Antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites and lectins from plants

Abstract

This review outlines the antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites and lectins, compounds usually
associated to defense mechanisms of plants. Secondary metabolites are separated into nitrogen compounds
(alkaloids, non-protein amino acids, amines, alcamides, cyanogenic glycosides and glucosinolates) and nonnitrogen
compounds (monoterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, tetraterpenes, sesquiterpenes, saponins,
flavonoids, steroids and coumarins). Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins and their biological properties
include cell-cell interactions. This chapter reports solvent organic extracts (mixture of secondary metabolites),
isolated secondary metabolites and lectins from plants with antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and
Gram-positive bacteria as well as antifungal activity towards human and plant pathogens. Mechanisms
proposed for antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites and lectins against bacteria and fungi are also
discussed. The effects of plant secondary metabolites and lectins on deleterious human and plant
microorganisms indicates their perspectives of antimicrobial uses.

Full text

Antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites and lectins from plants
P.M.G. Paiva
1
, F.S. Gomes
1
, T.H. Napoleão
1
, R.A. Sá
2
, M.T.S. Correia
1
and L.C.B.B. Coelho
1
1
Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Av. Prof. Moraes Rêgo s/n, 50670-420 Recife,
Brazil
2
Centro Acadêmico do Agreste, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, 55002-970 Caruaru, Brazil
This review outlines the antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites and lectins, compounds usually
associated to defense mechanisms of plants. Secondary metabolites are separated into nitrogen compounds
(alkaloids, non-protein amino acids, amines, alcamides, cyanogenic glycosides and glucosinolates) and non-
nitrogen compounds (monoterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, tetraterpenes, sesquiterpenes, saponins,
flavonoids, steroids and coumarins). Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins and their biological properties
include cell-cell interactions. This chapter reports solvent organic extracts (mixture of secondary metabolites),
isolated secondary metabolites and lectins from plants with antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and
Gram-positive bacteria as well as antifungal activity towards human and plant pathogens. Mechanisms
proposed for antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites and lectins against bacteria and fungi are also
discussed. The effects of plant secondary metabolites and lectins on deleterious human and plant
microorganisms indicates their perspectives of antimicrobial uses.
Keywords antibacterial activity; antifungal activity; plant lectins; secondary metabolites.
1. Secondary metabolites with antimicrobial activity
Solvent organic extracts contain a mixture of secondary metabolites including alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and
other phenolic compounds; these molecules are associated to defense mechanisms of plants by their repellent or
attractive properties, protection against biotic and abiotic stresses, and maintenance of structural integrity of plants.
Polar solvents (such as organic acids), solvents of intermediate polarity (such as methanol, ethanol, acetone, and
dichloromethane) and solvents of low polarity (such as hexane and chloroform) are used to extract plant secondary
metabolites that differ in structure and polarity. Then extracts from the same plant material obtained with solvents of
different characteristics have distinct biological properties. Extracts from aerial parts of Salvia tomentosa were
evaluated for antibacterial activity and it was reported that non-polar extracts showed moderate activity and polar
extracts were inactive [1].
Solvent organic extracts from aerial parts, bark, flowers, fruits, heartwood, leaves, twigs and root from medicinal
plants have been investigated aiming to validate their ethnopharmacological use. Extracts from plants used to treat
diarrhea (Indigofera daleoides, Punica granatum, Syzygium cordatum, Gymnosporia senegalensis, Ozoroa insignis,
Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Elephantorrhiza burkei, Ximenia caffra, Schotia brachypetala and Spirostachys africana)
contained agents against bacteria that cause gastrointestinal infections (Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella dysentery, Shigella sonnei, Shigella flexneri, Shigella boydii and Salmonella typhi) and
this strengths their usefulness in the treatment of diarrhea [2]. Extracts from Calophyllum brasiliense leaves (obtained
with acetone), Mammea americana fruit peels (obtained with acetone and hexane) and dichloromethane extract of the
resinous exudate from Baccharis grisebachii were also effective against methicilline-resistant and sensible S. aureus
strains [3, 4]. Table 1 shows that solvent organic extracts may be antibacterial agent only on Gram-positive or both
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Differential sensitivity of Gram-positive and Gram negative bacteria to
plant extracts may be explained by the morphological differences between these microorganisms. Gram-negative
bacteria have an outer phospholipidic membrane carrying the structural lipopolysaccharide components; this makes the
cell wall impermeable to lipophilic solutes, while porins constitute a selective barrier to the hydrophilic solutes with an
exclusion limit of about 600 Da. The Gram-positive bacteria should be more susceptible since they have only an outer
peptidoglycan layer which is not an effective permeability barrier [5].
