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school with the necessary skills to be independent and self-deter-
mined adults. PE programs can contribute signicantly to instruc-
tion of the nine components of the Expanded Core Curriculum
(ECC) if implemented correctly (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010).
The Expanded Core Curriculum
Although individuals with visual impairments may be included
in the same instructional settings as sighted peers, they may not
gain all of the skills related to being successful students through
common core curriculum instruction. The ECC refers to the neces-
sary nine areas of instruction that individuals with visual impair-
ments need to be successful in school, the community, and the
workplace (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010). The nine components of the ECC
include (a) compensatory or access skills, (b) career education, (c)
independent living skills, (d) orientation and mobility (O&M) skills,
(e) recreational and leisure skills, (f) self-determination skills, (g)
social interaction skills, (h) use of assistive technology, and (i) sen-
sory eciency skills. Each component is explained in more detail
later in this paper.
The components of the ECC are typically learned incidentally
by sighted children using all of their senses including visual ob-
servation of their world and by watching others (Lohmeier et al.,
2009). However, skills and knowledge acquired by visual observa-
tion by sighted children must be explicitly taught to children with
visual impairments. The ECC is designed to go beyond the core
components of curriculum to address essential areas and experi-
ences that are unique to students with visual impairments (Loh-
meier et al., 2009). Yet, time limitations often restrict the level
and amount of ECC instruction TVIs are able to provide to their
students. Research indicates that TVIs typically spend the majority
of instructional time on academics, tutoring, or teaching commu-
nication skills (Wole et al., 2002) with little time left to focus on
other components of the ECC. Therefore, it is essential that ECC
components are integrated into every day instruction, including in
PE.
Physical Education for Individuals With
Visual Impairments
Although students with visual impairments may nd PE to be
fun and enjoyable (Ward, Farnsworth, Babkes-Stellino, & Per-
ret, 2011), these students typically nd barriers to participation in
physical activity settings. Barriers to physical activity may conse-
quently cause (a) a lack of concept development including spacial
Infusing the Expanded Core
Curriculum into Physical Education
for Children with Visual Impairments
Abstract
The Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) has been adopted by teach-
ers of students with visual impairments (TVIs) in order to provide
students who are blind or visually impaired with the support they
need to become independent and successful adults. Physical edu-
cation is an educational setting where teachers can infuse the nine
components of the ECC into their everyday lessons. The purpose
of this article is to describe the nine components of the ECC and
provide examples on how to infuse these components into physical
education lessons.
Keywords: visual impairments, infusion, curriculum, physical
education
Visual impairment is a low-incidence disability, aecting ap-
proximately 59,000 students enrolled in elementary or second-
ary schools in the United States (American Printing House for
the Blind, 2012). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(2004, also known as IDEA) denes “visual impairment” as an im-
pairment of vision that, even with corrections, has an adverse eect
on a child’s education. The term visual impairment encompasses
a wide range of visual disabilities (Lieberman, Ponchillia, & Pon-
chilla, 2013), including students who are totally blind or have only
light perception as well as those with poor or reduced visual acu-
ity, diculty tracking moving objects, poor depth perception, light
sensitivity, and/or peripheral eld loss. Students eligible for special
education services under “visually impaired” can dier greatly in
their type and degree of vision impairment and use of remaining
functional vision.
IDEA (2004) also states that children with disabilities must be
educated in the least restrictive environment or with their peers
without disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate. IDEA ex-
tends to all educational settings, including physical education (PE).
Students with visual impairments should have every opportunity to
participate in PE with their sighted peers, with adaptations when
necessary (Tutt, Lieberman, & Brasher, 2011). Although visual
impairment does not in itself cause poor physical skills or lack of
tness, it may create obstacles to participating in activities in PE
(Conroy, 2012; Lieberman et al., 2013).
