) properties:
“O you people! Eat of what is on earth, lawful and good; and do
not follow the footsteps of the Evil One, for he is to you an
avowed enemy”.
Qur’an, Surah 2, section 168
The wholesome element has its roots in medieval Islamic soci-
ety in the Middle East. One of the oldest Arabic cookbooks, written
in 10th century Iraq by Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq, who produced dishes
consumed by caliphs and other members of high society, provides
recipes based on food associated with natural healing practices and
information highlighting the humoral properties of food (Nasrallah,
2007).
3.4. Islamic legitimization of halal products and services: unified
systems and practices
There are a range of organizations involved in the Islamic
legitimization (i.e., authentication and verification) of halal prod-
ucts and services. The Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of
America (IFANCA), for instance, is a non-profit organization
responsible for certifying halal food production in various food
industries in over 20 (OIC and non-OIC) countries worldwide. It
supervises services for hand-slaughtered and machine-slaughtered
meat and poultry, and also certifies halal cosmetics (http://www.
ifanca.org/index.php). Another body is the Australian Federation
of Islamic Councils (AFIC), responsible for overseeing the slaughter
and certification of meat and non-meat products. AFIC also moni-
tors the cleansing of slaughter houses, chillers, freezers, packing
and loading areas, and also inspects the logistical aspects associated
with the movement and shipping of products. It is also responsible
for overseeing halal slaughter and certification for Hajj and Umrah
(http://www.afic.com.au/). There is also the European Institute of
Halal Certification, which inspects the food, medical and cosmetic
M.L. Stephenson / Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164 15 9
industries as well as recommends certification (see www.eurohelal.
de/en/about-us.html).
Nonetheless, there are numerous organizations dealing with
Islamic monitoring, including at least 20 different certification
bodies in the UK alone (Bon & Hussain, 2010). These authors thus
state:
In fact, due to a lack of an integrated global supply chain and also
a lack of global awareness of its importance for Muslims, the
food services sector at large finds it difficult to comply with halal
standards. There is no unique global trademark for halal food
available and no common standard or a global institution to
issue and regulate the certificates (2010, p. 55).
authors’original emphasis
This situation encourages different opinions concerning what
constitutes halal, including conflicting views on animal feed,
slaughtering method, packaging and logistics. However, the lack of
a comprehensive approach to the halal monitoring process has
considerable implications. Although the Malaysian government, for
instance, is aware of the need to encourage producers to be more
halal-oriented, the production of some non-halal products persists.
Gelatine, for instance, an extract from the skin and bones of pigs, is
utilized for the production of various desserts (Nasaruddin, Fuad,
Mel, Jaswir, & Hamid, 2012). Nonetheless, Malaysia is pushing for
certification and a single halal logo across all states with amend-
ments made to the 1972 Trade Description Act (the Star, 2010). The
need for more coherence in terms of certification would reassure
consumers of the legitimacy of the products, particularly important
in the context of halal fraud, which is escalating due to the rise in
demand for halal products. Companies operating in a range of
countries such as South Africa (Halal Focus, 2011b), US (George,
2010) and the UK (Hickman, 2009), have been accused of trading
in false halal produce.
Nevertheless, halal-certified dining can positively claim public
repute. Kuala Lumpur International Airport (Malaysia), for instance,
is rated formally as the most Islamic-friendly airport of all OIC
countries, especially as it caters for a broad choice of halal-certified
dining options (see http://www.crescentrating.com). This case
further implies that hospitality venues in OIC countries can also
find benefit from halal certification, which dispels the assumption
that halal certification is simply associated with non-OICs.
Given the complexities concerning the legitimization of halal
products, it is essential that halal producers and suppliers consis-
tently encourage consumers to be aware of which products are
authentically halal and which services are Islamic-friendly. Wan-
Hassan and Awang’s (2009) New Zealand study, for instance, sug-
gests that despite the fact that the government is conscious of the
potential of halal food in encouraging a vibrant Muslim tourism
market, restaurants can be apathetic in communicating their halal
products to tourists. Nevertheless, specific knowledge management
systems have slowly emerged to address this imbalance, providing
Muslims with information on a range of halal-friendly products and
services available within the hospitality and tourism industries.
Crescentrating.com is an information-based website established
in 2006 to notify business tourists of halal-friendly environments. It
has grown significantly in both scope and content, containing
global information on a variety of topics: halal-friendly accommo-
dation, resorts, restaurants, caterers, food and beverage manufac-
turers, shopping destinations, airports, Islamic art and cultural
sites. The company also rates hotels in accordance to detailed
Islamic-friendly criteria (http://www.crescentrating.com/). A range
of halal food information websites also exist, notable examples are
‘Eat Halal’,‘Green Zabiha’,‘Halal Healthy’and ‘Halal Focus.com’.
There are also numerous user-friendly interface applications for
mobile devices (see, for instance, ‘HalalTrip’and ‘Muslim Pro’),
which deal with halal-friendly hospitality products and services,
such as hotels, holiday packages, destination guides, airport guides
and restaurants.