Different types of secondary metabolites have been identified as the active principles of antimicrobial solvent organic
extracts (Table 2). The tannins methyl gallate and gallic acid from Galla rhois inhibit cariogenic (Actinomyces viscosus,
Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus salivarus, Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus
sobrinus) and periodontopathic (Porphyromonas gingivalis) bacteria and the in vitro formation of S. mutans biofilms;
authors suggested the use of these compounds to prevent the formation of oral biofilms [6].
Solvent organic extracts with antifungal activity against species that cause diseases in humans and plants have been
reported. Dichloromethane extract of the resinous exudate from Baccharis grisebachii containing diterpene (labda-
7,13E-dien-2β,15-diol) and coumaric acids (3-prenyl-ρ-coumaric acid and 3,5-diprenyl-ρ-coumaric acid) was active
against Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and
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Trichophyton rubrum [3]. Ethanolic extracts of Caesalpinia mimosoides showed potent activity against fungi (M.
gypseum and T. rubrum); gallic acid (a tannin) was detected as the main principle of the extract [7]. A methanolic
extract from Myracrodruon urundeuva containing cinamic derivatives, flavonoids, gallic acid, luteolin, and tannins
showed antifungal activity on Fusarium [8]. The extract had important role in growth inhibition of Fusarium lateritium
and Fusarium oxysporum, as evidenced by inhibition superior to commonly used antifungal Cercobin. F. oxysporum is
a phytopathogen and opportunistic human pathogen.
Table 1 Organic solvent extracts from medicinal plants with antibacterial activity.
Medicinal use Plant Antibacterial activity
Gram + and - Only Gram +
Respiratory disease Abuta grandifolia, Cordia alliodora
Acacia nilotica, Caesalpinia pyramidalis, Cupania
oblongifolia, Cupania platycarpa
X
X
Digestive disease A. grandifolia, Maytenus macrocarpa, Naucleopsis
glabra, Annona cherimola, Calophyllum brasiliense,
Ozoroa insignis
Commiphora parvifolia, Ocotea glomerata,
Simarouba amara, Talisia esculenta
X
X
Skin disease Guazuma ulmifolia, Solanum incanum
Lipia adoensis, Mammea americana, Eryngium
creticum, Juglans regia, Lycium europeum,
Micromeria nervosa
X
X
Malaria Aegiphila lhotskiana, Hedychium coronarium,
Simarouba amara
X
Anti-inflammatory Annona salzmanni, C. pyramidalis, Pterodon
polygalaeflorus
Schinus terebinthifolius
X
X
Antirheumatic Annona muricata, Marsdenia altissima, P.
polygalaeflorus, T. esculenta
C. alliodora, N. glabra
X
X
Healing activity Pterocarpus rohrii, Plantago lanceolata, Pinus
gerardiana
A. nilotica, Syzygium jambolanum, Dipteryx
micrantha, Andira inermis, Auxemma oncocalyx
X
X
Renal disease Sarcopoterium spinosum, Pistacia lentiscus, E.
creticum, Retama aculeatus
Indigofera spinosa, Cadaba glandulosa
X
X
Fever Anogeissus schimperi, Bauhinia thonningi, Cassia
goratensis, Butyrospernum parkii, Boswellia dalzielli
X
Veneral disease Abutilon indicum, Vitex nigundo, Boswellia serrata,
Commiphora mukul, Bixa orellana, Raphanus sativus
X
Eye disease Syzygeum guineense, Lippia adoensis, Zizyphus
jujube, Capparis spinosa, Lycium europeum, Retama
raetam, Zizyphus spina-christi, Albezzia lebbeck
X
Gram + and – means Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and (X) means bacteriostatic or bactericide
effects. References: [2, 4, 9-19].