The eld of education has instituted a curricular approach to
ensure that children with visual impairments receive the educa-
tion they need in addition to their core courses. The goal of this
approach, called the Expanded Core Curriculum or ECC (Sapp
& Hatlen, 2010), is for children with visual impairments to leave
JUSTIN A. HAEGELE
The Ohio State University
LAUREN J. LIEBERMAN
The College at Brockport
LUIS COLUMNA
Syracuse University
MARLA RUNYAN
Perkins School for the Blind
44 PALAESTRA | 2014 | Vol. 28, No. 3
awareness (Lieberman et al., 2013); (b) delays in motor compe-
tence concepts including object control, locomotor, and balance
skills (Houwen, Visscher, Hartman, & Lemmink, 2007; Haibach,
Lieberman, & Pritchett, 2011; Wagner, Haibach, & Lieberman,
2013); (c) low physical activity levels (Kozub & Oh, 2004); and (d)
low levels of health-related tness (Lieberman, Byrne, Mattern,
Watt, & Fernandez-Vivo, 2010). By overcoming barriers to par-
ticipation in PE programs, students with visual impairments may
avoid or overcome the aforementioned deciencies. For example,
research studies have demonstrated that participation in physical
activity programs that have been tailored for their needs can in-
crease motor competence (Aki, Turan, & Kayihan, 2007) and physi-
cal activity levels (Cervantes & Porretta, 2013) for individuals with
visual impairments.
While planning and implementing physical activity programs,
PE teachers focus on incorporating cognitive, social, and aective
goals alongside motor objectives of movement skills (e.g., elemen-
tary level) and sport concepts (e.g., secondary level) in lessons
(NASPE, 2004). A well-rounded learning experience that takes
cognitive, social, aective, and motor domains into consideration
prepares students to be successful in dierent learning and daily
life settings. For students with visual impairments, more support
may be needed in order to gain those same successes. The ECC has
been instituted to ensure that children with visual impairments are
receiving the support they need in addition to the core curriculum
in order to be independent and successful adults. Like the NASPE
standards, the goal of these components is for students to receive a
holistic learning experience. For children with visual impairments
in PE, components of the ECC can be infused along with cognitive,
aective, social, and motor domains throughout the curriculum.
Infusing the Expanded Core Curriculum and
Physical Education
The nine components of the ECC encompass skills that students
with visual impairments need to learn throughout their education
in order to independent and successful adults. The following sec-
tions describe each component in detail and provide examples of
strategies to infuse the ECC in PE. In addition, Table 1 provides
additional strategies to infuse the ECC in PE, and Table 2 demon-
strates a specic example of how ECC components can be included
in a sample dance unit. It is important to note, though, that each
strategy may not be appropriate or successful for each student
based on their visual impairment and ability level. It is imperative
for PE teachers to discuss students’ specic visual impairment with
TVIs and Certied Orientation and Mobility Specialist (COMS)
prior to infusing these strategies into classes.
Compensatory or Access Skills
Compensatory or access skills include skills that students need
to access all areas of the general education curriculum as indepen-
dently as possible in a manner that is equal to that of his or her
sighted peers. Classroom examples include learning dierent com-
munication modes such as braille, applying organizational skills, or
identifying needed accommodations to complete a task (Lohmeier
et al., 2009). Compensatory and access skills vary on the basis of
the students’ needs and must be taught on an individualized level.
An example of supporting compensatory skills in PE class can
include equipment storage accommodations. First, PE equipment
should be well organized and stored in consistent and familiar loca-
The PE teacher should allow the student who is visually impaired the opportunity to access printed information in alternative formats.
