Post-disaster social work research: A scoping review of the evidence for practice

Abstract

The aim of this study was to understand the extent, range and nature of social work research activity after natural disasters and to identify the implications for future research and practice. A Scoping review methodology framework was used search of three databases: Web of Science, ProQuest and Informit was conducted to identify relevant studies between 2000 and 2018. Selection of studies was based on empirical research about social work and natural disasters and/or authored by social workers. Study selection found a total of 38 relevant articles. Charting the data was conducted and the following areas of focus were summarised: (1) interventions relating to psychosocial care, aid work and community work; (2) the effects of disasters on people and mediators of these effects; (3) social work education and challenges in disaster relief; and (4) measuring mental health outcomes of people who have experienced a disaster event. This scoping review has established that there is a range of social work literature focused on natural disasters that primarily examines social work interventions, the effects of disasters and social work education. Future social work research and practice needs to focus on the types and timing of interventions that promote positive recovery following natural disasters.

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https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872820904135
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Post-disaster social work
research: A scoping review of
the evidence for practice
Louise Harms
The University of Melbourne, Australia
Jennifer Boddy
Griffith University, Australia
Lyndal Hickey
The University of Melbourne, Australia
Kathryn Hay
Massey University, New Zealand
Melinda Alexander
The University of Melbourne, Australia
Lynne Briggs
Griffith University, Australia
Lesley Cooper
University of Wollongong, Australia
Margaret Alston
The University of Newcastle, Australia; Monash University, Australia
Patricia Fronek
Griffith University, Australia
Amanda Howard
The University of Newcastle, Australia; The University of Sydney, Australia
Carole Adamson
The University of Auckland, New Zealand
Tricia Hazeleger
Monash University, Australia
Corresponding author:
Louise Harms, Department of Social Work, School of Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, 7th Floor, Alan
Gilbert Building, 161 Barry Street, Carlton, VIC 3010, Australia.
Email: louisekh@unimelb.edu.au
904135ISW0010.1177/0020872820904135International Social WorkHarms et al.
research-article2020
Article

2 International Social Work 00(0)
Abstract
The aim of this study was to understand the extent, range and nature of social work research
activity after natural disasters and to identify the implications for future research and practice.
A Scoping review methodology framework was used search of three databases: Web of Science,
ProQuest and Informit was conducted to identify relevant studies between 2000 and 2018.
Selection of studies was based on empirical research about social work and natural disasters
and/or authored by social workers. Study selection found a total of 38 relevant articles. Charting
the data was conducted and the following areas of focus were summarised: (1) interventions
relating to psychosocial care, aid work and community work; (2) the effects of disasters on people
and mediators of these effects; (3) social work education and challenges in disaster relief; and
(4) measuring mental health outcomes of people who have experienced a disaster event. This
scoping review has established that there is a range of social work literature focused on natural
disasters that primarily examines social work interventions, the effects of disasters and social
work education. Future social work research and practice needs to focus on the types and timing
of interventions that promote positive recovery following natural disasters.
Keywords
Disaster, interventions, mental health, social work
Introduction
Alongside other emergency services and health and social care professionals, social workers play
key roles in response and recovery efforts in many disaster contexts. As such, they contribute to
practice, policy and research. A Social Work Disaster Network was established in 2016 to bring
together social work academics and practitioners from Australia and New Zealand through an
annual workshop. This network has sought to articulate the social work contribution to disaster
management, and in doing so has become aware of the need to establish a research agenda. The
paucity of appropriate literature available means the evidence for social work practice in disaster
contexts is still in its infancy, with much of the published literature providing a description of prac-
tice approaches (Abbas and Sulman, 2016), programmatic or educational interventions through
case studies (Cooper and Briggs, 2014; Findley et al., 2017; Ku and Ma, 2015) or reflective pieces
(Corin, 2011; Du Plooy et al., 2014). While these forms of knowledge are critical for our profession
(reflecting the values-based and reflexive stance of social work), it makes establishing an evidence
for social work practice challenging and therefore the development of a knowledge base more
urgent. This study highlights the valuable social work research endeavours that have been under-
taken to date and the implications these have for future social work research and practice.
This aim of this scoping review is to establish the extent, range and nature of the published
literature relating to social work research in disaster contexts to date, to identify the implications
for current practice and to propose a future research agenda. The emphasis in this scoping review
is on the role of social work practice following natural disaster events. Less research evidence
for social work contributions to disaster risk reduction and mitigation is apparent, despite grow-
ing recognition of the socio-environmental dimensions of disasters (World Health Organization
[WHO], 2019).
Given our national contexts and particular disaster experiences, we chose to focus on natural
disasters. For the purposes of this review, the WHO’s (2019) description of natural disaster events
was used, as it is widely recognised globally and includes events such as
earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, landslides, hurricanes, floods and wildfires. They have an
immediate impact on human lives and often result in the destruction of the physical, biological and social

Harms et al. 3
environment of the affected people, thereby having a longer-term impact on their health, wellbeing and
survival.
We note from the outset that this definition of ‘natural’ disasters is highly contentious given the
many human factors in climate change and the increase in catastrophic events (Drolet and Amy,
2019). We note, for instance, that the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR,
2017) defines disasters as being natural, anthropogenic or socio-natural in origin, and in this scop-
ing review we use the WHO (2019) definition in acknowledgement of our primary focus on these
types of disaster events (as distinct from a terrorist-related disaster or conflict, for example) where
there is a major impact on both the physical environment and people’s lives. The disasters to which
we refer in this review as ‘natural disaster’ events were chosen as a focus as these are more likely
to prompt an immediate and collective response that will involve the social work profession regard-
less of their origin. We also note that while ‘natural hazards’ is the more contemporary term (Drolet
and Sampson, 2017; UNDRR, 2017), a preliminary literature search yielded no results for social
work studies according to our inclusion criteria.
Method
A scoping review method enables the identification of research knowledge and gaps. As Arksey
and O’Malley (2005) note, rather than examining the quality of the research activity, scoping
reviews are a way to understand phenomena and are often used as a first step as they allow research-
ers to see whether undertaking a full systematic review is a feasible option. The scoping review
method proposed by Arksey and O’Malley (2005) was used to establish ‘the extent, range, and
nature of research activity’ in relation to social work and disasters. This method involves five
stages: (1) identifying the research question; (2) identifying relevant studies; (3) study selection;
(4) charting the data; and (5) collating, summarising and reporting results (Arksey and O’Malley,
2005). It was anticipated that there would be a paucity of evidence in the social work literature
related to natural disasters, and that this methodological approach would elicit the richness and
depth of the quality of the research that has been done on this topic.
This scoping review wanted to understand the following research question: ‘What is the extent,
range and nature of social work research activity following natural disaster events?’
Searches were conducted using the Web of Science, ProQuest and Informit databases for litera-
ture published between January 2000 and December 2018 to identify relevant studies to current
social work practice. The search was limited to this time period as this is more reflective of con-
temporary practice and research in disaster events/management that are ever-changing and evolv-
ing. During this period, there has been much change in how disaster management is conceptualised,
and the intention of this review was to understand this evidence to inform and drive a future
research agenda. The search terms used were ‘social work’ and ‘disaster’. Table 1 summarises the
inclusion and exclusion criteria.
As shown in Figure 1, based on the search terms (‘social work’ and ‘disaster’) and the inclusion
criteria, a total of 556 articles were initially retrieved, with 63 articles identified as potentially
relevant to the study. To determine study selection, close full text review of these 63 articles by
three of the authors (M.A., J.B. and L.H.) led to the exclusion of a further 25 articles based on non-
empirical research, book chapters and disasters that were not within the WHO (2019) definition of
a natural disaster. After full review of the remaining articles, 38 met all study inclusion criteria.
Throughout screening and full review, any disagreements about inclusion or exclusion were dis-
cussed and reconciled as a team.

