Evaluating Carbon Footprint in the Life Cycle Design of Residential Concrete Structures in Jordan

Abstract

The construction industry is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions, and there is a growing global interest in reducing the environmental impact of carbon dioxide emissions associated with building construction and operation. Concrete, the most commonly used material in construction, is known to release a substantial amount of environmentally harmful waste throughout its life cycle, including production, construction, operation, and demolition. The worldwide production and consumption of concrete contribute to approximately 5% of all human-related CO2 emissions each year. To assess the carbon footprint of concrete manufacturing and its application in construction projects, a comprehensive approach called life cycle assessment (LCA) is necessary. This paper presents a new process-based LCA approach to analyze carbon emissions and evaluate the carbon footprint of concrete from raw material extraction to the end-of-life stage. To address carbon emissions throughout the life cycle of concrete structures in the Middle East, the study adopts a case study approach, focusing on selected concrete structures in Jordan. The findings from these case studies highlight that the operational phase of concrete structures is the primary contributor to carbon emissions. By thoroughly examining the carbon cycle within structures and their interactions with the surrounding ecosystem, significant reductions in CO2 emissions, environmental deterioration, and its consequences can be achieved. Doi: 10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-07-07 Full Text: PDF

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Civil Engineering Journal
(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 9, No. 07, July, 2023
1646
Evaluating Carbon Footprint in the Life Cycle Design of
Residential Concrete Structures in Jordan
Omar Al-Omari 1
*
, Ahmad Alkhdor 2 , M. Abed Al-Rawashdeh 2,
M. R. Al-Ruwaishedi 1, S. B. Al-Rawashdeh 3
1 Department of Architecture Engineering, Faculty of Engineering. Al-Balqa Applied University. Al-Salt. Jordan.
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering. Al-Balqa Applied University. Al-Salt. Jordan.
4 Professor, Surveying & Geomatics Engineering, Al-Balqa Applied University, Jordan.
Received 12 March 2023; Revised 09 June 2023; Accepted 22 June 2023; Published 01 July 2023
Abstract
The construction industry is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions, and there is a growing global interest in
reducing the environmental impact of carbon dioxide emissions associated with building construction and operation.
Concrete, the most commonly used material in construction, is known to release a substantial amount of environmentally
harmful waste throughout its life cycle, including production, construction, operation, and demolition. The worldwide
production and consumption of concrete contribute to approximately 5% of all human-related CO2 emissions each year.
To assess the carbon footprint of concrete manufacturing and its application in construction projects, a comprehensive
approach called life cycle assessment (LCA) is necessary. This paper presents a new process-based LCA approach to
analyze carbon emissions and evaluate the carbon footprint of concrete from raw material extraction to the end-of-life
stage. To address carbon emissions throughout the life cycle of concrete structures in the Middle East, the study adopts a
case study approach, focusing on selected concrete structures in Jordan. The findings from these case studies highlight that
the operational phase of concrete structures is the primary contributor to carbon emissions. By thoroughly examining the
carbon cycle within structures and their interactions with the surrounding ecosystem, significant reductions in CO2
emissions, environmental deterioration, and its consequences can be achieved.
Keywords: Carbon Footprint; Life Cycle Assessment (LCA); Concrete, Residential Buildings; Jordan.
1. Introduction
In recent years, there has been a significant focus on the issue of environmental degradation, attracting attention and
sparking discussions at local, regional, and international levels [1, 2]. It is widely recognized that the construction
industry is a significant contributor to both high energy consumption and the emission of carbon dioxide [3, 4].
The 4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions from buildings amounted to 8.6 billion t-CO2-e in 2004. It is projected that by 2030, these emissions