Vol. 28, No. 3 | 2014 | PALAESTRA 45
Table 1
Strategies to Infuse the Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) into Physical Education (PE)
ECC
Component Strategies for Infusion
Compensatory
or functional
academic
skills, including
communication
modes
• Provide instructions to activities in braille. B
• Teach students a variety of guide-running technique options. B
• Include movement games and activities using sound sources as signals. E
• Provide a tactile map of oor seating. E
• Teach all students sports who use sound sources and are inclusive. S
• Provide access to rules of sports or activities using braille or computers instead of handouts. B
• Teach strategies to access control panel of workout equipment including treadmills or ellipticals. S
Orientation
and mobility • Pre-teach the physical activity area and games prior to class beginning. B
• Collaborate with O & M instructor to provide simulated environments for travel practice. B
• Create an obstacle course that may allow all students to participate in activities to practice fundamental movement
patterns (e.g., walk, run, gallop). E
• Teach the dimensions of courts and elds. S
• Teach the process of traveling to and from the pool. B
• Promote body and spacial awareness with physical activities such as yoga or stretching.B
Social
interaction skills • Teach physical activities in which sighted peers can play with children with visual impairments by making simple
modications such as adding bells to a ball. B
• Train peer tutors and paraeducators to facilitate social interactions during class. B
• Teach team sports and highlight the importance of teamwork to achieve. S
• Include teambuilding games and adventure-based learning units to facilitate positive communication among all
students. B
• Encourage students to participate in sport camps or recreational activities designed for individuals with visual
impairments outside of school. B
• Rotate roles (leader, team member) between all students within group. B
Independent
living skills • Emphasize health topics during their classes (appropriate sport attire, healthy snacks, and encourage a bath after
participating in physical activities). B
• Teach dressing skills for activities such as swimming, bowling, or ice skating. B
• Teach skills for community involvement such as bowling alleys, health clubs and skating rinks. B
• Discuss accommodations needed during tness units. S
• If possible, take eld trips to community recreation facilities to practice navigating and using various environments.S
Recreation and
leisure skills • Pre-teach sport skills in the classroom and facilitate participation in the community by contacting sport clubs or
recreational facilities that students can visit. S
• Teach how to navigate trails and bicycle paths in parks. S
• Teach fundamental skills for all life-long leisure activities. S
Career
education • Introduce guest speakers who are visually impaired to talk about their career opportunities. B
• Connect with individuals who are visually impaired with careers in sport and recreation via email or postage, cre-
ate a pen-pal relationship with students. E
• Perform Internet searches of individuals who are visually impaired whom are athletes, coaches, or are involved in
sport or recreation. B
• Utilize the sport education model so students learn about careers in sport (coach, announcer, journalist, and statisti-
cian). S
• Discuss how a higher level of physical tness may increase an individual’s marketability while job searching. S
Use of assistive
technology
• Teach the use of exercise technology such as talking pedometers and talking heart rate monitors. B
• Incorporate modied Wii or other exergames into the curriculum. B
• Help children navigate the web for assignments on blind sport, role models, or the history of a sport. B
• Use sound sources or sound balls in common PE activities. B
• Navigate the internet with students to nd sport related opportunities such as camps for individuals with visual
impairments (e.g., Camp Abilities) or sport organizations (e.g., USABA). B
Sensory
efciency skills • Use music, sound, and other modalities that indicate a beginning or an ending of an activity. B
• Infuse games like goalball and beep baseball to promote the use of hearing to play the game for every player as
each one is blindfolded. B
• For students with low vision, use brightly colored or neon tape to outline boundaries. B
• For target sports (such as archery), place a sound source behind the target to assist in localization. B
• In movement activities such as sprinting, sound can be the target for the student to move to. B
Self-
determination • Prepare students to be successful in different activities using sport as a medium. B
• Teach the same sports and units as their peers so they will have choices in the future. B
• Provide a variety of choices in terms of sports that may allow students to develop a sense of autonomy, compe-
tence, and at the same time allow them to relate to their peers and family members. B
• Include students in process of making accommodations or modications of activities. B
• Allow students to make choices as to what accommodations they need to participate, do not assume based on
previous students. B
• Keep track of personal bests and athletic goals. Beating these records can lead to higher self-condence in sport
and activity.B
• Teach lifelong activities that students can choose to participate in after graduation, including what modications
students may need to participate. S
E indicates an appropriate strategy for elementary PE program.
S indicates an appropriate strategy for secondary PE program.