4 International Social Work 00(0)
Results
Study design and features of post-disaster social work empirical literature
Following study selection, a total of 38 articles met the inclusion criteria, as shown in Table 2. These
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Keyword: ‘social work’
Keyword: ‘disaster’
Empirical studies only, relating to disasters
according to the WHO definition:
‘earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions,
landslides, hurricanes, floods and wildfires’
– Articles relating to social work policy, theory or
critical reflections
– Articles relating to human-made disasters such as
terrorist attacks or war
Peer-reviewed journals Grey literature, conference papers, reviews, reflections
English language Book chapters
No geographic limitation Inaccessible online
WHO: World Health Organization.
Figure 1. Flowchart of study screening and inclusion process.

Harms et al. 5
38 articles related to 35 different empirical studies. Three articles related to one study after the Sri
Lankan tsunami (Dominelli, 2014, 2015; Vickers and Dominelli, 2015); two articles related to one
post-hurricane study in the United States (Tosone et al., 2015, 2016); and two articles related to one
study related to the Wenchuan Earthquake in China (Huang and Wong, 2013; Huang et al., 2014).
Table 3 summarises the nature of these articles by way of disaster type and location and shows
that most studies relating to social work and disasters have been published in the United States and
focus on hurricanes.
Of note is that many of these studies were conducted by researchers located outside of the coun-
try where the disaster occurred (Becker, 2009; Benson et al., 2016; Cooper et al., 2018; Dominelli,
2014, 2015; Doostgharin, 2009; Drolet et al., 2018; Huang and Wong, 2013; Huang et al., 2014;
Larson et al., 2015; Pentaraki, 2013; Powell and Leytham, 2014; Sim et al., 2013; Vickers and
Dominelli, 2015). Studies of disasters in Australia, Barbados, Finland, Hong Kong, South Korea,
Taiwan and the United States were conducted by researchers from within those countries (Bell,
2008; Chae et al., 2005; First et al., 2018; Fogel, 2017; Harms et al., 2015; Hawkins and Maurer,
2010; Hickson and Lehmann, 2014; Kranke et al., 2017; Kreuger and Stretch, 2003; Kulkarni
et al., 2008; Leitch et al., 2009; Lemieux et al., 2010; Liu and Mishna, 2014; Marlowe, 2015;
Plummer et al., 2008; Prost et al., 2018; Pyles, 2011; Rapeli, 2018; Rock and Corbin, 2007; Tang
and Cheung, 2007; Tosone et al., 2015, 2016; Tudor et al., 2015). Disasters occurring in China, Iran
and New Zealand also had studies that involved collaborations of both insider and outsider
researchers (Benson et al., 2016; Cooper et al., 2018; Doostgharin, 2009; Drolet et al., 2018; Huang
and Wong, 2013).
The research methods employed in the 35 studies were diverse, as illustrated in Table 4. The
majority were qualitative studies (n = 18, 51.4%), which used interviews (structured and semi-struc-
tured) and focus groups to collect data from participants. Data were also collected using surveys
designed by the researchers or validated measures used in other study samples. Only two adopted
mixed method designs (Harms et al., 2018; Hickson and Lehmann, 2014). A notable feature of these
empirical studies is that most used multiple qualitative methods within their overall design.
Areas of focus in social work research
Charting the data showed that articles describing social work research in disaster contexts focused
on (1) social work interventions (n = 15), (2) the effects of disasters on people and mediators of
these effects (n = 19), (3) social work education and challenges in disaster relief (n = 11), and (4) use
of validated measures or development of research measures (n = 2). Many of the 38 articles focused
on multiple themes, as outlined below.
Social work interventions. Of the 15 articles that focus on social work interventions: five discuss
psychosocial care and therapy (Becker, 2009; Bell, 2008; Benson et al., 2016; Cooper et al., 2018;
Hickson and Lehmann, 2014); five articles focus on aid work (Alipour et al., 2015; Dominelli,
2014, 2015; Drolet et al., 2018; Kulkarni et al., 2008); another four look at group work (Huang and
Wong, 2013; Larson et al., 2015; Powell and Leytham, 2014; Tudor et al., 2015); and one article
examines community work (Tudor et al., 2015).
The findings from these studies highlighted the importance of psychosocial care, assessment,
case management and counselling in responding to the mental health and well-being needs of indi-
viduals post disaster (Becker, 2009; Bell, 2008; Hickson and Lehmann, 2014). Typically, case
management in disasters has entailed identifying, assessing, planning, linking, monitoring and
advocating for survivors, with coordination being a critical element of a successful response (Bell,
2008). According to a study by Hickson and Lehmann (2014), Australian social workers involved

6 International Social Work 00(0)
(Continued)
Table 2. Summary of articles included in the scoping review.
Author,
year
Disaster type
and country
Research
design
Sample Measured variables Key findings Theme
Alipour
etal. (2015)
Earthquake,
Iran
Qualitative.
Interviews,
focus groups
and field notes
N = 27 participants (20 earthquake
survivors, 3 social workers, 3
psychologists, and 2 local health
workers with expertise in disaster
recovery).
Not applicable Themes: (1) social vulnerability, (2) social uncertainty, and (3)
ignorance of local social capital.
Mediator – (social) social
capital.
Becker
(2009)
Tsunami, India Randomised
control trial.
Quantitative.
N = 200 (100 women in
psychosocial care group and 100
women in control group)
Impact on Event Scale (IES) and self-
reporting questionnaire (SRQ).
Intervention group showed improvement in post-trauma
symptoms after 3 months of psychosocial care intervention.
Psychosocial care.
Measuring outcome.
Bell (2008) Hurricane,
USA
Qualitative.
In-depth
interviews,
public meeting
observations
and document
analysis.
N = 78 case managers, volunteers,
supervisors, and managers from
50 agencies.
Not applicable Survivors continued to struggle towards self-sufficiency
with many not understanding, trusting or engaging with
service providers. Lack of cultural knowledge, lack of
jobs, transportation and affordable housing coupled with
survivors’ trauma and pre-existing needs created new
difficulties for both survivors and case managers. Case
managers reported positively about their coordination of
efforts to assist hurricane survivors.
Psychosocial care, Effects:
(social) self-sufficiency.
Challenges for
practitioners.
Benson
etal. (2016)
Multiple
natural
disasters, UK/
NZ/USA/
Norway
Quantitative. N = 2884 social workers were
randomly sampled from their
professional membership: 789
from the UK (2000), 162 from NZ
(2006), 1804 from the USA (2008)
and 134 Norway (2011).
Surveys developed by research team.
Demographic information, educational
background, religious and spiritual
affiliation, and level of agreement
on raising the topics of religion and
spirituality with specific client issues.
Social workers reported on the importance of religion and
spirituality for practice, including in the event of disasters.
A large majority in each country believe that spirituality is a
fundamental aspect of being human, yet there is a wide range
of opinion about the appropriateness of various spiritually
oriented helping activities and resources. Social workers
reported that they did not receive formal educational
preparation for addressing spirituality.
Psychosocial care,
Professional Education
required. Measures:
developed by research
team: Methodology.
Chae etal.
(2005)
Flood, South
Korea
Quantitative
measures
N = 584 (339 individuals from the
Gangneung area, 246 individuals
from Yeoju County (non-disaster
area).
Well-being – Psychological Well-being
Index Short Form (PWI-SF); Depression
– Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale
(ZRDS); Anxiety – State Trait Anxiety
Inventory (STAI); and post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) – adapted from
the DSM-IV PTSD symptom list.
Individuals exposed to the natural disaster experienced
negative changes in their mental health, compared with
respondents from the unexposed control group. The
exposed group experienced PTSD, depression, anxiety and
health problems, whereas the non-exposed group did not.
Effects (psychological)
PTSD, depression and
anxiety; (physical) health
problems. Measuring
outcomes.
Cooper
etal. (2018)
Earthquake,
New Zealand
Qualitative.
Semi-
structured
interviews.
N = 19 participants (13 females
and 6 males). 14 semi-structured
interviews. Counsellors – social
work, nursing, medicine,
psychology or counselling.
Not applicable Disaster exposed volunteer counsellors’ shared
experiences with clients making clinical distance
challenging. Systems such as supervision and self-care
arrangements to support volunteer counsellors were set
up within a short period of time.
Psychosocial care.
Dominelli
(2014)
Tsunami, Sri
Lanka
Mixed method
– ‘ethnographic
case-study’ –
field notes
N = 100 (62 villagers, 38 university
staff).
Data from 173 interviews.
Not applicable Themes: assistance in the immediate aftermath was
welcomed; reciprocal assistance and exchanges were
advantageous to parties concerned and met local need;
people with connections in the right places received help
sooner and more in keeping with their needs; inequitable
distribution of aid.
Humanitarian Aid.