Prenylated flavonoids purified from Asian medicinal plants Broussnetia papyrifera, Echinosophora koreensis, Morus
alba, Morus mongolica and Sophora flavescens showed antifungal activity against Candida albicans; the authors
highlighted the high potential use of them in Asian traditional medicine to treat infections [20]. A mixture of linear
aliphatic primary alcohols isolated from cyclohexane extract of Solanecio mannii leaves was an antifungal agent on C.
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albicans (minimal inhibitory concentration of 1.6 g/ml ) while fatty acid esters of diunsaturated linear 1,2-diols from
cyclohexane extract of Monodora myristica fruits were active against on C. albicans and Candida krusei [21].
Table 2 Antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites from medicinal plants.
Microorganism Compound Plant
Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococus
kristinae, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus
flavus, Cladosporium sphaerospermum
3,5,7-Trihydroxyflavone
(galangin)
Helichrysum aureonitens
B. cereus, S. aureus, Staphylococcus
epidermis, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus
neoformans
Benzoquinone and
benzopyran
Gunnera perpensa
B. cereus, B. subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis,
Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, S. aureus, C.
albicans, C. neoformans
Helihumulone
Helichrysum cymosum
B. cereus, S. aureus Carnosol and 7-O-methyl-
epirosmanol
Salvia chamelaeagnea
B. subtilis, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, S. aureus Anolignan B Terminalia sericea
B. subtilis, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, S. aureus Sesquiterpenoid Warburgia salutaris
B. subtilis, E. faecalis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa,
S. aureus, Aspergillus niger
E. coli, S. aureus, C. albicans
E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium,
Staphylococcus epidermis, S. aureus, C.
albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Flavonoids
Combretum erythrophyllum
Erythrina burttii
Broussnetia papyrifera,
Echinosophora koreensis,
Morus alba, Morus
mongolica and Sophora
flavescens
E. coli, S. aureus Terpenoids Spirostachys africana
E. coli, K. pneumoniae, S. aureus Vernolide and vernodalol Vernonia colorata
Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum
canis, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton
mentagrophytes, Trichophyton rubrum, S.
aureus
Diterpene and coumaric acids
Baccharis grisebachii
Actinomyces viscosus, Lactobacillus casei,
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus
salivarus, Porphyromonas gingivalis,
Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus sobrinus
Methyl gallate and gallic acid
Galla rhois
C. albicans Alkaloids Aniba panurensis
S. aureus Naphtoquinones Tabebuia avellanedae
A. niger, Botrytis cinerea Saponin Astragalus verrucosus
S. aureus, B. cereus, Clostridium perfrigens, E.
faecalis, Micrococcus luteus, Aeromonas
hydrophila, Enterobacter sakazakii, K.
pneumoniae, E. coli, Enterobacter cloacae, P.
aeruginosa, Vibrio vulnificus, Pseudomonas
luteola, Chryseobacterium indologenes, C.
albicans, A. niger, Penicillium sp.