B indicates an appropriate strategy for both elementary and secondary PE program
46 PALAESTRA | 2014 | Vol. 28, No. 3
tions. This allows the student who is visually impaired to be more
independent while retrieving and storing his/her equipment. For
additional support, shelves and storage bins may be identied with
braille or large print labels.
Another example may include working with a middle or high
school student to adapt the control panel on a treadmill. Accommo-
dations such as applying braille labels, tactile indicators, or large
print labels will increase a student’s ability to access the treadmill,
as well as promote problem solving skills and self-advocacy. Fur-
thermore, the student may then apply these same strategies to
treadmills or other equipment within community tness clubs.
Finally, the PE teacher should allow the student who is visually
impaired the opportunity to access printed information in alterna-
tive formats. For instance, the rules of archery may be more easily
accessed on the computer instead of a printed hand-out. This will
ensure that students with visual impairments have the same infor-
mation as their peers before activities begin. The students’ TVI can
provide support and materials to make these accommodations pos-
sible. One alternative for support is to use sighted peers to provide
assistance during physical activities.
Career Education
Students with visual impairments must have rsthand experi-
ences with various jobs and roles in life in order to make decisions
about their future. The concepts and skills that students typically
acquire through vocational education may not be enough for stu-
dents with visual impairments (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010). Since one
way that sighted students learn about work habits and available ca-
reers is through visual observations, educators must purposefully
teach those skills to individuals with visual impairments or blind-
ness. Examples of teaching career education may include explor-
ing areas of interest, job awareness, or work ethic (Lohmeier et al.,
2009).
Sport-related careers such as sports journalist, sports announc-
er, statistician, yoga instructor, athletic trainer, coach, as well as
any other sport, physical activity, or tness-related career, can be
introduced in PE. Each of these professions can be experienced in
class through units using the sport education model (Siedentop,
Hastie, & van der Mars, 2004; Siedentop & van der Mars, 2012).
The sport education model is a teaching model which educates stu-
dents on all roles involved in a sport. Further, research shows that
students with visual impairments can improve self-perception of
knowledge and abilities in sport as well as willingness to participate
through sport education experiences (Fittipaldi-Wert, Brock, Has-
tie, Arnold, & Guarino, 2009). Another avenue to teaching career
education is to invite guest lecturers to speak in class who are active
in these sport-related professions and have visual impairments.
In addition to teaching students about available careers, PE
teachers can work with their students to increase their tness level
according to the type of job they will be performing. Some jobs re-
quire a certain level of tness to be successful. For example, if the
job requires that the student stand and walk for a long period of
time, such as in a hospital, then a supervised program can be devel-
oped to work on muscular strength and endurance.
Independent Living Skills
Independent living skills consist of tasks and functions that
people perform to live as independently as possible (Lohmeier et
al., 2009). Independent living skills such as dressing, showering,
toileting, grooming, banking, and budgeting are performed by
sighted individuals without much thought. These skills must be
taught to students with visual impairments directly and purposely.
Although some skills are embedded into the general curriculum for
all students, they are usually presented in a manner that is insuf-
cient for students with visual impairments (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010).
Independent living skills are already essential components of
many recreational activities such as swimming, bowling, and ice
skating. During a swimming unit, students learn how to change
their clothes and shower before and after the activity. During bowl-
ing or ice skating outings, students learn about transportation to
and from facilities, how to pay for activities, and how to change
footwear prior to participation. In each of these examples, PE
teachers can address skills related to each activity which supports
independent participation.
By teaching how to access physical activity environments, PE
teachers can enhance student’s ability to live an active lifestyle
outside of the school setting and after graduation. The develop-
ment of knowledge and skills needed for lifelong participation
in physical activity is the focus of the health optimizing physical
education (HOPE) curriculum (Metzler, McKenzie, van der Mars,
Barrett-Williams, & Ellis, 2013). The HOPE curricular approach
spans across each environment students experience (e.g., commu-
Table 2
Infusing the Expanded Core Curriculum into a Dance Unit
Component of the Unit ECC Component How it is infused in a dance unit
Partner or group dancing Social Interaction Skills By dancing with different partners or within different groups throughout
a dance unit, students with visual impairments practice social interaction
skills such as initiating conversations and joining peers in conversation.