Harms et al. 7
Author,
year
Disaster type
and country
Research
design
Sample Measured variables Key findings Theme
Dominelli
(2015)
Tsunami, Sri
Lanka
Same study
as Dominelli
2014.
Data from 368 interviews, 10 focus
groups and 35 sets of field notes
with staff, volunteers and villagers
Not applicable Top-down approaches from external agencies were
most likely to become exploitative. Majority of villagers
welcomed major players (such as Oxfam, the Red Cross
and Save the Children), especially during the immediate
relief and recovery phases. Bottom-up approaches were
valued for the long-term sustainable development and
reconstruction.
Humanitarian Aid.
Doostgharin
(2009)
Earthquake,
Iran
Qualitative –
interviews
N = 8 male youths. Not applicable The findings underline the need for immediate support by
adults with training in disasters, and for developmentally
appropriate mental health care for earthquake survivors.
Effects – Psychological
effects (shock,
nightmares, sadness
and grief, uncertainty,
concerns about family
members) and physical
effects (lack of appetite).
Drolet etal.
(2018)
Hurricanes,
USA
Qualitative –
focus groups
N = 26 (6 participants from
emergency management and
disaster service organisations
and 20 participants from focus
groups from the migrant Latin
American and Hispanic farm
worker community) affected by
the disaster.
Not applicable Migrant workers faced challenges due to the lack
of consideration with regard to immigration status,
linguistics and cultural needs in disaster recovery.
Humanitarian aid emergency management saw the
hurricanes as an opportunity to promote preparedness
within the community. Church communities and
local health departments provided practical support
and material aid. Mexican community came together
to mobilise support for those affected. Grass-roots
collective action was used to bridge the gap between
formal emergency response plans and marginalised
migrant community.
Humanitarian Aid, Social
Capital, Mediator.
First etal.
(2018)
Tornado, USA Quantitative
– measures
N = 438 adults of Joplin residents
who were present during the
tornado disaster event.
Tornado experience – 7 items used in
other studies. Post-traumatic stress
reactions – IES – Revised (IES-R);
Tornado interpersonal communication;
and post-traumatic growth inventory
short form (PTGI-SF).
More tornado exposure and tornado post-trauma stress were
related to more post-traumatic growth. Communication with
family and community supports was related to post-traumatic
growth. Female reported more positive post-traumatic growth
than males. No association between education level and post-
traumatic growth outcomes.
Developing measures and
measuring outcomes.
Fogel (2017) Multiple
natural
disasters, USA
Qualitative –
focus groups
Group 1: N = 31 participants
identified as homeless in the
Hillsborough/
Pinella counties of southern
Florida. Group 2: N = 16 social
service and first responders.
Not applicable Homeless adults identified the need for early actions for
evacuations and provisions to aid recovery after the event.
Shared concern for homeless adults and social services/first
responders was the challenge in transporting individuals to
safety in the event of a disaster.
Effects.
(Continued)
Table 2. (Continued)

8 International Social Work 00(0)
(Continued)
Author,
year
Disaster type
and country
Research
design
Sample Measured variables Key findings Theme
Harms etal.
(2015)
Bushfire,
Australia
Mixed
methods,
longitudinal
– quantitative
measures via
survey, and
a sub-sample
took part in
interviews
N = 1016 participants (612 females
and 404 males) completed the
baseline survey. The bereaved sub-
sample comprised the 294 (29.2%)
participants who reported that
they had experienced the death of
someone close to them as a result
of the Black Saturday bushfires
(117 males and 177 females).
Survey questions focused on:
interpersonal loss, fear and property
loss and mental health. Probable major
depressive episode (MDE) – Patient
Health Questionnaire; Non-specific
psychological distress – K6; and Grief –
Inventory for Complicated Grief (ICG).
The loss through death of friends and community members
was found to be predictive of poorer mental health
outcomes, although prolonged grief outcomes were
rare. The sense of relationships as being ‘like family’ was
identified by interviewees as an important dimension of their
communities, as was coping with multiple deaths and the
hierarchy of grief that emerged, and the stress of notifying
others of these deaths.
Effects – (psychological)
poor mental health
outcomes (caused by
death of close friends).
Developing measures and
measuring outcomes.
Hawkins
and Maurer
(2010)
Hurricane,
USA
Qualitative.
Longitudinal
study with 2
interviews,
observation
and field notes.
N = 40 (female – 34 and male – 6). Not applicable Participants described a process through which close ties
(bonding) were important for immediate support. Bridging
and linking social capital offered pathways to longer
term survival and wider neighbourhood and community
revitalisation.
Mediator – (social) social
capital.
Hickson and
Lehmann
(2014)
Bushfire,
Australia
Mixed
methods,
qualitative
– online survey
and sub-sample
of interviews.
N = 22 social workers Not applicable Demands placed on social work practice were exacerbated
by the lack of familiarity with geography, social networks and
resources, as well as by higher levels of uncertainty and lack
of clarity and detail relating to the event itself.
Psychosocial care
and challenges for
practitioners.
Huang
and Wong
(2013)
Earthquake,
China
Qualitative
– focus groups
and in-depth
interviews
N = 24 adults Not applicable Disaster survivors had resilience to loss and trauma
and could recover themselves. Group participation
via recreational activities facilitated disaster survivors’
self-recovery and had positive effects on them physically
and psychologically and socially. Their lives became more
meaningful and their social network was broadened and
strengthened.
Psychosocial care and
Mediator – group work
participants reported
that distress and
depressive symptoms
were alleviated through
group process.
Huang etal.
(2014)
Earthquake,
China
Qualitative.
In-depth
interviews.
N = 6 social workers Not applicable Social workers reported lack of government support; low
professional status of social work; rapid changes in the social
environment in disaster-affected areas; lack of supervision;
lack of cooperation and coordination among social service
agencies; and lack of experience and knowledge in working
with disaster survivors.
Challenges for
practitioners.
Kranke
etal. (2017)
Multiple
natural
disasters, USA
Qualitative.
Interviews.
N = 9 male combat veterans who
volunteered with Team Rubicon
– a disaster relief social service
organisation.
Not applicable Veterans did not experience negative mental health effects
because of prior military training and preparedness relevant
to disaster situations.
Psychosocial care and
Mediator – Peer support
and preparedness was
perceived as influencing
positive health
outcomes.
Table 2. (Continued)