3.5. Islamic festivals and events sector
The academic study of the festivals and events sector has not
fully considered the Islamic dimension, despite the fact that the
Islamic sector expresses attributes that typify central features of
events: uniqueness, ritual or ceremony, ambience and service, and
interaction (Shone & Parry, 2004). In his detailed conceptual review
of event tourism, Getz (2008) misses an opportunity to acknowl-
edge the Islamic component, which is indeed noteworthy given its
scope and potential, and the fact that Muslim consumers are an
increasingly important market with particularistic-based needs,
interests and requirements.
Islamic festivals express varying levels of religiosity and social
hospitality, and are often resource-dependent on the hospitality
industry. They are thus diverse, often associated with family cele-
bration (e.g., weddings) or have high religious significance (e.g., the
end of Hajj, Prophet Muhammad’s birthday and Ramadan). The
holy month of Ramadan, which takes place in the ninth month of
the Islamic calendar and usually lasts for 29 or 30 days, is a period
when families and social groups have the option of utilizing hotels
and restaurants for the fast-breaking meal, Iftar. This meal, which
starts at sunset, has grown into a banqueting-type festival with
significant revenue generation implications for the hospitality in-
dustry. In Dubai, for example, during the 2010 Ramadan, the Dubai
hotel sector mounted a promotional campaign, especially impor-
tant as this period represented the low tourist season and a time
when members of the expatriate community traveled overseas for
their summer vacation. The Grand Millennium Dubai, for instance,
established specially designed air-conditioned Ramadan tents for
families and commercial groups. The Kempinski Hotel Mall of
Emirates encouraged potential guests to stay in the hotel and
purchase an inclusive package including Iftar or Suhoor ea meal
consumed early morning before the start of fast (Bundhun, 2010b).
Furthermore, it is claimed that the AKMC Al Shohada Hotel in
Makkah generates more business from its food and beverage divi-
sion in Ramadan than any other month of the year (Osman, 2011).
The role of the hotel sector in the production of feasts and lav-
ished buffets during Ramadan has raised some ethical concerns.
These events potentially impact the long-term social ethos and
cultural perception of Islamic hospitality, especially if they are not
closely monitored. Luxury Iftars, served in five star hotels, can
naturally produce high levels of food waste (Arabian Business,
2011). Therefore, as Qur’anic principles emphasize appreciation
and respect for food conservation, high wastage can work against
the spirit of Ramadan and the notion of fasting.
The end of Ramadan, Eid ul-Fitr, is also a popular festival
throughout the Muslim world and can take place from one to four
days (or more), depending on the country celebrating the event. In
Indonesia, Muslims engage in Mudik, which is a cultural expression
of Eid ul-Fitr (known locally as Lebaran), and involves individuals
traveling nationally and from overseas to visit their relatives and
family homes. However, the opportunity to stay in local hotels
encourages some individuals and families to fully recuperate after a
month of fasting. Such destinations as Bali, especially its southern
region, are popular with domestic tourists who stay in accommo-
dation ranging from budget hotels in Kuta and Tuban to luxury
hotels in Jimbaran and Nusa Dua (Jakarta Post, 2009). Up-market
hotels in Jakarta offer special packages to high-income city
dwellers, with the belief that they will prefer to stay in hotels to
continue to be provided with special treatment, especially as their
M.L. Stephenson / Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164160
housemaids and drivers leave for Mudik activities (Jakarta Post,
2010).
Many other inimitable forms of festivity during this period exist
in the Muslim world, undoubtedly having a direct effect on local
hospitality industries, such as the mass performance of Takhteem
(complete rectal of the Qur’an) by various inhabitants of the
southeastern province of Hadramount in Yemen (Al Batati, 2012). In
Oman, Eid ul-Fitr is celebrated through increased domestic tourism
and day visits to cattle auctions and traditional souks (Vaidya,
2012).
Islamic festivals are increasing being celebrated in non-OIC
countries, especially in such cosmopolitan cities as Brisbane, Mel-
bourne and Sidney, attracting Muslim and non-Muslim commu-
nities and providing opportunities to collectivelyappreciate Islamic
culture and hospitality. The annual Multicultural Eid Festival and
Fair in Sydney, for instance, which was established in 1985 by the
Islamic Foundation of Education and Welfare, attracts around
30,000 Muslim and non-Muslim visitors annually (http://www.
meff.ifew.com).
In addition to the Islamic festival component, there are also
trade shows dedicated to the promotion of Islamic hospitality, such
as the Bmitra Islamic Tourism Expo (Malaysia) and the annual In-
ternational Halal Product Expo (Brunei). The ‘Islamic’concept is
also becoming fashionable in the academic world. National,
regional and international conferences are being produced and
reproduced in relation to a host of themes involving the wider field
of Islamic studies, for example: ‘Islamic banking, finance, marketing
and accounting’,‘Islamic law’,‘Islamic political systems’,‘Islamic
civilization’,‘Islamophobia’,‘Islamic education and culture’,‘Islamic
tourism’, and ‘Islamic bioethics’. Islamic exhibitions also maintain
cosmopolitan interest, and are popularized through art exhibitions
focusing on the esthetic diversity of the Islamic world (e.g., ce-
ramics, textiles and calligraphy) and photography exhibitions
focusing on such features as Hajj and Ramadan, and Muslim life in
Europe (see http://islamicartsmagazine.com/). There are also Is-
lamic fashion shows and musical events, which also utilize hospi-
tality resources. The ‘Islamic fashion week’concept, for instance, is
escalating in many OIC and non-OIC countries and is becoming a
popularized urban event; often requiring the use of hotel space and
other ancillary hospitality services.