could increase to 15.6 billion t-CO2-e, representing a 26% increase and accounting for 30–40% of total GHG emissions
[5]. To address this issue, it is crucial to implement policies aimed at reducing GHG emissions resulting from
construction activities. These policies can be broadly categorized into two approaches: indirect pricing, such as
regulations, and direct pricing, such as carbon taxes and emission trading schemes (ETS). To address the urgent need
*
Corresponding author: omar.alomari@bau.edu.jo
http://dx.doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-07-07
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee C.E.J, Tehran, Iran. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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for sustainable development and low carbon footprint solutions, it is crucial to examine the impact of concrete on energy
consumption and carbon emissions during its construction and production phases [6]. Previous research has extensively
explored the use of concrete, its components, and alternative materials to reduce environmental impacts [7–9]. However,
most of these studies have primarily focused on the environmental implications of residential concrete structures, with
limited research conducted on concrete buildings in the Middle East, particularly in Jordan.
In Jordan, carbon emissions have risen significantly, surpassing an 188% increase between 1990 and 2018, which is
more than double the initial level. Figure 1 illustrates this trend. Given the rapid growth and development in the region,
it becomes even more crucial to investigate the carbon footprint associated with concrete use in construction practices
in Jordan. By understanding the specific challenges and opportunities in this context, targeted measures can be
implemented to mitigate carbon emissions and promote sustainable construction practices.
Figure 1. Work flow chart
The global concern regarding increased CO2 emissions has made it crucial to assess the ecological impact of the
building sector using Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs). To address the rising environmental impact caused by rapid urban
development and construction demands, it is crucial to prioritize the control of CO2 emissions. Achieving a balance in
carbon emissions throughout the entire lifespan of concrete structures becomes imperative.
Several studies have identified various barriers to achieving a carbon-neutral construction industry. Factors such as
lack of awareness, education, incentives, and high initial costs were found to hinder progress in Singapore and Hong
Kong. Similarly, in a study focusing on commercial buildings in Beijing and Shanghai, barriers included the absence of
regulations and financial incentives, ineffective monitoring, and a lack of awareness regarding energy-saving practices
[10]. However, none of these studies have overlooked the integration of LCAs in Jordan. This research aims to address
this gap by considering the end life cycle phase analysis of residential buildings.
Hence, it is necessary to conduct a thorough evaluation of the carbon footprint and environmental impact of concrete
structures throughout their entire life cycle. This assessment should be carried out using a comprehensive framework.
To achieve this, a life cycle assessment (LCA) framework has been utilized to analyze the carbon dioxide emissions
associated with concrete residential structures and investigate ways to enhance their sustainability in Jordan. The goal
of this research is to develop an improved LCA methodology that enhances our understanding of the environmental
impact of concrete structures and provides recommendations for reducing their environmental burden, ultimately leading
to the creation of more sustainable structures. Figure 1 illustrates the workflow chart for this study.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Concrete and Carbon Footprint
Concrete is among the most widely utilized construction materials internationally While considering comparable,
optimal steel, wood, and concrete structures, concrete structures produce the most greenhouse gas emissions Concrete
has the most CO2-equivalent emissions per unit of mass amongst these materials considered, yet it is just a few percent
higher than steel where a dozen times greater than wood [8]. The excessive usage of concrete around the world has
prompted academics to try to limit the so-called "emission" of concrete since concrete doesn't somehow release either