Harms et al. 9
Author,
year
Disaster type
and country
Research
design
Sample Measured variables Key findings Theme
Kreuger
and Stretch
(2003)
Flood, USA Quantitative
– measures
N = 3876 children and adolescents,
30 percent (1167) of whom were
in grades K–3, and the remaining
70 percent (2719) were in grades
4–12.
Child and Adolescent Protocol on
Flood Impact (CAPFI), Anxiety: Revised
Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale
(RCMAS), and Depresssion: Children’s
Depression Inventory (CDI).
83% of children and adolescents were in the lowest
magnitudes, 6.3% in level 3, 5.6% were in level 4 and the
remaining 5.3% were in level 5 (highest magnitude of flood
impact). Longer term risk was empirically related to magnitude,
with evacuation a major predictor of risk, and water in the
residence (without evacuation) less well correlated to risk.
Effects (psychological)
PTSD. Mediator – risk
mediated by magnitude
of the disaster.
Developing measures and
measuring outcomes.
Kulkarni
etal. (2008)
Hurricane,
USA
Qualitative.
Observational
notes, field
notes and
interviews.
N = 14 (8 evacuees and 6 service
providers).
Not applicable Evacuees forced to navigate formal benefit systems that
were tightly rationed and required proof of eligibility
(criteria for access was often undecipherable). Local social
services struggled with coordination but showed remarkable
flexibility and agility in identifying needs and developing
responses to address the needs of evacuees.
Humanitarian Aid.
Mediator – recovery and
reconstruction policies.
Mediator –
socioeconomic and
structural inequalities.
Larson etal.
(2015)
Tsunami, India Qualitative.
Semi-
structured
focus groups
and interviews.
N = 109 individuals (57 female and
52 male).
Not applicable Self-help groups were reported as having provided women
with a measure of new social and economic opportunities,
status and power. Little evidence existed for a substantial
reduction of poverty levels or a change in the prevailing
patriarchal attitudes.
Psychosocial care – group
work.
Leitch etal.
(2009)
Hurricane,
USA
Quantitative.
Non-
randomised
control trial.
N = 142 (social service workers
who were survivors of Hurricanes
Katrina and Rita in New Orleans
and Baton Rouge, Louisiana,
2–3 months after the disasters).
Demographics. Coping: 4-item scale used
by the agencies (not specified). Symptom
Checklist-90 Revised (SCL-90-R).
Somatic Experiencing proved beneficial with the treatment
group having statistically significant gains in resiliency
indicators and decreases in post-traumatic stress disorder
symptoms. Although psychological symptoms increased in
both groups at the 3- to 4-month follow-up, the treatment
group’s psychological symptoms were statistically lower than
those of the comparison group.
Psychosocial care
(Therapy).
Lemieux
etal. (2010)
Hurricane,
USA
Quantitative
– measures
N = 416 social work students. Demographics and intern status.
Spirituality support: Spiritual Support
Scale (SSS). Altruism: Self Report
Altruism Scale Optimism: Life
Orientation Test (LOT) Peritraumatic
emotional responses: types of
Peritraumatic Emotional Responses
checklist. Hurricane-related stressors:
checklist designed by researchers that
included common stressor experiences
in various domains of living, previous
traumatic experiences and negative
reactions. Coping: Brief COPE.
Respondents experienced, on average, approximately 6
hurricane-related stressors, with the number of stressors
ranging from 0 to 18. The most frequently reported negative
emotional responses: horror/shock, fear/anxiety/worry and
numbness/disbelief. Participants also demonstrated high
levels of volunteerism. Among participants, 47% scored
at or above the clinical level for depression, with 6% of
students showing clinical PTSD-like symptoms, and 16.9%
reporting substance use. Two-thirds (66.9%) employed 8 of
the 10 adaptive coping responses. Negative cognitive and
emotional reactions to the hurricanes correlated positively
with mental health symptomology and 7 of the 10 adaptive
coping responses.
Challenges for students.
Table 2. (Continued)
(Continued)

10 International Social Work 00(0)
(Continued)
Author,
year
Disaster type
and country
Research
design
Sample Measured variables Key findings Theme
Liu and
Mishna
(2014)
Earthquake,
Taiwan
Qualitative.
Interviews.
16 female earthquake survivors Not applicable Coping strategies guided by female gender norms in the
family, embedded in Taiwanese culture – including children’s
needs as the first priority as a maternal role norm; men
working outside and women working inside; and female
gender norms of supporting the family when husbands could
not – were the major resources participants accessed and
utilised to successfully cope with the difficulties after the 921
Earthquake. The participants’ narratives demonstrated that
cultural norms can serve as coping resources for survivors.
Mediator – culture as a
mediator.
Marlowe
(2015)
Earthquake,
NZ
Qualitative.
Semi-
structured
interviews and
focus groups.
N = 101 participants who have a
refugee background.
No applicable A sense of belonging as individuals and as a wider community
was important in the recovery effort. Belonging had
contextual, chronological and gendered dimensions that
helped inform effective and resonant disaster responses
with culturally and linguistically diverse populations. This
analysis also illustrates how the participants’ perspectives of
belonging shifted over time.
Mediator – Sense of
belonging.
Pentaraki
(2013)
Bushfire,
Greece
Qualitative
– interviews
and community
forums
N = 36 individuals who are villagers
affected by the fires and attended
community forums.
Not applicable One-size-fits-all recovery policies tended to enhance
socioeconomic disparities, and the larger political and
economic context mediated and exacerbated the class
differentiation of the impact of the recovery policies.
Mediator – recovery and
reconstruction policies.
Socioeconomic and
structural inequalities.
Plummer
etal. (2008)
Hurricane,
USA
Quantitative.
Self-report
measures.
N = 416 graduate and
undergraduate social work
students.
Demographics and previous volunteer
experience. Hurricane related stress –
18-item scale developed by researchers.
Previous traumatic experiences – 7-item
measure developed by researchers. Faith
– 2 questions adapted by a previous
study. Altruism – SRAC. Increased
commitment to social work values – 13-
item checklist developed by researchers.
Volunteerism – 16-item checklist
developed by researchers.
Most participants experienced numerous stressors: students
lost personal property and were evacuees themselves, as
well as sharing their homes with other evacuees. Hurricanes
K and R triggered recollections of previous traumatic
experiences for almost one-quarter of participants. Even
though participants experienced a wide range of disaster-
related stressors, social work students responded in great
numbers (94%) to the urgent need for voluntary assistance.
Challenges for students.
Developing measures and
measuring outcomes.
Powell and
Leytham
(2014)
Earthquake,
NZ
Quantitative.
Survey.
N = 106 parents who participated
in the Journey of Hope workshop
after the earthquake.
Surveys developed by research team.
Basic demographic information,
educational background, religious and
spiritual affiliation, and level of agreement
on raising the topics of religion and
spirituality with specific client issues.
After the Journey of Hope workshop, findings indicated
statistically significant gains (p < .05) in knowledge and
reductions in stress. Parents were more able to identify (1)
social supports in their community, (2) the ability to identify
signs of stress and how stress affects their body, (3) how
to cope with stress and (4) a more positive outlook for the
future.
Psychosocial Care – group
work.
Table 2. (Continued)