There are other distinct types of events, notably Islamic con-
ventions, dedicated to the promotion of Muslim values and beliefs.
One high profile event is the Reviving the Islamic Spirit (RIS) con-
ference. It was estimated that the 10th RIS conference in 2011
attracted over 20,000 attendees at Toronto’s Metro Convention
Centre (Global Muslim Brotherhood Daily Report, 2011). The
themes of the conference vary annually and include such topics as
the life of Prophet Muhammad, Islamic civilization and Canadian-
Muslim identity. The Islamic Society of North America (ISNA),
which has established large-scale conferences since the early
1980s, holds an annual national convention heralded as the largest
conference of Muslim delegates in the US. The 47th ISNA Annual
Convention in 2010, held at the Rosemont Convention Centre
(Chicago), received an estimated total turnout of around 30,000
attendees (Bortot, 2010). The annual convention normally com-
prises of Islamic lectures, discussions, debates, nasheeds, and
comedy shows (see: http://www.isna.net). The oldest Islamic
convention in the US, operating since the early 1970s, is the Islamic
Circle of North America (ICNA) and the Muslim American Society
(MAS) Annual Convention. The 36th Annual ICNA-MAS Convention
in 2011 was attended by an estimated 14,000 guests and hosted in
Connecticut’s Greater Hartford and Convention Visitors Bureau
(Mahbubur, 2011).
A fuller examination of these types of events should illustrate
how the hospitality industry intersects with Islamic institutions,
and how event experiences encourage social interaction and
learning experiences to develop, thereby demonstrating how
‘Rihla’actually functions. Moreover, given the level of annual
participation for some of these events, there will be a cyclical de-
mand for hotels and restaurants.
Representatives of the Muslim community will have significant
though variable roles to play in the production and consumption of
Islamic festivals and events. Therefore, Islamic principles and
practices of hospitality should have a deterministic influence.
4. Future development opportunities
4.1. Halal airlines
The World Travel Market Global Trends Report (2007) acknowl-
edged the potential for the future development of ‘halal airlines’,
especially as global travel for the Muslim community is significantly
increasing (cited in the Halal Digest, 2007). Similar to the Shar’ia-
compliant hotel prototype, discussed earlier, halal airlines would
need specially designed aircraft facilities, such as gender-specific
prayer space provision with washing facilities, gender and family
segregated seating, and in-flight religious entertainment. Airline
services would thus solely cater for the flight needs of Muslim
travelers, including halal dietary provision and soft beverages. The
airline’s business model should be based on philanthropic directives
and ethical marketing practices, as well as Islamic forms of finance
and investment. Although Shari’a airlines are not fully developed,
some Islamic-friendly airlines do exist, most notably: Air Arabia
(Sharjah, UAE), Kuwait Airways and Saudi Arabian Airlines. These
airlines prohibit alcohol and announce pre-recorded prayers during
takeoff (Husain, 2007). British Airlines is also becoming more
Islamic-friendly, where its in-flight caterer Gate Gourmet utilizes
halal production practices for most meals, especially for long-haul
flights from London Heathrow Airport, including the preparation,
storage and the transportation of halal food (Haq, 2010).
Given that alcoholic options are already purchased by passen-
gers as part of the pre-ticket arrangement for the majority of air-
lines, the opportunity to travel on a halal airline could foster
customer loyalty. Accordingly, Muslim travelers can be secure in the
knowledge that they do not have to purchase non-consumptive
items, especially alcoholic beverages, and thus be associated with
products considered haram.
4.2. Islamic village tourism
Islamic hospitality can be developed on a larger scale. One such
example is the ‘traditional village of al-Saha’, located in a southern
suburb of Beirut. No alcohol is served to visitors and entertainment
adheres to Islamic principles. The village represents Islamic and
Arabic architecture, music, poetry and varied art forms. The profit
that is received from this initiative is directed to the management
body, al-Mabarrat, which is a philanthropic organization adminis-
tering charities for people in need (Mona, 2006). Hazbun (2008,p.
228) believes that other destinations in the Middle East could
benefit from initiatives of this kind as they produce “meaningful
experiences”and involve the “local community”,aswellasamal-
gamate the cultural and economic components of the tourism
project. In some cases, Islamic village initiatives could combine with
the ‘heritage village’concept. This trend is widely established and
has also evolved through tourism initiatives based on specific reli-
gious communities, such as the Anabaptists in the US (Luthy, 1994).
The main objective of Islamic village tourism would be to
develop hospitality beyond closed institutions and within the
context of the tourism destination itself. The scope of such an
initiative is germane given the geographic expanse of the Muslim
M.L. Stephenson / Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164 16 1
world. Projects developed in Islamic regions in Asia, North Africa
and the Middle East could demonstrate the diversity of Islamic
village life. Nonetheless, they would need to be planned carefully
and strategically, and be based on a collective consensus concern-
ing the interpretation and application of Islamic principles.