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carbon dioxide or any other gases, the phrase "emission" of concrete refers to greenhouse gas emissions. The term
"emission" relates to the overall greenhouse emissions represented as CO2-equivalent emissions during the product life
cycle, however in the case of concrete, it mostly relates to the extraction of raw materials, components manufacturing,
and build-up stages Significant-energy and chemical processes in the case of concrete, cement production—are the
primary sources of high greenhouse gas emissions. The major component, clinker, and high-energy operations are
accounting for around 45 percent of CO2 emissions in the cement industry [8].
Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials worldwide [8, 11-14]. The term "sustainable
concrete" refers to concrete optimization in terms of materials and technology, as well as economic, technical, and
environmental factors [15]. Compared to steel and wood structures, concrete structures have the highest greenhouse gas
emissions [8, 11]. Although concrete has slightly higher CO2-equivalent emissions per unit of mass than steel, it is still
much lower than wood [8]. The excessive use of concrete has led researchers to find ways to reduce its emissions. When
we talk about the "emission" of concrete, we are referring to its greenhouse gas emissions. This includes the emissions
generated during the entire life cycle of the product, mainly during the extraction of raw materials, manufacturing of
components, and construction stages. The production of cement, which is a key component of concrete, involves energy-
intensive and chemical processes that contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions [7, 11]. The primary culprit
is the production of clinker and the energy-intensive operations, which account for around 45 percent of CO2 emissions
in the cement industry [8].
According to a study conducted by Kajaste & Hurme [16], the carbon emissions resulting from the combination of
electricity and fossil fuels can vary from 304 to 490 kilograms of CO2 per ton of cement. The study also highlighted the
significance of the diversity of elements impacting the outcome, such as geographical area, manufacturing techniques,
and quality of data. Individual analyses must bring these issues into consideration and work on data wisely [8, 11, 12].
2.2. Life-Cycle of Concrete in Residential Building: Definition
A life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology with a system-oriented approach for evaluating a product's or
service's environmental impacts [4, 7, 11, 12]. It's being used to investigate energy and material fluxes, as well as their
effects on the environment, in relation to the products or services, from extraction of raw materials to manufacture and
consumption, to disposal [4, 7].
According to Jensen [17], life cycle assessment (LCA) entails evaluating specific components of a production
process throughout its life cycle, most typically the environmental elements. It is also known as "life cycle analysis,"
"life cycle approach," "cradle to grave analysis," or "Ecobalance," and it refers to a rapidly growing range of tools and
procedures for environmental management and, in the long run, sustainable development [4, 12, 17].
Throughout this article, a 50-year life span of concrete in residential buildings has been selected, in accordance with
Jordan's prevailing design principles, regardless of the specific life cycle of a residential building. The analysis process
of a building life cycle strategy covers the creation of natural resources used throughout structures to their final
demolition, in which all types of waste are handled or repurposed. The production stage, construction and reformation
stage, service life stage, and building End-of-Life stage are normally the four consecutive stages (EOL). All of these
phases should be used to assess CO2 and environmental pollutants, as well as the environmental impact of residential
buildings over the lifespan [7, 11, 12, 18].
2.3. Similar Studies
Chen et al. [19] examine the annual energy usage and carbon emissions associated with the ten most commonly
used building materials in China. Its goal is to identify opportunities for reducing CO2 emissions in the construction
industry on a large scale. The findings reveal that cement, steel, and brick account for over 70% of the total energy usage
and carbon emissions of all building materials. The differences in energy usage and carbon emissions between steel-
concrete buildings and brick-concrete buildings are not significant. However, there are substantial variations in energy
usage and carbon emissions among different regions. The eastern and south-eastern regions have higher consumption
of building materials and significantly greater energy usage and carbon emissions compared to other regions. The paper
proposes several strategies for reducing energy usage and carbon emissions in China's building sector.
Alotaibi et al. [20] proposes and examines a method for assessing the life cycle of a building in terms of its embodied
carbon across three stages: construction, operation, and demolition. Currently, the standardized method for this
assessment is life cycle assessment (LCA), but it is time-consuming, costly, and requires expertise. The paper suggests
an alternative approach and evaluates its effectiveness in analyzing the embodied carbon. Additionally, the study
investigates various de-carbonization strategies identified in the literature for each stage of the building's life cycle to
determine their potential for reducing embodied carbon. The analysis focuses on a high-rise residential building located
in an urban area of India, utilizing building information modeling (BIM) to capture the existing conditions. The carbon
emissions of the selected building are found to be 414 kg CO2e/m2/year, but by implementing different decarburization
strategies, this value can be reduced to 135 kg CO2e/m2/year compared to the baseline assessment.