Harms et al. 11
Author,
year
Disaster type
and country
Research
design
Sample Measured variables Key findings Theme
Prost etal.
(2018)
Hurricanes
(2), USA
Quantitative.
Self-report
measures.
N = 357 college students enrolled
in social work programmes across
5 universities and who provided
answers to questions regarding
prayer, coping strategies and
PTSS in a cross-sectional survey
administered 3 months after
Hurricane Rita.
Demographics. Prayer – prayer used
for coping, active and avoidant coping
strategies. Active and Avoidant Coping
– Brief COPE. Post-Trauma Symptoms
– Modified PTSD Symptom Scale,
Self-Report.
Majority of respondents were female. Minority students used
coping via prayer more often than their non-minority peers.
Moderate, positive associations between the use of avoidant
coping strategies and PTSS for minority and non-minority
groups.
Effects – Poorer coping
is associated with
post-trauma symptoms.
Developing measures and
measuring outcomes.
Pyles (2011) Hurricane,
USA
Qualitative –
focus groups
N = 11 participants (40 years+,
9 participants were African
American and 2 were White; 7
female and 4 male)
Not applicable Seven domains identified by research participants as
central to neighbourhood revitalization: (1) physical space/
environment; (2) crime and safety; (3) housing; (4) health and
social services; (5) children, youth, and family; (6) education
and employment; and (7) community and social capital.
Domains are mutually dependent.
Developing measures
and measuring outcomes
– development of
baseline indicators to
measure recovery at the
neighbourhood level.
Rapeli
(2017)
Multiple
natural
disasters,
Finland
Quantitative
– content
analysis
Data consisted of 255 Finnish
municipalities social service
disaster preparedness plan
documents (2013–2014).
Content analysis of documents.
Categories are the following: (1) roles
of the sector (social workers in this
study), (2) cooperation partners, (3)
management-related tasks or structures
such as alarming procedure, (4) risk
assessment and (5) training and exercises.
Micro-level social work interventions and bonding
social capital are emphasised more than cooperation or
management roles in disaster plans. Finnish social sector
preparedness had deficiencies, especially in bridging to the
private social sector and in supporting management and
decision-making with situational picture, alarming systems
and information to the public. Social workers were not linked
adequately to the local-level disaster-management actors.
Social workers, role of supporting clients was present, but it
was not enough for sustainable recovery. Bridging and linking
social capital is needed for post-disaster recovery.
Mediator – (social) social
capital.
Rock and
Corbin
(2007)
Multiple
natural
disasters,
Barbados
Quantitative.
Survey.
N = 72 social work students and
practitioners.
Survey designed by research team. Social workers and other human service professionals should
be trained in disaster management. Workshop and in-service
training identified as the preferred mode of delivery. 75%
wanted a course on disaster management to be offered in
the BSc Degree in Social Work and 94% were of the view
that the field of disaster management was becoming more
important given the recent disasters worldwide.
Professional education
is required to improve
social work response
to natural disasters.
Developing measures
and measuring
outcomes.
Sim etal.
(2013)
Earthquake,
China
Quantitative
– survey
N = 45 social workers. Survey designed by research team. Social workers reported poor professional recognition,
harsh working conditions and limited prospects and support
in the early aftermath of the earthquake. Recovery and
reconstruction have given new purpose for the profession
to integrate theory, values and further develop practice for
disaster social work response.
Challenges for
practitioners. Developing
measures and measuring
outcomes.
Tang and
Cheung
(2007)
Tsunami,
Hong Kong
Quantitative.
Survey.
N = 215 social work students. Not applicable Social work students encountered difficulties arising from
barriers of culture, language, lifestyles and social work or
service systems and concluded that their relief efforts were
not a success.
Challenges for students.
Table 2. (Continued)
(Continued)

12 International Social Work 00(0)
Author,
year
Disaster type
and country
Research
design
Sample Measured variables Key findings Theme
Tosone
etal. (2016)
Hurricane,
USA
Quantitative.
Measures
N = 244 mental health clinicians. Post-traumatic growth – the Shared
Trauma and Professional Post-traumatic
Growth (STPPG) Inventory.
STPPG supports the reciprocal nature of shared trauma and
correlates well with existing measures for post-traumatic
stress, secondary trauma, shared trauma and post-traumatic
growth. STPPG suggests that personal traumatic experience
can impact professional practice, and client traumatic
narratives influence one’s personal trauma responses.
Developing measures and
measuring outcomes.
Tosone
etal. (2015)
Hurricane,
USA
Quantitative.
Measures –
same study as
above.
N = 244 social workers. Shared Traumatic Stress (SdTS) among
social workers
Insecure attachment, greater exposure to potentially
traumatic life events in general and distress related to the
events surrounding Hurricane Katrina were predictive of
higher levels of shared traumatic stress (SdTS). Resilience
was found to mediate the relationship between insecure
attachment, enduring distress attributed to Katrina and SdTS
but not the relationship between exposure to potentially
traumatic life events and SdTS.
Challenges for
practitioners.
Tudor etal.
(2015)
Earthquake,
NZ
Qualitative –
interviews and
focus groups
N = 32 (9 had individual interviews:
8 female, 1 male; and 23
participated in focus groups).
Not applicable The 5 main themes derived from the data were ‘Crafting
for recovery and healing’, ‘Social connection’, ‘Learning and
meaning making’, ‘Giving to others’ and ‘A vision for the
future’.
Psychosocial Care – group
work.
Community work.
Vickers and
Dominelli
(2015)
Tsunami, Sri
Lanka
Qualitative
– interviews,
focus groups
and field notes,
a subsample
of the other
Dominelli study
cited.
N = 173 (70 students and 38
staff from universities in the UK,
Slovenia and Sri Lanka of which
30 students and 7 staff were from
social work programmes and
the remainder were from other
programmes.
Not applicable Structural inequalities perpetuated inegalitarian relationships,
despite individual attempts to the contrary.
Professional education is
required to improve social
work response to natural
disasters.
DSM-IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn); SRAC: Self-Report Altruism Scale; PTSD: Post traumatic stress disorder; PTSS: post-trauma stress syndrome
Note. The underlined words in the Theme column highlight the themes that are discussed throughout the paper.
Table 2. (Continued)

Harms et al. 13
in the Victorian bushfire recovery in 2009 (n = 22) were surveyed about the skills and qualities
needed for effective interventions during a disaster recovery response. Strong practice skills in
assessment, listening, engagement, debriefing, crisis intervention, grief counselling and problem
solving were reported as valuable skills. Social workers should also be confident, empathetic,
reflective, willing to help, compassionate, flexible and patient, among other things. In a study by
Cooper et al. (2018), the concept of psychosocial care was extended to volunteer counsellors, many
of whom were also exposed to the disaster. Soon after the disaster event, these volunteer counsel-
lors recognised their own need for self-care management plans and supervision in order to optimise
the psychosocial care delivered to the survivors (Cooper et al., 2018). In addition to these profes-
sional skills, personal qualities and organisational support, Alipour et al. (2015) also recommend
that social workers have good knowledge of local social capital as part of an effective skill set.
Social work interventions in disasters may be founded in crisis intervention frameworks. In
India, a study was conducted to ascertain the efficacy of a community-based mental health psycho-
social programme aimed at reducing negative physical and emotional effects of a disaster (Becker,
2009). The programme was designed using the ‘train the trainer model’: three social workers and
Table 3. Disaster types and locations.
Country of disaster Bushfire Earthquake Flood Tornado Hurricane Multiple Tsunami
Australia 2
Barbados 1
China 3
Finland 1
Greece 1
Hong Kong 1
India 2
Iran 2
NZ 4
South Korea 1
Sri Lanka 3
Taiwan 1
UK/NZ/USA/Norway 1
USA 1 1 12 2
Total 3 10 2 1 12 5 6
Table 4. Research design.
Research methodaNumber of studies (n = 35) % of studies
Interviews 19 54.3
Focus groups 8 22.9
Field notes 4 13.8
Observation 3 10.3
Document analysis 3 8.6
Community forums 1 3.5
Survey designed by researchers 7 24.1
Standardised measures 8 22.8
aNot mutually exclusive.