4.3. Islamic cruises
One other potential development is the Islamic cruise, though
this has not yet evolved as a distinct industry-based concept.
However, cruise ship holidays have appealed to other religious
communities. Kosherica, for instance, is a company that deals
significantly with cruise ship holidays for the Jewish community
(http://www.kosherica.com/). Also, Christian Cruise.Net offers a
range of holidays for different segments of its community (http://
www.christiancruises.net/).
One noteworthy project, developed by representatives of the
Muslim community in Atlanta (US) in 2012, is the ‘Salaam Cruise’
initiative. Although the long-term intention is to hire and manage a
cruise ship for mainly Muslim passengers, and also establish
Muslim-centric activities and applicable services as part of the Is-
lamic cruise experience, the organization is currently focused on
managing group trips on established cruise liners (http://www.
salaamcruise.com/).
5. Wider social-political threats: Islamophobia and
inhospitality
In order for Islamic hospitality to flourish globally, the wider
social environment needs to be receptive and hospitable to Muslim
communities and cultures. Derrida’s (2000a,2000b) social assess-
ment of hospitality acknowledges a paradox, whereby hostility
actually underlies discourses and practices of hospitality. Hospi-
tality can transgress into hostility, especially in the context of
modernity and as hostility is often a social derivative of the nation
and state.
Following the September 11 2001 terrorist attacks on the World
Trade Centre, the places, spaces and movements of members of the
international Muslim community have become more vulnerable to
public scrutiny, suspicion and discrimination. Stephenson and Ali’s
(2010) enquiry provides a wealth of case examples where Muslims
living and travelling in Western states have encountered significant
levels of hostility. The situation is exacerbated as a consequence of
the increasing significance of Islamophobia, which denotes anti-
Muslim sentiment, irrational fear of Muslims and hatred of Islam.
Accordingly, Islamophobia compromises the perception of Islamic
communities as being safe and hospitable, affecting the extent to
which the Islamic hospitality sector can actually expand and
develop, especially in the West.
Hasan (2012) documents ways in which ‘halal hysteria’has
significantly emerged throughout Europe, spurred on by populist
media sources and nationalist politicians misleadingly claiming
that Islamic slaughtering methods are inhumane and that the
public unknowingly consume halal products. Consequently,
Islamophobia can affect social relations and interaction, repre-
senting a challenge to cosmopolitan exchanges and multicultural
experiences. These situational contexts are integral to international
forms of hospitality.
6. Conclusion and research implications
The increase in demand for halal products and services, together
with demographic changes within the Muslim community, have
encouraged new opportunities for the expansion of hospitality
provision. Importantly, this paper asserts that Islamic products and
services do not need to be developed and promoted just for the
Muslim market. There are some spheres of hospitality where non-
Muslims can be viewed as potential market segments. There are
positive indications that these consumers are likely to be interested
in halal forms of hospitalitybecause of issues of product safety,social
civility and lifestyle. Accordingly, future research ought to consider
the perceptions and experiences of non-Muslims, especially those
segments seeking health-conscious lifestyles and those who are
socially aware and appreciative of other cultures and societies. The
objective would be to investigate the actual extent to which these
consumers are willing to embrace the Islamic hospitality experience,
or at least purchase certain types of halal products and services.
In many ways, Islamic hospitality is complex and diverse, in the
same way that the Muslim population is by no means a monolithic
group. In order to avoid reductionist thinking it would be appro-
priate to consider the tangible and intangible dimensions of Islamic
hospitality in relation to variables of age, gender, ethnicity and
nationality; especially within the context of specific countries and
regions. This endeavour would also help to highlight the religious
multiplicities and gradations of Islamic hospitality. Enquiries need
to unearth various Muslim perceptions of the Islamic (and non-
Islamic) nature and content of hospitality experiences, resources
and initiatives, both within the context of OIC and non-OIC coun-
tries. Therefore, studies ought to seriously address the multifarious
nature of the Muslim community in terms of people’s social and
behavioral expectations, and types of hospitality consumption and
use. Subsequently, market research data is necessary to ascertain
the extent to which specific segments of the Muslim population
prefer hotels to accommodate certain Islamic features, for instance.
Furthermore, it would be purposeful to explore development op-
portunities for niche forms of Islamic hospitality, including alter-
native forms of holiday lodging. This would include Islamic cruises,
Muslim camps and campsites, and Islamic motels and hostels.
Nonetheless, it would be purposeful, however, to initially examine
various Muslim segments to gage opinions and attitudes towards
the expansion of the halal market in the hospitality industry, and to
understand variations in terms of needs and preferences.
The development of case study appraisals of specific festivals
and events which target Muslim communities would enable aca-
demic study and professional practice to understand this field
more. The focus would be to examine ways in which Islamic oc-
casions effectively utilize hospitality-based resources, and ways in
which they are structured, organized, managed, operated and
consumed, with the ultimate objective of identifying commonal-
ities and distinguishing features.
Nonetheless, as this paper illustrates, the relationship between
Islam and hospitality manifests a range of ethical challenges con-
cerning product and service delivery issues. Importantly, Muslim
consumers require reassurance from suppliers of the genuineness
of the purchased product or the specific service. The hospitality
industry needs to play a proactive role in working with designated
international bodies to develop criteria for global certification.