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Evangelista et al. [21] aimed to evaluate and measure the environmental performance of four common residential
buildings in Brazil with different designs. The assessment covers the entire life cycle of the buildings, considering
various impact categories such as carbon emissions and energy consumption. The research also examines the
significance of different life cycle stages, construction processes, and materials in terms of their contributions to
environmental impacts. The findings indicate that the operational phase has the highest environmental significance,
while the foundation, structure, masonry, and coating are the most influential construction elements. In relation to
materials, concrete, ceramic tiles, and steel have the most substantial environmental impacts.
Robayo-Salazar et al. [22] assesses the environmental impact of alkali-activated binary concrete (AABC) made from
natural volcanic pozzolan from Colombia (NP) and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS). The study uses a life cycle
assessment (LCA) to evaluate the Global Warming Potential (GWP) and Global Temperature Change Potential (GTP)
of the AABC compared to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete. The findings indicate that the AABC can be
produced with comparable or higher compressive strength than OPC concrete, while having a significantly lower carbon
footprint (GWP). The AABC's GWP is 44.7% lower, with 210.90 kg CO2 eq/m3, compared to 381.17 kg CO2 eq/m3 for
OPC concrete. These results are considered significant for promoting and establishing the production of low carbon
footprint alkali-activated concrete on an industrial scale in countries like Colombia, where volcanic ash soils are
prevalent.
Ahmed & Tsavdaridis [23] address the need to redesign critical structural elements and systems in order to conserve
material and energy resources and minimise the impact on the built environment's economy. Among non-load bearing
construction elements, flooring systems have a significant impact, second only to partition walls. The focus of this study
is to highlight the benefits of lightweight flooring systems and contribute to the development of a new prefabricated,
ultra-shallow, and lightweight flooring system. The methodology used involves conducting an environmental life cycle
analysis (LCA) using the TRACI method and an economic LCA. The study compares the environmental and economic
impacts of three types of flooring systems: a prefabricated floor called Cofradal260 commonly used in residential
buildings in France, a hollow core precast floor with an in-situ concrete finishing layer, and the proposed system. The
assessment reveals that the proposed flooring system has 28.89% lower embodied energy and 37.67% lower embodied
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to the Cofradal floor. Furthermore, it has 20.18% lower embodied energy
and 35.09% lower embodied GHG emissions compared to the hollow core precast floor units. The LCA also
demonstrates that the proposed flooring system reduces construction costs by 13.08% and end-of-life costs by 41.83%
compared to the Cofradal260 slab. Similarly, it reduces construction costs by 1.87% and end-of-life costs by 18.95%
compared to the hollow composite precast slab.
3. Research Methodology
3.1. Overview of the CO2 Calculation Methods
Different quantitative methodologies have been used to analyze the environmental impacts of building construction
[11]. These include procedure-based analysis and economic input-output analysis. Procedure-based analysis, also known
as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), examines data related to the production and disposal of a product to assess energy
consumption and CO2 emissions [24]. It is a bottom-up approach that aligns with ISO standards for evaluating the
environmental consequences of products based on their manufacturing processes. By considering the materials used and
energy consumed during manufacturing, this approach calculates the environmental impacts and CO2 emissions [5].
However, the assessment of CO2 emissions in the procedure-based approach can vary depending on how well the
evaluator defines the system boundary of the products and services being evaluated [8, 11].
Alternatively, the economic input-output approach is utilized to evaluate the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
associated with services and products [8, 11]. This approach takes a top-down perspective, considering not only the
direct environmental consequences of the targeted services and products but also their indirect effects [11]. Typically,
this assessment relies on data acquired from census or statistical reports concerning the production or delivery of a
service or product [8, 11]. While the application of the input-output assessment has been extensively observed in the
building sector, particularly in the United States and Japan, due to the availability of data from over 400 relevant sectors,
this study faced limitations in terms of statistical data availability. Consequently, the methodology employed for
concrete structures in this study adopted a procedure-based or bottom-up approach, specifically utilizing life cycle
assessment (LCA) with relevant international standards and methodologies. Recently, researchers and practitioners
worldwide have acknowledged the effectiveness of the LCA approach in quantifying CO2 emissions and assessing their
economic and environmental impacts [7, 11].
3.2. Life-cycle CO2 Emissions of Residential Structures Calculations Equations
In this study, carbon footprint in residential buildings considered from three main sources; transportation, industrial
and chemical activity, and energy consumption. The land footprint CO2 emissions were not incorporated in this research
caused by a lack of data in the current case studies. The overall life cycle Carbon dioxide emissions of residential
constructions computed using Equations 1 to 3 depending on the data provided as follows:

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1650
𝑇𝐸 = ∑ (𝐼𝐶𝑝 + 𝐸𝐶𝑃 +𝑇) 4 𝑝=1
(1)
𝐼𝐶𝑝 = ∑ (2 𝑚=1 𝑀𝑝𝑚 × 𝐶𝐹𝑚)
(2)
𝐸𝐶𝑝 = ∑ (𝑛 𝑘=1 𝑀𝑝𝑘 × 𝐶𝐹𝑘)
(3)
where, TE is the overall emission during the building’s life cycle, p is the different phases of a building life cycle, IC is
referring to the are industrial and chemical factors, while, EC is pointed to the energy consumption factor. And, T is
representing transportation. Equation 2 shows the calculation of the exact amount of industrial and chemical activities
(IC). Where, m is the types of materials utilized in the building which contribute to carbon dioxide emission, in the case
of this study, only cement and steel reinforcement were calculated. Here, M is the intended material and CF is the
conversion factor, where it is 0.396t/t for cement and 0.319t/t for steel [7].
Energy consumption is calculated through Equation 3, here, k is the kind of energy used in different stages of the
building’s life cycle. Also, M represents the intended energy, in this case is electricity, and as mentioned, CF is the
conversation factor for k.
3.3. Case Study of Residential Buildings in Jordan
Six case studies of residential buildings in Jordan were conducted to investigate carbon footprint of residential
structures in the middle east/Jordan. The first case study is detached house designed by architect Sameer Amarin and
located in Amman-Jordan. The project built up area is 650 m2 (Figure 2). The main construction materials used in this
case study were brick and concrete.
(a)
(b)
(c)

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(d)
Figure 2. (a) Layout, (b) 3D Model, (c) Wall construction detail, (d) The location of Sameer Amareen Residential building
The second case study is also a detached house designed by the architect Sahel Al Hiyari located in Amman-Jordan.
The main construction material used in this case study was masonry concrete blocks, including cement, steel, sand,
gravel, and water. Figure 3 shows design layout of the second case study.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3. (a) Layout, (b) 3D shot, (c) The location of Sahel Al Hiyari Residential building
While the third case study is 6-story brick-concrete apartment designed by spectrum design office. And located in
Amman-Jordan. The main construction materials used in this case study were brick and concrete [25]. Figure 4 shows
the layout for the third case study.

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(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4. (a) Layout, (b) 3D Model, (c) Spectrum design residential building
The fourth case study is Marsa Zayed in Aqaba which is the largest real estate and development project in the history
of Jordan [26]. It is a mixed-use development including residential, commercial, recreational and entertainment facilities
covering 3.2 million sqm. Marsa Zayed will offer more than 30,000 residences ranging from apartments to elegant
townhouses and luxurious villas [26]. This project will consist of 151 townhouses and 263 village flats that will be
serviced by a neighborhood retail and community center and Sheikh Zayed’s Grand Masjid which will accommodate
around 2,000 worshipers [26]. In the case of this study, we only examine one apartment tower which was constructed
from concreate material. Figure 5 shows the exterior shots and the layout of the project.
(a)
(b)

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(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 5. (a) Exterior shots, (b) Exterior shots, (c) Exterior shots, (d): layout, (e) The location of Marsa Zayed building
The fifth case study the Kuwait Diplomatic Residence in Amman/ Jordan, the project was especially designed to
form a blend between the Kuwaiti and Jordanian cultures in a modern and aesthetic sense. The Diwaniyeh constitutes
an essential space in the building; it grows upwards in a poetic sense creating other livable spaces such as a living room
in the first floor, and a sitting area on the roof to celebrate the wonderful views of Amman. The ground floor contains