14 International Social Work 00(0)
one psychiatrist trained community health workers to deliver 3 months of psychosocial care to a
group of women (n = 100) who had survived a tsunami 2 years previously. The programme inter-
vention targeted trauma symptoms of hypervigilance, avoidance and intrusion as measured by the
Impact of Event Scale (IES). The IES was administered to the intervention group and a control
group (n = 100) of people who lived in the neighbouring village and were also affected by the dis-
aster. Pre- and post-intervention outcomes of the intervention group were compared with the con-
trol group. The intervention group showed significant improvement in trauma symptoms in all
three domains compared with the control group outcomes (Becker, 2009). Similarly, a brief inter-
vention therapy (one to two sessions) informed by Somatic Experiencing was shown to reduce
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and promote resiliency in social work clinicians
who had been exposed to a disaster recovery effort following the intervention and again at 3 months
post-intervention (Leitch et al., 2009). In a multi-national study by Benson et al. (2016), social
workers reported varying levels of comfort and skill exploring religion and spirituality with clients
who had experienced a disaster. Despite some reservations, the majority of respondents did per-
ceive positive effects when social work assessments and interventions recognised and acknowl-
edged the importance of spirituality to people, particularly in times of trauma (Benson et al., 2016).
Social work research in this scoping review also emphasises the importance of providing aid in
a bottom-up approach (Alipour et al., 2015; Dominelli, 2015), which is one that involves commu-
nity participation in solving problems arising from disasters, is reciprocal in nature, and is respon-
sive to local needs and cultures (Dominelli, 2014). Such approaches are thought to reinforce social
capital, while also promoting empowerment and resilience among community members (Alipour
et al., 2015; Dominelli, 2015). Such work is hampered when there are limited local resources due
to underfunding and reliance on non-government sources of support (Kulkarni et al., 2008).
These studies suggest that group work, including self-help groups (Larson et al., 2015), recrea-
tion activities (Huang and Wong, 2013) and a parental psycho-educational curriculum (Powell and
Leytham, 2014), may be beneficial. Groups can alleviate distress and depression, while improving
people’s well-being and recovery (Huang and Wong, 2013). Furthermore, they can help group
members locate social supports, recognise their stress, identify ways of coping with stress and
provide a sense of hope (Powell and Leytham, 2014). In Larson et al.’s (2015) study following a
tsunami in India, survivors (n = 109) reported that self-help groups provided women with new
social and economic opportunities by providing employment and income, generating opportuni-
ties, training, access to microcredit and savings, and the ability to undertake banking. Thus, social
group work can be healing and empowering for survivors.
Social work practice described in the research has also drawn from innovative approaches,
including, for example, craft (Tudor et al., 2015), and can align well with community-led practice
initiatives that focus on relationship healing and community growth. There is some, albeit limited,
focus on the use of social and community development type approaches following disasters. Tudor
et al. (2015), for example, describe how a community work project that included a craft group
promoted recovery and healing, social connectedness, meaning making, giving and hope for the
future.
The effects of disasters on people and mediators of these effects. Nineteen articles in this scop-
ing review focused on the effects and/or mediating influences in disasters (Alipour et al., 2015;
Bell, 2008; Chae et al., 2005; Dominelli, 2014; Doostgharin, 2009; Drolet et al., 2018; First et al.,
2018; Harms et al., 2015; Hawkins and Maurer, 2010; Huang and Wong, 2013; Kreuger and
Stretch, 2003; Kulkarni et al., 2008; Lemieux et al., 2010; Liu and Mishna, 2014; Marlowe, 2015;
Pentaraki, 2011; Plummer et al., 2008; Prost et al., 2018; Tosone et al., 2015).

Harms et al. 15
Many of these articles highlighted the effects of disasters on people and communities, particu-
larly as they relate to mental health outcomes and grief and loss (Chae et al., 2005; Doostgharin,
2009; First et al., 2018; Harms et al., 2015; Huang and Wong, 2013; Kreuger and Stretch, 2003;
Lemieux et al., 2010; Plummer et al., 2008; Tosone et al., 2016). The negative effects on mental
health as well as complicated grief and loss associated with the disaster events were common for
survivors in all these studies. It was only after psychosocial interventions that survivors started to
experience improvement in these outcomes, which could be described as a form of recovery. The
literature describes how adverse effects are felt more acutely among marginalised groups (Drolet
et al., 2018; Fogel, 2017; Pentaraki, 2013). Furthermore, some literature highlights how factors
such as social connectedness, particularly as it relates to culture, social capital and sense of belong-
ing, mediate the adverse effects of disasters on people and communities (Dominelli, 2014; Hawkins
and Maurer, 2010; Liu and Mishna, 2014; Marlowe, 2015).
As shown in Table 5, nine articles examine the effects of disasters (Alipour et al., 2015;
Bell, 2008; Chae et al., 2005; Doostgharin, 2009; First et al., 2018; Harms et al., 2015; Kreuger
and Stretch, 2003; Prost et al., 2018). Of the nine articles that describe post-disaster effects,
six articles focus on the psychological effects (Chae et al., 2005; Doostgharin, 2009; First
et al., 2018; Harms et al., 2015; Kreuger and Stretch, 2003; Prost et al., 2018) and three focus
on each social effects and physical effects (Chae et al., 2005; Doostgharin, 2009; Huang and
Wong, 2013).
Eight articles examine mediating factors that reduce the negative impacts of disaster events on
people: four identify social connectedness as a mediator (Drolet et al., 2018; Hawkins and Maurer,
2010; Liu and Mishna, 2014; Marlowe, 2015); another three identify higher socioeconomic status
as a mediator (Alipour et al., 2015; Kulkarni et al., 2008; Pentaraki, 2013); three comment on
reconstruction and recovery policies and responses as mediators (Alipour et al., 2015; Kulkarni
et al., 2008; Pentaraki, 2013); and one highlights the mediating effect of the degree of exposure to
the disaster (Kreuger and Stretch, 2003).
The effects of disasters on individuals and communities are extensive. The social work litera-
ture emphasises how disasters can increase people’s vulnerability (Alipour et al., 2015), with the
effects from disasters compounded for people who are marginalised and disadvantaged (Kulkarni
et al., 2008; Pentaraki, 2013). Disasters can also create a sense of uncertainty and confusion
(Alipour et al., 2015), impact people’s ability to be self-sufficient (Bell, 2008), reduce people’s
sense of safety and increase grief in both adults (Harms et al., 2015) and children (Doostgharin,
Table 5. Effects and mediators.
Theme No. of articles
Effects 9
Psychological effects 6
Social effects 3
Physical effects 3
Mediatorsa8
Social connectedness (culture, social capital and sense of belonging) 4
Socioeconomic influences 3
Reconstruction and recovery policies and responses 3
Degree of exposure to disaster 1
aNot mutually exclusive