Accordingly, action-based research, utilizing information gained
from stakeholder collaboration and consultation, could help to
develop a transparent and unified policy framework appropriate
for the Islamic legitimization of the industry, especially for each
sector and inclusive of OIC countries. The objective would be to
work towards an agenda of global governance.
Consequently, there is a need to construct alternative models of
development and professional practice beyond Western perspec-
tives of hospitality, especially in designing appropriate and prac-
tical approaches for the development and management of Islamic
hospitality. The objective, however, is to present forms of hospi-
tality that are compatible to Islamic lifestyles rather than tourist-
centric lifestyles and lifestyles of pure consumption. Nonetheless,
M.L. Stephenson / Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164162
if Islamic hospitality developed as global entity then the current
climate of Islamophobia would have to diminish. Despite this sit-
uation, however, there are clear signs that Islamic hospitality has
evolved with formal characteristics and institutional properties.
Therefore, it would be pertinent to envisage the emergence of an
‘Islamic hospitality industry’.
References
Al Batati, S. (2012 August 19). Mukalla keeps old traditions alive. Gulf News,12.
Al-Hamarneh, A., & Steiner, C. (2004). Islamic tourism: rethinking the strategies of
tourism development in the Arab world after September 11, 2001. Comparative
Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 24(1), 18e27.
Ali, N. (2008). The significance of ethnic identity upon tourism participation within the
Pakistani community (Unpublished PhD dissertation in tourism studies). United
Kingdom: University of Bedfordshire.
Amanullah, Z. (2011). Opinion: an Islamic approach to ethical consumerism.
Retrieved September 24, 2011 from http://halalfocus.net/2011/06/09/opinion-
an-islamic-approach-to-ethical-consumerism/.
Arabian Business. (2011 August, 16). Luxury Iftars spark row over food waste.
Asdjodi, M. (2001). A comparison between ta’arof in Persian and limao in Chinese.
International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 148(1), 71e92.
Asif, A. S. (2011a). Opinion: Pakistan export potential in global halal market. Halal
Focus. Retrieved October 11, 2011 from http://halalfocus.net/2011/03/29/
opinion-pakistan-export-potential-in-global-halal-market/.
Asif, A. S. (2011b). Pakistan-halal meat exports. Meat Trade News Daily. Retrieved
October 20, 2011 from http://www.meattradenewsdaily.co.uk/news/200411/
pakistan___halal_meatexports.aspx.
Aziz, H. (2001). The journey: an overview of tourism and travel in the Arab Islamic
context. In D. Harrison (Ed.), Tourism and the less developed world: Issues and
case studies (pp. 151e159). Wallington: CABI.
Barakat, H. (1993). The Arab world: Society, culture, and state. Berkeley, CA: Uni-
versity of California Press.
Battour, M. M., Ismail, M. N., & Battor, M. (2010a). The impact of destination attri-
butes on Muslim tourist’s choice. International Journal of Tourism Research, 13(6),
527e540.
Battour, M. M., Ismail, M. N., & Battor, M. (2010b). Toward a halal tourism market.
Tourism Analysis, 15(4), 61e70.
Battuta, I. (2004). Travels in Asia and Africa: 1325e1354 (H. A. R. Gibb, Trans.). Oxon,
UK: RoutledgeCurzon.
BBC News Magazine. (2009). When is halal meat not halal meat?. Retrieved June 20,
2011 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8059218.stm.
Behnam, B., & Amizadeh, N. (2011). A comparative study of the compliments and
compliment responses between English and Persian TV interviews. 3L: The
Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 17(1), 65e78.
Bon, M., & Hussain, M. (2010). Halal food and tourism: prospects and challenges. In
N. Scott, & J. Jafari (Eds.), Tourism in the Muslim world: Bridging tourism theory
and practice (pp. 47e59). Bingley, UK: Emerald.
Boorstin, D. J. (1977). The image: A guide to pseudo-events in America. New York:
Atheneum.
Booth, R. (2012). Census: Almost one in eight people in England and Wales born
abroad, Guardian, December 11. Retrieved February 20, 2013 from http://m.
guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/dec/11/census-one-in-eight-born-abroad.
Bortot. (2010). National Muslim convention highlights faith and community. Retrieved
from the American Government Archive on 7th July from http://www.america.
gov/st/peopleplace-english/2010/July/20100707150303kcsniggih2.788943e-02.
html.
Bundhun, R. (2010a). Hotels aim to reflect Islamic culture. The National. Retrieved
October 27, 2011 from http://www.thenational.ae/business/travel-tourism/
hotels-aim-to-reflect-islamic-culture.
Bundhun, R. (2010b). Summer Ramadan means big discounts. The National.
Retrieved October 21, 2010 from http://www.thenational.ae/business/travel-
tourism/summer-ramadan-means-big-discounts.
Caterer and Hotelkeeper (2005). Lies, damned lies and hotel brochures, 194 (4379),
10. Retrieved September 20, 2011 from http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/
articles/17543422/lies-damned-lies-hotel-brochures.