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functions such as a reception area for guests, living room, kitchen, and the private guest bedroom. The first floor contains
a group of Master Bedrooms dedicated for the relaxation of its users along with a family room which views the
Swimming Pool. The basement is fully dedicated for the activities and leisure of the family which opens up to the pool,
with a large living space to accommodate the needs of everyone. In addition to that, it houses the building services and
the main kitchen, all secluded in private place in the basement. The villas are all replicas of each other situated in
conventional ways in order to give each villa its own privacy and the best views. Figure 6 shows exterior and the site
plan for the residence.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 6. (a) Exterior shots, (b) Site plan, (c) The location of Kuwait Diplomatic Residence
The final case study is Villa Zabaneh Located within one of Amman’s most prominent residential districts, Mrs.
Hania & Ramzi Zabaneh house provides the family with a perfect home experience close to the rest of the Zabaneh
family that inhabits the area. From day one, the value of creating a gallery house was imprinted in the concept of such
cotemporary yet local house. Its exterior massing state a dialogue between its edges and facades, while its interiors
marvel with sculptural elements and natural lighting. Figure 7 shows exterior and the layout of the Zabaneh Villa.
(a)
(b)

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(c)
Figure 7. (a) 3D Model, (b) Layout, (c) The location of Villa Zabaneh buildings
The data analysis of those case studies was conducted based on information about details of quantitative
characteristics and utility bills for the mentioned case studies.
4. Results and Discussion
The results show that the residential buildings designed by Sahel Al Hiyari has the highest carbon emission of around
431.5 t/100m2 followed by Kuwait Diplomatic Residence with 335.34 t/100m2 followed by Residential building by
Spectrum Design with 332.14 t/100m2 then Residential building by Sameer Amarin with 280.39 332.14 t/100m2. The
least one has an emission if 258.41 for Villa Zabaneh (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Case studies CO2 emissions (t/100 m2)
4.1. Analyzing CO2 Emissions During the Case Studies Life Cycle
The results show that the residential buildings designed by Sahel Al Hiyari has the highest carbon emission of around
431.5 t/100m2 followed by Kuwait Diplomatic Residence with 335.34 t/100m2 followed by Residential building by
Spectrum Design with 332.14 t/100m2 then Residential building by Sameer Amarin with 280.39 332.14 t/100m2. The
least one has an emission if 258.41 for Villa Zabaneh.
Throughout the life cycle of the selected case studies, the findings show that house’s operation stage assigned to
almost 83% of carbon dioxide emission that has the greatest influence on the ecosystem and the environment through
the life cycle of the residential structures. Production stage of life cycle contributed to almost 8-10% of carbon dioxide
emission. While, construction and end of life stages of life cycle concrete structures contributed the least impact on the
environment and ecosystem with less than 10% as described in Figure 9 and Table 1. These findings corresponded with
the findings of Kim et al. [4], Jahandideh et al. [7], and Purnell [13].
280.39
431.48
332.14 308.34 335.34
258.41
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Residential building
by Sameer Amarin Residential building
by Sahel Al Hiyari Residential building
by Spectrum Design Marsa Zayed Kuwait Diplomatic
Residence Villa Zabaneh
CO2 Emission (t/100 m
2
)