16 International Social Work 00(0)
2009). These events can have lasting impacts on people’s mental health, with survivors reporting
increased rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (Chae et al., 2005; Kreuger and Stretch, 2003), as
well as stress, anxiety and depression (Chae et al., 2005). For adults, the death of close friends and
community members is predictive of poorer mental health outcomes (Harms et al., 2015), while for
children and young people, experiencing loss of family members, friends and protection from car-
egivers can make them vulnerable to malnutrition, diseases, injuries, nightmares and harm from
others (Doostgharin, 2009). Thus, incorporating knowledge and understanding about grief and its
role in and effect on disaster recovery is important (Harms et al., 2015).
Studies show that effects of disasters are mediated by some factors. High levels of social capital
(Hawkins and Maurer, 2010) and a sense of community belonging through civic participation and
social connection (Marlowe, 2015) appear to reduce the adverse impacts of disasters. For example,
following Hurricane Katrina in the United States, people used connections and close ties for imme-
diate support (that is, bonding social capital), and bridging and linking social capital to revitalise
their communities (Hawkins and Maurer, 2010). Thus, it is important for social workers to build
community capacity by harnessing social capital, while also recognising, where appropriate, the
value of cultural norms in promoting resiliency (Liu and Mishna, 2014). Furthermore, recovery
and reconstruction policies that exacerbate socioeconomic and structural inequalities can mean
that the effects of disasters are more acutely felt by vulnerable, low-income groups within a com-
munity affected by a natural disaster (Kulkarni et al., 2008). Finally, the degree to which a young
person is exposed to a disaster can also mediate risks such as PTSD (Kreuger and Stretch, 2003).
It is thus important for practitioners to recognise the interconnected nature of physical environ-
ment, access to services, education and employment, policies, and community and social capital in
recovery from disasters.
Social work education and challenges in disaster relief. Of the 10 articles focused on the challenges
of working in disasters and the importance of education in these areas (Bell, 2008; Benson et al.,
2016; Hickson and Lehmann, 2014; Huang et al., 2014; Lemieux et al., 2010; Rock and Corbin,
2007; Tang and Cheung, 2007; Tosone et al., 2015; Vickers and Dominelli, 2015; Plummer et al.,
2008), 3 comment on the importance and role of education in preparing social workers for disas-
ter work (Benson et al., 2016; Rock and Corbin, 2007; Vickers and Dominelli, 2015), five arti-
cles comment on the challenges faced by practitioners (Bell, 2008; Hickson and Lehmann, 2014;
Huang et al., 2014; Sim et al., 2013; Tosone et al., 2015) and four comment on the challenges
faced by students (Lemieux et al., 2010; Plummer et al., 2008; Rock and Corbin, 2007; Tang and
Cheung, 2007).
Social work practice in disasters can be particularly challenging, as disaster situations are char-
acterised by trauma, grief and chaos. The impacts on social workers can be exacerbated when they
are unfamiliar with the geography of the area, the backgrounds and experiences of residents
affected by disaster, details of the disaster, local cultures and social networks, and available
resources (Bell, 2008; Hickson and Lehmann, 2014). Furthermore, social workers can face chal-
lenges around lack of support and supervision, coordination among services, and experience and
knowledge in disaster-related work, which is compounded by the rapidly changing environment of
disasters and the low professional status of social work (Huang et al., 2014; Sim et al., 2013). Such
challenges can mean that working in disasters adversely affects social workers’ well-being (Hickson
and Lehmann, 2014; Huang et al., 2014; Sim et al., 2013).
Such challenges can contribute to increased rates of secondary trauma (Tosone et al., 2015),
meaning that social workers must be particularly adept at self-care (Hickson and Lehmann, 2014).
The importance of self-care care management and supervision was recognised by a sample of
counsellors (n = 19) who volunteered to deliver therapeutic support to survivors of the earthquakes

Harms et al. 17
in Canterbury, New Zealand. In this qualitative study, the counsellors noted the challenges associ-
ated with maintaining professional boundaries when they also shared the experience of surviving
the disaster. In this post-recovery response, many of the systems and supports that are typically in
place were not initially present. However, supervision, debriefing and documentation of learning
were all recognised as valuable and necessary for the counsellors and were put in place on the run
(Cooper et al., 2018).
Adverse impacts can also be felt by students who volunteer in disasters, as students confront
the horror of disasters and experience a range of emotional responses, such as fear, anxiety,
worry and disbelief (Lemieux et al., 2010). Plummer et al. (2008) pointed out in their study
(n = 416) that at times students are survivors of the disaster themselves, and for others, disasters
can trigger recollections of past traumatic experiences. Tang and Cheung (2007) described that
students who helped survivors of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami by caring for and supporting
survivors materially and emotionally, while also fundraising, experienced difficulties that arose
from cultural barriers, differing languages and lifestyles, and a lack of knowledge about social
work and service systems (Tang and Cheung, 2007). Unfortunately, many students concluded
that their efforts were unsuccessful.
Considering the impacts on social workers and students, many authors have made recommenda-
tions around education and training. Rock and Corbin (2007), for example, recommend training
social work students in stress management, grief counselling, conflict resolution, group work,
problem solving, data collection and research, case management, networking, advocacy and lead-
ership (Rock and Corbin, 2007). Vickers and Dominelli (2015) also describe how real-time disas-
ters can provide opportunities for educators to work with students to equip them with skills and
knowledge for responding to disasters, and how this can be particularly successful when working
with local partners (Vickers and Dominelli, 2015). In addition, participants in Benson et al.’s
(2016) study said they had not received formal education around how to address spirituality in
disaster responses, but most thought this would be important. Greater education and training may
reduce the secondary trauma at times experienced by social workers and better prepare social
workers for responding helpfully following disasters.
Use of validated measures or development of research measures. Finally, two articles describe the
development of measures. One of these articles (Tosone et al., 2016) describes the development
of the Shared Trauma and Professional Posttraumatic Growth (STPPG) Inventory, while the other
(Pyles, 2011) describes the development of baseline indicators to measure community recovery
from disasters. It stipulates seven domains that research participants identified as important to
revitalising neighbours, including (1) physical space/environment, (2) crime and safety, (3) hous-
ing, (4) health and social services, (5) children, youth, and family, (6) education and employment,
and (7) community and social capital. Findings reveal that the domains are mutually dependent.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to understand the extent, range and nature of social work research
activity following natural disaster events, and the implications for future research and practice.
Collating, summarising and reporting the scoping review results related to the research ques-
tion provides a foundation for ongoing empirical research about social work and disasters inter-
nationally. In combination, the articles signal the value and importance of social work practice
in disaster-related work. The predominant focus of the research has been on post-disaster work
where social workers have engaged with a range of practice activities, as opposed to pre-disas-
ter social work practice about which there is less recognition and research activity. These

18 International Social Work 00(0)
include group work, case management, aid and psychosocial care. Social workers are trained in
assessment and intervention and therefore have much to contribute in the immediate response
and ongoing recovery phases of disaster management (Mathbor, 2007). They are also equipped
to engage with diversity and so have the skills to communicate and build relationships with
people across the community. The recognition in the empirical articles that social workers may
themselves be immediately impacted by the disaster is important and supports the emphasis on
initial and continuing social work education around self-care and stress management. Ensuring
their own well-being enables them to successfully support others. Sustaining additional support
for students who are engaged in responding to disasters should be a consideration for both edu-
cational providers and responding organisations so that they do not become disillusioned about
social work practice or personally burnt out.
Further research into the elements that would create a robust organisational infrastructure
including clear policies and procedures around immediate response to a disaster is critical within
social workers’ own organisations. Understanding their roles and responsibilities supports the
maintenance of personal and professional boundaries, further ensuring protection of social work-
ers themselves (Cooper et al., 2018). International conversations around best practice in prepara-
tion for social work organisations could add considerable impetus to disaster readiness of the
social work community. Of course, these conversations are important not only for the social work
profession but also for all those concerned in disaster-management work, a context described in
the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk
Reduction [UNDRR], 2015) as typically multidisciplinary, as well as multi-layered from local
initiatives through to the international. While the focus of this review has been on post-disaster
social work, we also acknowledge the important role of social workers in preventing and manag-
ing disasters. Such work is not only consistent with the United Nations 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development (UNDRR, 2015), but aligns with the Global Agenda for Social Work
and Social Development 2020–2030 (IFSW, 2020).
Possible gaps in current tertiary curricula are suggested in the found literature, although this
may differ across countries and in specific higher education institutions. Further examination of
what is taught and learned and then applied by students would add value to current practice and
research. Preparing students for social work practice in disaster management may be seen to be of
more relevance in some countries that experience disasters more frequently. That said, the interna-
tional nature of social workers and the transferability of skills required for disaster work could be
an argument for increased focus across all social work curricula.
The articles also point to the devastating effects on people, some of whom will already have
been engaged with social workers prior to the disaster. The disproportionate impact of disasters on
marginalised and vulnerable individuals and communities has been well canvassed but requires
particular attention by social workers in frontline practice, policy and management. Mitigating the
extent of these impacts can be assisted by a deliberate focus pre-disaster event on building social
capital, educating people around disaster preparedness, and having a strong local and regional
policy framework that can be actioned immediately after the event.
The use of baseline indicators and other measurements to assess community and individual
growth is of considerable value and is a current gap in the social work research to date. The use of
validated measures for constructs related to disaster effects and recovery require further examina-
tion in the research. The development and validation of measures that test the efficacy of social
work interventions with populations affected by natural disasters is also needed. Ideally, these
measures would also have clinical utility so that they can be integrated into social work practice
and used for research purposes.