Cooper, M. (2009 February 12). Domino’s pizza defends halal-only outlet. The In-
dependent. Retrieved June 20, 2011 from http://www.independent.co.uk/life-
style/food-and-drink/news/dominos-pizza-defends-halalonly-outlet-1607587.
html.
Dann, G. M. S. (1977). Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism. Annals of Tourism
Research, 4(4), 184e19 4.
Derrida, J. (2000a). Of hospitality (R. Bowlby, Trans.). Stanford: Stanford University
Press.
Derrida, J. (2000b). Hostipitality. Angelaki: Journal of the Theoretical Humanities, 5(3),
3e18.
Din, K. H. (1989). Islam and tourism: patterns, issues and options. Annals of Tourism
Research, 16, 542e563.
Dinar Standard and Crescentrating LLC. (2012). Global Muslim lifestyle travel market-
landscape and consumer needs study-executive summary, July. Retrieved August
7, 2012 from http://advisory.dinarstandard.com/travelstudy/#top.
Douglas, M. (1972). Deciphering a meal. Daedalus, 101(1), 61e81.
Economist. (2011 January 27). Islam and demography: A waxing crescent. Retrieved
September 24, 2011 from http://www.economist.com/node/18008022.
Fernea Warnock, E. (1975). A street in Marakech. New York: Doubleday.
Fernea Warnock, E. (1989). Guests of the Sheik: An ethnography of an Iraqi village.
New York: Doubleday.
Friese, H. (2004). Spaces of hospitality. Angelaki, 9,67e79.
George, C. (2010 November 19). Houston exec agrees to help pay $15M to settle
food scam case. Houston Chronicle. Retrieved December 19, 2010 from http://
www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Houston -exec-agrees-to-help-
pay-15M-to-settle-1704150.php.
Getz, D. (2008). Event tourism: definition, evolution and research. Tourism Man-
agement, 29(3), 403e428.
Global Muslim Brotherhood Daily Report. (27 December 2011). ‘Reviving the Islamic
spirit conference (RIS)’,. Retrieved January 14, 2012 from http://globalmbreport.
org/?p¼5542.
Gulf News. (2010 December 6). Range hospitality to invest Dh3.67b in region’s reli-
gious sites. Gulf News Report, Retrieved June 20, 2011 from http://gulfnews.
com/business/tourism/range-hospitality-to-invest-dh3-67b-in-region-s-
religious-sites-1.723504.
Habermas, J. (1992). Further reflections on the public sphere. In C. Calhoun (Ed.),
Habermas and the public sphere (pp. 421e461). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Halal Digest. (2007 December). Halal happenings: New report calls for exclusive halal
airline. Retrieved January 24, 2012 from http://www.ifanca.org/digest/
digestnewsletters/detail/4cbd65e0-9674-4e15-a5493f76adcb6390#02.
Halal Focus. (2009). Halal on the rise. Retrieved November 22, 2011 from http://
halalfocus.net/2009/08/07/halal-on-the-rise/.
Halal Focus. (2010). Halal-friendly travel emerges as new market sector. Retrieved
June 6, 2011 from http://halalfocus.net/2010/11/13/5423/.
Halal Focus. (2011a). Malaysia: 366 hotels and resorts nationwide get halal certifica-
tion. Retrieved January 20, 2012 from http://halalfocus.net/2011/02/24/
malaysia-366-hotels-and-resorts-nationwide-get-halal-ertificatiom/.
Halal Focus. (2011b). South Africa: Orion-all eyes on MJC. Retrieved December 20, 2011
from http://halalfocus.net/2011/12/19/south-africa-orion-all-eyes-on-mjc/.
Hammond, A. (2008 March 20). Saudi Arabia opens its first women-only hotel. The
Independent. Retrieved June 15, 2011 from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/
world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-opens-its-first-womenonly-hotel-798417.htm.
Haq, R. (2010 September 13). British Airways caterer considers all-halal menu.
Retrieved January 20, from 2012 http://www.arabiansupplychain.com/article-
4921-british-airways-caterer-considers-all-halal-menu/.
Haq, F., & Wong, H. Y. (2010). Is spiritual tourism a new strategy for marketing
Islam? Journal of Islamic Marketing, 1(2), 136e148.
Hasan, M. (2012 May 9). Halal hysteria. New Statesman. Retrieved January 5, 2013
from http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/politics/2012/05/halal-hysteria.
Hazbun, W. (2008). Beaches, ruins, resorts: the politics of tourism in the Arab world.
London: University of Minnesota Press.
Henderson, J. (2010). Sharia-compliant hotels. Tourism and Hospitality Research,
10(3), 246e254.
Hickman, M. (2009 June 4). Chicken injected with beef waste sold in the UK. The
Independent. Retrieved 15 December, 2011 from http://www.independent.co.
uk/life-style/food-and-drink/news/chicken-injected-with-beef-waste-sold-in-
uk-1696407.html.
Husain, S. (2007 November 14). Idea of ‘halal airline’under criticism. Gulf News.
IOS Minaret-An Online Islamic Magazine (2008). Halal food in a globalising world,
3(10), 1e15. Retrieved June 14, 2011 from http://www.iosminaret.org/vol-3/
issue10/globescan.php.