Students choosing songs or
choreographing dances
Self-Determination Allowing students with visual impairments to make decisions on the type
of music or dance used in class can promote decision making skills and
allow students to express their preferences.
Discussion of dance-related
careers, guest speakers
Career Education Dance-related careers such as choreographer, dance teachers, or dancer
can be introduced to students with visual impairments during a dance
unit. One way of doing so could be having individuals in those careers
meet students during the unit.
Social or line dancing Sensory Efciency Skills For beginner dance units, songs such as the “cha cha slide” or “the cupid
shufe” provide instructions within the song that students listen to in order
to learn movements. More advanced dance units may teach students to
follow the beat or rhythm of a song. In either example, students are using
their sense of hearing to direct their movement.
Downloading songs used in
class on personal music devices
Assistive Technology Teaching students to download music used in class can allow them to
practice their dances at home or afterschool with a group of classmates.
Dance practice can act as homework during a dance unit, particularly
when students are the choreographer.
Vol. 28, No. 3 | 2014 | PALAESTRA 47
nity-based, before and after school, and home) and emphasizes the
importance of high moderate to vigorous activity levels (Metzler,
McKenzie, van der Mars, Barrett-Williams, & Ellis, 2013). While
teaching within the HOPE curriculum, it is essential for teachers
to discuss needs and accommodations for students with visual im-
pairments, as well as where and how to access facilities and equip-
ment across each environment that instruction is taking place. This
knowledge can then translate to further physical activity participa-
tion outside of school or after graduation.
Orientation and Mobility Skills (O&M)
O&M is the systematic way in which individuals with visual
impairments orient themselves to their environment and move as
safely and independently as possible (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010). In the
educational setting, most students with visual impairments will
receive O&M instruction from a COMS. O&M instruction may ad-
dress spatial awareness, body positioning, white cane skills, trailing
technique, sighted guide technique, and route travel such as walk-
ing from the classroom to the cafeteria, oce, or gym. The goal of
O&M instruction is for the student to achieve safe and independent
travel to the fullest extent possible.
Prior to infusing O&M skills, the PE teacher should discuss spe-
cic techniques that students are working on with the COMS. It
is important to note that specic O&M skills should rst be intro-
duced and taught by the COMS. Subsequently, the PE teacher and
COMS can collaborate to support and reinforce techniques during
class. For example, if the COMS is teaching an elementary student
how to use a sighted guide technique, the PE teacher may integrate
the same techniques during transitions or within PE activities to
reinforce skills.
The PE teacher can also support O&M skills by verbally describ-
ing the activity area and by allowing the student who is visually
impaired to explore the venue ahead of time. Addressing prereq-
uisite skills, including orientation skills, before the activity begins
is called pre-teaching (Perkins, Columna, Lieberman, & Bailey,
2013). By presenting the activity area prior to class, students have
a better understanding of where they need to be as well as how to
get to designated areas for activities. For example, when a teacher
pre-teaches the playing area for the game of baseball, students then
have a better understanding of what it means to be at rst base and
where they need to go next.
Further, PE teachers can infuse O&M skills through the devel-
opment of body awareness and spatial awareness. Students who
are blind are often unaware of dierences between their posture or
body positioning and that of their peers. To promote body and spa-
cial awareness, the PE teacher can provide verbal feedback to the
student regarding his/her body positioning, posture, and/or head
positioning. Also, activities such as stretching, yoga, and other t-
ness exercises naturally promote body and spacial awareness and
can contribute to this component.
Recreational and Leisure Skills
Recreation and leisure skills, including sport and exercise, must
be planned and taught deliberately to children with visual impair-
ments. As sighted students may decide to try an activity because
they have observed others participating, students with visual im-
pairments may not know whether an activity is enjoyable unless
they have been taught in an accessible manner. If students are
taught a wide range of activities to try, they may nd activities
they will enjoy for life-long tness (Lieberman, Modell, & Jackson,
Glynnis, 12, who is visually impared, takes batting tips from her PE teacher.