Glucosinolates Aurinia sinuata
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Quassinoids Ailanthus altissima
M. tuberculosis Xanthones Canscora decussata
Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium
intracellulare, Mycobacterium chelonae,
Mycobacterium xenopi
Ferruginol Juniperus excelsa
Mycobacterium avium, M. tuberculosis Gingerols Zingiber officinale
References: [2, 3, 6, 20, 22-39]
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Essential oils are a bioactive mixture of complex compounds synthesized as secondary metabolites by buds, flowers,
leaves, stems, twigs, seeds, fruits, roots, wood or bark. The lipophilic nature of essential oils makes them permeable to
cellular membrane; cytotoxic effects include cell alterations in plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus [40]. Lippia
rugosa oil containing geraniol, nerol and geranial as main components was able to inhibit Aspergillus flavus growth as
well as the production of aflatoxin, probably due to interference on fungal cellular metabolism [41]. Antifungal activity
on dermatophytes Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Epidermophyton floccosum and Microsporum
canis was also found in the essential oil from Moringa oleifera leaves [42]. Salvia pisidica and Achillea ligustica oils
showed antibacterial activity against Gram (+) bacteria and were suggested as food preservatives and anti-cariogenic
agent [43, 44]. The essential oil from Salvia tomentosa, composed of β-pinene (39.7%), α-pinene (10.9%) and camphor
(9.7%), was highly active and showed minimal inhibitory concentration ranging from 0.54 mg/mL (Clostridium
perfringens) to 72.00 mg/mL (Moraxella catarrhalis, Enterobacter aerogenes and Klebsiella pneumoniae). The
essential oil was not active on Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [1].
Antimicrobial activity of phenolic compounds present in plants change according its structure; flavone, quercetin and
naringenin were effective in inhibiting the growth of Aspergillus niger, Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Escherichia
coli, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Staphylococcus aureus and
Staphylococcus epidermidis while gallic acid inhibited only P. aeruginosa; rutin as well as catechin did not show any
effect on the tested microorganisms [45].
The mechanisms of antimicrobial action of plant secondary metabolites are not fully understood but several studies
have been conducted in this direction. Flavonoids may act through inhibiting cytoplasmic membrane function as well as
by inhibition of DNA gyrase and β-hydroxyacyl-acyl carrier protein dehydratase activities [46, 47]; the isoflavone
genistein was able to change cell morphology (formation of filamentous cells) and inhibited the synthesis of DNA and
RNA of Vibrio harveyi [48]. It has been suggested that terpenes promote membrane disruption, coumarins cause
reduction in cell respiration and tannins act on microorganism membranes as well as bind to polysaccharides or
enzymes promoting inactivation [49-51]. Although a number of publications have focused on the isolation and
identification of bio-active compounds, it is important to keep in mind that a single compound may not be responsible
for the observed activity but rather a combination of compounds interacting in an additive or synergistic manner.
2. Antimicrobial lectins
Lectins are carbohydrate-recognizing proteins that bind to cells promoting hemagglutination and antimicrobial effect.
Plant lectins have been isolated from bark, cladodes, flowers, leaves, rhizomes, roots and seeds. Alternatively, plant
recombinant lectins have been expressed in heterologous systems [52]. Plant lectins can be glycosylated molecules and
staining on polyacrylamide gel specific for glycoprotein can easily reveal the presence of glycan in the lectin structure;
carbohydrate moiety characterization can be performed after lectin tryptic digestion in gel followed by enzymatic
deglycosylation and mass spectrometric analysis [53]. The compact globular structures, molecular aggregation and
glycosylation in general result in high structural stability of lectins [54, 55]; high temperature is a powerful denaturing
agent leading to protein unfolding through breaking of hydrogen bonds that maintain protein structure and heated
lectins can or not lose their biological properties.
Lectins are distributed in fucose, mannose, sialic acid, N-acetylglucosamine, N-acetylgalactosamine and glycan-
complex groups according to carbohydrate specificity [56]. The selectivity of binding is achieved through hydrogen
bridges, van der Waals and hydrophobic interactions between sugar and lectin site. The presence of multiple molecular
forms of protein is a frequent phenomenon in some plant species; they may have distinct carbohydrate specificity,
charge, mobility on polyacrylamide gel and biological property [57]. Molecular forms with different electrophoretic
mobility which belong to the same species are called isolectins [58] and the term isoform was proposed for lectins
belonging to the same species when heterogeneity of genetic origin was not well defined [59].