IPK International. (2010). ITB world travel trends report. Prepared by IPK Interna-
tional on behalf of ITB Berlin. Berlin Germany: Messe Berlin GmbH. Retrieved
August 14, 2012 from http://www.itb-berlin.de/media/itb/itb_media/itb_pdf/
worldttr_2010_2011w1.pdf.
Jakarta Post . (2009 September 25). Domestic visitors flood Bali during ‘Lebaran’.
Jakarta Post. Retrieved October 20, 2011 from http://www.thejakartapost.
com/news/20 09/09/2 5/domestic-visitors-flood-bali-during-lebaran039.
html-0.
Jakarta Post. (2010 September 5). Reportage: hotels, parks keep holiday blues away.
Jakarta Post. Retrieved October 20, 2011 from http://www.thejakartapost.com/
news/2010/09/05/reportage-hotels-parks-keep-holiday-blues-away.html.
Kavoossi, M., & Frank, J. (1990). The language-culture interface in Persian Gulf states
print advertisements: implications for international marketing. Journal of In-
ternational Consumer Research, 31,5e25.
Khaleej Times. (2012). Dubai tourism post impressive all-round performance in 2011,
March 7. Retrieved July 25, 2012 from http://www.khaleejtimes.com/
DisplayArticle09.asp?xfile¼data/theuae/2012/March/theuae_March206.
xml§ion¼theuae.
Khan, S., & Janmohamed, S. (2011 December 2). Meet the futurists, the new Muslim
consumers.HalaFocus.com. Retrieved January 14, 2012, from http://halalfocus.
net/2011/12/02/opinion-meet-the-futurists-the-new-muslim-consumer/.
Kola, A. H. (2010 August 9). Destination news: Oman gets first. Retrieved June 20,
2011 from http://www.eturbonews.com/17782/destination-news-oman-gets-
first-alcohol-free-5-star-hotel.
Luthy, D. (1994). The origin and growth of Amish tourism. In D. B. Kraybill, &
M. A. Olshan (Eds.), The Amish struggle with modernity (pp. 113e129). Hanover:
University Press of New England.
Mahbubur, R. (2011 September 1). Toward a just and balanced way. Islamic Horizons.
Retrieved January 14, 2012 from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-24639
41021.html.
M.L. Stephenson / Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164 16 3
Marketing Weekly. (2010 June, 24). Young, connected and Muslim-Chicken Cottage
case study. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://www.marketingweek.co.
uk/sectors/food-and-drink/young-connected-and-muslim-chicken-cottage-
case-study/3014948.article.
Mason, V. (2011). The Im/mobilities of Iraqi refugees in Jordan: pan-Arabism,
‘hospitality’and the figure of the ‘refugee’.Mobilities, 6(3), 353e373.
Maysami, R. C., & Kwon, W. J. (1999). An analysis of Islamic takaful insurance: a
cooperative insurance mechanism. Journal of Insurance Regulation, 18(1), 109e
132.
Mohsin, A. (2005). Tourist attitudes and destination marketing-the case of Aus-
tralia’s Northern Territory and Malaysia. Tourism Management, 26(5), 723e732.
Mona, H. (2006). Pious entertainment in Beruit: Al-Saha traditional village. ISIM
Review ‘Popular Piety’,17,10e11.
Nasaruddin, R. R., Fuad, F., Mel, M., Jaswir, I., & Hamid, H. A. (2012). The importance
of a standardized Islamic manufacturing practice (IMP) for food and pharma-
ceutical productions. Advances in Natural and Applied Sciences, 6(5), 588e595.
Nasrallah, N. (2007). Annals of the Caliph’s kitchens: Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq’s tenth
century Baghdadi cookbook (Islamic history and civilization). Boston and Leiden:
Brill.
O’Gorman, K. D. (2007). Iranian hospitality: a hidden treasure. Hospitality Review,
9(1), 31e36.
Osman, K. (2011 July 12). Getting ready for Ramadan. Arabian Business. Retrieved
November 21, 2011 from http://www.arabianbusiness.com/getting-ready-for-
ramadan-410036.html?page¼1.
Özkan, D., & Foster, R. (2005). Consumer citizenship, nationalism, and neoliberal
globalization in Turkey: the advertising launch of cola Turka. Advertising and
Society Review, 6(3), 1e34.
Power, C. (2009 June 15). Buying Muslim. Time Magazine. Retrieved June 10, 2011
from http://www.time.com/time/printout/0, 8816, 1902837,00.html#.
Qur'an e“The holy Quran”(A. Y. Ali, Trans.), 2003, Goodword Books Pvt. Ltd; New
Delhi
Sahida, W., Rahman, S. Ab., Awang, K., & Man, Y. C. (2011). The implementation of
Shariah compliance concept hotel: De Palma Hotel Ampang, Malaysia. In The
proceedings of the 2nd international conference on humanities, historical and so-
cial sciences. IPEDR, Vol. 17. Singapore: IACSIT Press.
Sambidge, A. (2011 November 27). Qatar firm eyes $500m spend on Turkish dry ho-
tels. Hotelier Middle East.com, Retrieved December 17, 2011 from http://www.
hoteliermiddleeast.com/12994-qatar-firm-eyes-500m-spend-on-turkish-dry-
hotels.