48 PALAESTRA | 2014 | Vol. 28, No. 3
Glynnis, 12, who is visually impared, takes batting tips from her PE teacher.
2006). Students learn foundational motor skills and tness related
skills in PE. Therefore, it is generally accepted by the vision com-
munity that PE programs promote the skills for students to access
recreation and leisure skills (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010). Recreation and
leisure skills included in PE include sports, games, and physical t-
ness activities.
PE classes are lled with examples of facilitating growth in rec-
reation and leisure skills for students with visual impairments. Ex-
amples include teaching fundamental movement skills (e.g., run-
ning, jumping, throwing, kicking), teaching rules and strategies of
games and sports, and teaching access points for community rec-
reation facilities such as pools or biking trails. Each of these skills
contributes to future recreation and leisure participation for all
students.
Self-Determination Skills
Self-determination refers to a person’s ability to decide, without
the inuence of others, how he or she would like to live his or her
life (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010). Students with visual impairments must
acquire specic knowledge and skills and have many opportunities
to practice them to be successful (Lohmeier et al., 2009). To do so,
instruction must be clear and methodical while teaching self-de-
termination skills (Agran, Hong, & Blankenship, 2007). Although
students with visual impairments have a need to be taught self-de-
termination skills in an intentional way (Robinson & Lieberman,
2004), teachers report this area as one of the least likely ECC com-
ponents to be taught (Lohmeier et al., 2009). Self-determination
skills can include decision-making skills, problem-solving ability,
self-advocacy, and goal setting.
In order for students with visual impairments to make informed
decisions as to whether or not they enjoy participating in an activ-
ity, they must learn the same activities as their sighted peers in PE.
If students do enjoy an activity, they can then make the decision
to continue to participate outside of school with friends or family.
Participating with sighted peers in PE may also create friendships
for participation outside of school. Teachers must also include
students in the process of making accommodations for activities
so they have the knowledge needed to advocate for future activity
in other environments and increase problem-solving skills when
faced with new activities.
Goal-setting in sports or exercise is another example of how PE
teachers can support self-determination. Examples of goal-setting
can include achieving a new personal best in track and eld events,
reaching the top of a rock wall, or learning a new game or skill.
While setting personal goals, students must also develop a plan to
achieve success and become accountable for reaching their objec-
tive. Success in reaching objectives can show students their ability
to be successful in activities, increasing their self-determination
and self-condence. To facilitate goal-setting, PE teachers can help
students decide on attainable goals and help track each progress
toward that goal.
Social Interaction Skills
Social interaction skills are those that people use to interact
with one another. Sighted students typically learn social interac-
tion skills through a casual or incidental fashion, whereas students
with visual impairments must have sequential teaching and model-
ing (Lohmeier et al., 2009). Children with visual impairments of-
ten miss out on learning basic and complex social interaction skills
such as making eye contact, joining a group of peers for a conversa-
tion, initiating a conversation, and reading nonverbal cues such as
body language and facial expressions. Direct, sequential instruc-
tion in social interaction skills can decrease the chance of students
being socially isolated throughout their life (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010).
PE provides many natural opportunities, such as participating
in team sports, where students with visual impairments can prac-
tice social interaction skills. Further, team-building and adventure-
based learning activities highlight the need for communication and
interactions to be successful. Through activities such as these, PE
teachers can facilitate social interaction skills for all students. In or-
der for students to experience activities fully, teachers should pro-
vide activities where students have dierent roles within the group
including leadership roles (e.g., acting as a team captain, coach, or
player during a basketball unit).
In other physical activity settings, participation in sporting
events or sport-related camps (e.g., Camp Abilities) can provide
opportunities for students to socialize with peers with visual im-
pairments. These settings provide opportunities for instructors to
teach social interactions skills to children with visual impairments
in group settings. PE teachers should be aware of opportunities
such as sporting events or sport-related camps that are available
to students with visual impairments so they can encourage their
student’s participation.