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1656
Table 1. CO2 emissions of different life-cycle phases of the selected case studies
CO2 Emission (t/100m2)
Building
Production
Construction
Operation
End of life
Total
Residential building by Sameer Amarin
27.5
52.5
250
20
350
Residential building by Sahel Al Hiyari
35
62.5
330
30
457.5
Residential building by Spectrum Design
37.5
49.5
350
26
463
Marsa Zayed
40
70
380
48
538
Kuwait Diplomatic Residence
36.5
51.5
320
25
433
Villa Zabaneh
27.5
53.5
280
32
393
Total
204
339.5
1910
181
Figure 9. CO2 emissions of different life-cycle phases of the selected case studies
4.2. Analyzing CO2 Emissions Sources
In the all sector, Marsa Zayed Building has the highest carbon emission o and the lowest is for Residential building
by Sameer Amarin. The carbon emission is analyzed according to transportation, energy consumption and industrial and
chemical sectors as shown in Table 2 and Figure 10. The energy consumption sector release around 68% of the carbon
emission followed by 22% for the industrial and chemical sector and finally transportation sector of 11%. Those findings
were in corresponded with the findings of Jahandideh et al. [7] and Paik and Na [11]. This high percentage indicate that
we need a serious action toward sustainable design solutions to reduce energy consumption during building operation
phase of the residential building.
Table 2. Sources of CO2 emissions in the selected case studies
CO2 Emission (t/100m2)
Building
Transportation
Energy Consumption
Industrial and Chemical
Residential building by Sameer Amarin
35
221
65
Residential building by Sahel Al Hiyari
42
230
67
Residential building by Spectrum Design
38
250
70
Marsa Zayed
50
330
120
Kuwait Diplomatic Residence
45
270
88
Villa Zabaneh
40
290
95
Total
250
1591
505
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Residential building by Sameer Amarin
Residential building by Sahel Al Hiyari
Residential building by Spectrum Design
Marsa Zayed
Kuwait Diplomatic Residence
Villa Zabaneh
CO2Emision (t/100m2)
Production Construction
Operation End of life

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Figure 10. Sources of CO2 emissions in the selected case studies
4.3. Analyzing CO2 Emissions According Material Type Characteristics
In comparing the CO2 emission for different building materials of the selected case studies, Figure 11 shows that
cement is responsible of carbon dioxide emission with 85% in the residential building. Brick has the lowest CO2 emission
which indicate that using local construction materials is essential to reduce carbon footprint of the residential buildings
in Jordan.
Figure 11. CO2 emissions by different building construction material
5. Conclusion
A comprehensive study conducted in Jordan analyzed the ecological impact and carbon dioxide emissions associated
with concrete residential buildings using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Framework. The research revealed that
energy consumption during the operational phase and the land footprint were the main sources of CO2 emissions in
residential structures. The study emphasized the importance of incorporating sustainable design solutions, such as
natural ventilation and renewable energy, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, minimizing the use of
cement in concrete production by utilizing local materials like brick was found to have lower carbon dioxide emissions.
This research represents the first in-depth examination of the carbon footprint of residential buildings in Jordan and
provides insights for future studies in the Middle East. The construction industry is a significant contributor to global
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Residential building by Sameer Amarin
Residential building by Sahel Al Hiyari
Residential building by Spectrum Design
Marsa Zayed
Kuwait Diplomatic Residence
Villa Zabaneh
CO2Emision (t/100m2)
Transportation
Energy Consumption
Industrial and Chemical
1.93
2.88
9.31
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
brick steel cement
CO2 Emission (kg)

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greenhouse gas emissions, and there is a growing interest in mitigating the environmental impact of concrete through
the entire life cycle of structures. The worldwide production and consumption of concrete account for around 5% of
human-related CO2 emissions annually. To assess the carbon footprint of concrete, a process-based LCA approach is
necessary. This paper introduces a new LCA approach that analyzes carbon emissions and evaluates the carbon footprint
of concrete from extraction to end-of-life. The study focuses on selected concrete structures in Jordan as case studies to
address carbon emissions in the Middle East. The findings highlight that the operational phase of concrete structures is
the primary source of carbon emissions. By considering the carbon cycle within structures and their interactions with
the environment, significant reductions in CO2 emissions and environmental degradation can be achieved.
6. Declarations
6.1. Author Contributions
Conceptualization, M.R.A. and O.O.; methodology, M.R.A.; software, S.A.; validation, S.A., M.R.A., and O.O.;
formal analysis, O.O.; investigation, O.O.; resources, M.R.A.; data curation, A.A; writing—original draft preparation,
A.A.; writing—review and editing, M.R.A.; visualization, A.A.; supervision, O.O.; project administration, S.A.; funding
acquisition, O.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
6.2. Data Availability Statement
The data presented in this study are available in the article.
6.3. Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
6.4. Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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