Sanad, H. S., Kassem, A. M., & Scott, N. (2010). Tourism and Islamic law. In N. Scott, &
J. Jafari (Eds.), Tourism and the Muslim world: Bridging tourism theory and
practice (pp. 17e30). Bingley, UK: Emerald.
Shone, A., & Parry, B. (2004). Successful event management: A practical handbook
(2nd ed.). London: Thomson Press.
Simpson-Herbert, M. (1987). Women, food and hospitality in Iranian society. Can-
berra Anthropology, 10(1), 24e34.
Star. (2010 October 6). Single halal certificate beginning April. Retrieved January 14,
2011 from http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file¼/2010/10/6/nation/7167
935&sec¼nation.
Stephenson, M. L., & Ali, N. (2010). Tourism, travel and Islamophobia: post 9/11
journeys of Muslims in non-Muslim states. In N. Scott, & J. Jafari (Eds.), Tourism
in the Muslim world (pp. 235e251). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing
Limited.
Stephenson, M. L., Russell, K. A., & Edgar, D. (2010). Islamic hospitality in the UAE:
indigenization of products and human capital. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 1(1),
9e24.
Stoller, G. (2011 May 5). Some hotels don’t live up to online hype, disappointed
guests say. USA Today. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://travel.usatoday.
com/hotels/2011-05-06-hotel-marketing_n.htm.
Timothy, D. J., & Iverson, T. (2006). Tourism and Islam: consideration of culture and
duty. In D. J. Timothy, & D. H. Olsen (Eds.), Tourism, religion and spiritual journeys
(pp. 186e205). Oxford Taylor Francis Group, Routledge.
Toumi, H. (2012 August 15). Qatar names and shames restaurants. Gulf News,16.
Turner, L., & Ash, J. (1975). The golden hordes: International tourism and the pleasure
periphery. London: Constable.
Vaidya, S. K. (2012 August 19). Oman’s habta souq is a magnet for Eid shoppers. Gulf
News,11.
van Nieuwkerk, K. (2008). Creating an Islamic cultural sphere: contested notions of
art, leisure and entertainment. Contemporary Islam, 2(3), 169e176.
Vukonic, B. (2010). Do we all understand each other? In N. Scott, & J. Jafari (Eds.),
Tourism in the Muslim world: Bridging tourism theory and practice (pp. 31e45)
Bingley, UK: Emerald.
Wan-Hassan, W. M., & Awang, K. W. (2009). Halal food in New Zealand restaurants: an
exploratory s tudy. International Journal of Economics and Management, 3(2), 385e402.
Weidenfield, A. (2006). Religious needs in the hospitality industry. Tourism and
Hospitality Research, 6(2), 143e159.
Wilson, J. A. J., & Liu, J. (2010). Shaping the Halal into a brand? Journal of Islamic
Marketing, 1(2), 107e123.
Woo, S. (2011 February, 15). Indonesian women splash out at Islamic spas. Retrieved
June 18, 2011 from http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/bisindonesia/indonesian-
women-splash-out-at-islamic-spas/422760#Scene_1.
Zamani-Farahani, H., & Henderson, J. C. (2010). Islamic tourism and managing
development in Islamic societies: the cases of Iran and Saudi Arabia. Interna-
tional Journal of Tourism Research, 12(1), 79e89.
Zawya. (2011 May 3). First Sharia’h compliant resort to open in Maldives.Zawya.
Retrieved October 15, 2011 from http://www.zawya.com/story.cfm/sidZAWYA
20110503085858.
Websites
http://www.afic.com.au/ eAustralian Federation of Islamic Councils (AFIC).
http://www.depalmahotel.com eDe Palma Hotel.
http://www.christiancruises.net/ eChristian Cruises.Net.
http://www.crescentrating.com/ eCrescentrating.com.
http://www.eathalal.ca/ eEat Halal.
http://www.eurohelal.de/en/about-us.html eEuropean Institute of Halal
Certification.
http://www.greenzabiha.com/ eGreen Zabiha.
http://halalfocus.net/ eHalal Focus.
http://www.halalhealthy.com/ eHalal Healthy.
http://www.ifanca.org/index.php eIslamic Food and Nutrition Council of America
(IFANCA).
http://islamicartsmagazine.com/ eIslamic Arts Magazine.
http://www.isna.net.
http://www.kosherica.com/ eKosherica.
http://www.meff.ifew.com eMulticultural Eid Festival and Fair in Sydney.
http://www.salaamcruise.com/ eSalam Cruise.
Dr. Marcus Stephenson is an Associate Professor of
Tourism Management at Middlesex University Dubai. He
has a BSc (Hons) in Sociology and Social Administration,
and an MA in the Sociology and Anthropology of Tourism
and Travel. The University of Surrey was the awarding
body for both degrees. He gained his PhD in tourism
studies from Manchester Metropolitan University in 1998,
and has taught in the field of tourism management since
1993. Marcus has also conducted research in the Carib-
bean, Middle East, Tanzania and the UK, and has also
carried out research for various tourism-related institu-
tions at both regional and international level. He has su-
pervised a range of PhDs and has published extensively
in the sociology of tourism field.
M.L. Stephenson / Tourism Management 40 (2014) 155e164164