Use of Assistive Technology
Assistive technology devices are typically used to equalize the
ability to access and retrieve information between sighted indi-
viduals and those with visual impairments (Sapp & Hatlen, 2010).
Instruction focused on the use of assistive technology can include
teaching how to select, use, and maintain appropriate assistive de-
vices. Assistive technology makes information that may be inacces-
sible readily available and expands the world for individuals who
have visual impairments. Instruction in the use of assistive technol-
ogy can be related to students’ future social activities, continuation
to postsecondary education, and paid employment (Wole & Kelly,
2011).
Talking pedometers, talking heart rate monitors, and modied
Wii games (See Vit.org) are examples of common technology used
in PE that has been modied for use by individuals with visual im-
pairments. Further, common sport balls such as basketballs or soc-
cer balls are available with either bells or beeping devices for use by
individuals with visual impairments (see APH.org). In addition to
equipment, the use of the Internet is an application of technology
that can increase students’ awareness of sport and physical activity.
PE teachers can introduce students to websites about sport organi-
zations (e.g., USABA.org) or sport camps (e.g., campabilities.org)
for individuals with visual impairments. Teachers can also dem-
onstrate Internet searches for sport-related opportunities that are
available in the student’s area.
Sensory Efciency Skills
Sensory eciency skills include teaching students to use their
remaining functional vision, along with other senses, eciently to
promote independence. According to Sapp and Hatlen (2010), it is
known that visual eciency skills must be taught to children with
any level of remaining vision so all sensory input can be used for
learning. Auditory and tactile learning are essential for students
with visual impairments to access information through listening
skills and to learn braille if appropriate. Examples of sensory ef-
ciency skills taught by teachers for students with visual impair-
ments can include identifying environmental cues and developing
auditory and tactile skills for learning (Lohmeier et al., 2009).
PE teachers can promote sensory eciency skills by using dif-
ferent sounds or music as an indication of activities beginning or
ending. For example, in a PE activity where teachers want students
to perform locomotor skills (e.g., running, hopping, skipping) ac-
tivities continuously in a circle, they may play music while students
are in motion. To stop the activity, the teacher would then stop the
Vol. 28, No. 3 | 2014 | PALAESTRA 49
Justin A. Haegele is a doctoral student in adapted physi-
cal education in the Kinesiology Program at The Ohio
State University.
Lauren J. Lieberman is a distinguished service professor at
The College at Brockport in the Kinesiology, Sport Stud-
ies, and Physical Education Department. She teaches
both graduate and undergraduate courses in adapted
physical education. She is the director of Camp Abilities
Brockport.
Luis Columna is an associate professor in Department of
Exercise Science-Physical Education at Syracuse Univer-
sity, NY. He teaches both graduate and undergraduate
courses on physical and adapted physical dducation.
Marla Runyan is a teacher of the visually impaired at the
Perkins School for the Blind in Watertown, MA. Marla is
also the rst legally blind athlete to compete in the Olym-
pic Games in Athletics.
music. Using this format instead of visual symbols (e.g., stop/go
signs) allows an activity to be inclusive while students also practice
sensory eciency skills.
Another example is playing sports designed for individuals with
visual impairments, such as beep baseball or goalball. While play-
ing these sports, participants rely on their sense of hearing to locate
the ball, strike or roll the ball, and play defense. To make these ac-
tivities inclusive for all students, sighted peers can wear blindfolds
during activities.
Conclusions
For students with visual impairments to become independent
and successful adults, they need specic instruction in addition to
the schools general curriculum. The nine components of the ECC
focus on ensuring that students receive the additional support
they need. Yet, TVIs cannot explicitly teach each component alone,
and the nine ECC components must be embedded throughout the
school day, including in PE courses. By implementing some of the
recommended strategies and communicating with COMS, TVIs,
and students themselves, PE teachers can promote the full poten-
tial of all students with visual impairments.
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