Harms et al. 19
While the social work literature articulates the interventions and role of social work in disaster
relief, there is less certainty in the empirical literature about the extent to which social workers are
utilised and their work is understood both by other professionals and by community members.
Huang and Wong (2013) noted the low professional status of social workers and the limited
resources and support often available to them. The research agenda could further examine the
previous engagement of social workers in disaster work, especially in countries where there is
limited understanding of their engagement in this domain (Huang and Wong, 2013).
Understanding what roles social workers have had in the span of disaster events, from readiness,
reduction, response through to recovery, may raise the visibility of social work activity and support
future engagement locally, regionally, nationally and internationally. The global definition of social
work (IFSW, 2014) emphasises the commitment of social workers to human rights and social jus-
tice, thus appropriately positioning the social work profession in the disaster space. Whether social
workers and their practice are understood and appreciated by other professionals, and so whether
they are being utilised to their full potential, is another question for further research. An additional
area for future research is social workers’ engagement in the typically multidisciplinary context of
disaster-management work.
The emphasis in the literature on individual interventions raises questions as to the appropriate-
ness of these methods for indigenous communities who may prefer group- or community-focused
models of practice. Understanding the impact of disasters on indigenous peoples and how social
workers can best practice in these environments is important. This has implications for the teaching
curriculum, policy and practice so that non-indigenous social workers are equipped to engage in
culturally relevant ways both pre- and post-disaster. An understanding of the timing of when social
work interventions are most effective is also needed. The studies to date provide important insights
into the range of interventions that can be helpful for individuals and communities post-disaster
event. Future research needs to examine the types and timing of interventions in order to test their
efficacy in improving recovery trajectory outcomes.
The articles describe research that has occurred on a range of natural disasters, across multiple
nations (developed and developing countries), in diverse social work contexts and at varying stages
of disaster recovery. This makes it challenging for social work practitioners and drivers of social
policy to draw any meaningful conclusions as to best practice approaches in a disaster event. This
further supports the need for a research agenda that will inform a way of conceptualising disaster
recovery responses regardless of their type, location and context.
Limitations
The aim of this study was to review the empirical literature on social work research following natu-
ral disaster events using a scoping review methodology. Consequently, the search terms were lim-
ited to ‘social work’ and ‘disaster’. This means that the scope of the review was limited and some
studies that social workers contribute to, such as those focused on psychosocial research and dis-
aster management more broadly, may not have been included. Importantly, however, we verified
that no articles met the selection criteria using the alternate term ‘natural hazard’. Furthermore, this
scoping review focused only on social work research in the context of natural disasters, rather than
disasters in a broader sense. Given there are some differences in the responses to and impact of
human-made disasters compared with natural disasters, this was deemed appropriate (Shaluf,
2007). Another limitation was including only those studies published in the English language as
this precluded any research reported in other languages. As a scoping review, the quality and rigour
of studies was not assessed. However, using a scoping review methodology, we were able to
include a range of study designs, which can be valuable in a growing field of practice and research.

20 International Social Work 00(0)
Conclusion
This scoping review has established that there is range of social work literature focused on disas-
ters which primarily examines social work interventions, the effects of disasters, and social work
education. It is evident from this literature that the social work profession can play an integral role
in responding to disaster events at various levels (micro, meso and macro) to minimise the harmful
effects and promote recovery. In the multidisciplinary context of disaster management, understand-
ing the unique disciplinary contributions of social work is important. In order to advance this field
of practice, more research is needed on the types, timing, role and extent of social work practice
and interventions after disasters. This should coincide with examination of the elements that would
create a robust organisational infrastructure during disasters, including clear policies and proce-
dures around immediate responses to a disaster. Educators should reflect upon what is taught,
learned and then applied by social work students regarding disasters. Finally, the field would
benefit from the development of validated measures for constructs related to disasters.
Beyond the focus of this article, more research is also needed in relation to social work’s broader
role in disaster prevention and response. While there has been considerable work undertaken in
both the research and practice of social work in disasters, there is clearly still more to be done.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publi-
cation of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iDs
Jennifer Boddy https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0338-4460
Lyndal Hickey https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6418-4935
Margaret Alston https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9057-7767
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Author biographies
Louise Harms is chair and head of Social Work at The University of Melbourne. Her research and teaching
interests are in trauma and resilience – in health and post-disaster contexts.
Jennifer Boddy is deputy head of School (Learning and Teaching) for the School of Human Services and
Social Work at Griffith University, Australia. She is passionate about creating healthy, sustainable environ-
ments, free from violence, advancing feminist research, and understanding and addressing the impacts of
climate change on marginalised people.
Lyndal Hickey is a research fellow in the Department of Social Work at The University of Melbourne,
Melbourne, Australia. She has practice experience in health and disability and her research has focused on
family interventions to promote adaptation following a significant health event.
Kathryn Hay is an associate professor in the School of Social Work, Massey University, New Zealand. Her
research interests include work-integrated learning; social worker engagement in disaster management; and
the readiness to practise of newly qualified social workers. Kathryn teaches across field education, policy,
and research methods courses and is the Director of Field Education.
Melinda Alexander is a freelance writer. She completed her PhD in the Department of Social Work, The
University of Melbourne in 2015 and worked on this project as a research assistant.
Lynne Briggs is an associate professor at Griffith University. She has successfully led various research and
evaluation projects in New Zealand, Australia, Canada and Hong Kong. Her research includes national and
international mixed method studies in mental health outcomes, exploring whether demoralization may pro-
vide a more relevant diagnosis than clinical depression, the impact of child sexual abuse on adult women
survivors, refugee women, gender-based violence and interventions in disasters
Lesley Cooper has a long history in international social work practice, education and research. She recently
was the foundation professor of social work at the University of Wollongong, NSW and is now an Honorary
Professor.
Margaret Alston is professor of Social Work at the University of Newcastle and emeritus professor at Monash
University. She has undertaken research on climate related disasters in a number of countries across South
Asia and the Pacific.
Patricia Fronek is based at Griffith University and Law Futures Research Centre. She is the Director of the
Bachelor of Social Work Program, Griffith University. Her areas of research include community development
and work with communities (with a particular focus on strengths or asset-based approaches.
Amanda Howard is director of the BSW at the University of Sydney. Her research is focused on work with
communities. For the last few years Amanda has been undertaking research focused on community led
approaches to disaster preparedness, response and recovery.
Carole Adamson is a senior lecturer within the social work programme at The University of Auckland,
Aotearoa New Zealand. She has a practice and research focus on mental health, stress, trauma and resilience,
animals, and on disasters, and on the role of social work and social work education to stay current in these
areas.
Tricia Hazeleger works with rural communities as a community development and project manager in North
East Victoria. Tricia has been involved in action research and developing policy and practice guidelines with
the Gender, Leadership and Social Sustainability Centre at Monash University, focusing on gender and disas-
ter resilience.