Hemagglutinating activity is the most commonly used assay for the detection of lectin in a sample due to the
simplicity of implementation and ease visualization of agglutination. Aliquot of sample is serially diluted in
microtitration plate before addition of erythrocytes and hemagglutinating activity (titer) is defined as the reciprocal of
the highest dilution of sample promoting full agglutination of erythrocytes. The hemagglutinating activity occurs when
the lectin binds to carbohydrate from erythrocyte surface promoting a network among them (Figure 1A); sometimes
lectin is not detected due to steric hindrance in the lectin-carbohydrate interaction and previous enzymatic treatment of
erythrocytes is needed to occur hemagglutination [60].
The hemagglutination assay allows the assessment of lectin stability to pH and temperature values and thus can
determine the conditions to be used in the biotechnological application of lectin. Additionally the assay may reveal
lectin carbohydrate specificity defined by carbohydrate that more effectively inhibits the hemagglutinating activity
(Figure 1B). Alternative strategies to detect the carbohydrate specificity of lectins are surface plasmon resonance
method using carbohydrate immobilized on a gold-coated glass prism and enzyme-linked adsorbent assay using
monosaccharide-polyacrylamide conjugates on the microplates [61, 62].
Lectins can be extracted from plant tissue with water, 0.15 M NaCl or buffer solutions when it is necessary to control
pH for the maintenance of hemagglutinating activity. The temperature and extraction time depends on stability and
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solubility of the lectin and may vary from 4 to 27º C, from minutes to hours. Lectin can also be extracted using a
reversed micelle system of the anionic surfactant sodium di(2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate in isooctane; protein
solubilization is strongly dependent on pH, concentration of surfactant and on the size of the micelle relative to that of
the protein [63]. Lectin present in a mixture of proteins can be isolated by column chromatography that promotes
separation due to differential migration of proteins adsorbed to the matrix. Disruption of interactions lead to the
release of proteins in distinct fractions, dependent on the binding of each protein component of sample to the
matrix. Presence of oil and pigments in vegetal tissues can interfere in lectin isolation by chromatography since non-
specific adsorption of these contaminants on matrix constitutes an impediment to lectin-matrix interaction. Plant tissues
with high oil and polysaccharide content can be previously treated before protein extraction aiming to eliminate
contaminants; polyethylene glycol (PEG 8000) is effective in removing polyphenolic compounds [64].
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of erythrocyte network promoted by lectin binding to surface carbohydrates (A) and
inhibition of hemagglutinating activity by free carbohydrates (B).
The conditions used in the chromatographic steps (washing, lectin adsorption, and desorption) including volume and
protein concentration of sample, pore size and matrix charge, column length, temperature and solution used for lectin
desorption, flow velocity and volume of fraction collected are defined in order to increase yield and degree of purity.
The choice of chromatographic method is performed according to lectin biochemical characteristics and isolation
procedures can use one or sequential chromatographic processes.
Affinity chromatography is present in almost all purification procedures of lectin with defined specificity due to
advantages such as high recovery and high specificity. The method provides a high degree of protein purification, in a
single step, with maintenance of the biological activity. Polysaccharide matrices such as Sephadex, chitin and
Sepharose consisting of glucose, N-acetylglucosamine and galactose units, respectively, are selected according to the
specificity of the lectin to be isolated. Lectins that recognize glycoconjugates may be isolated by affinity
chromatography on columns containing glycoproteins immobilized on Sepharose activated with cyanogen bromide
[65]. A method was developed to immobilize egg proteins and the affinity matrix was efficient to purify lectins from
extracts of Phaseolus vulgaris (complex saccharide binding), Lens culinaris (mannose and glucose binding), and wheat
germ (sialic acid, acetyl-glucosamine, and its polymer binding) in terms of milligrams per gram of matrix [66]. Another
alternative for lectin affinity isolation is the use of ferromagnetic levan particles, a composite of the carbohydrate levan
from Zimomonas mobilis and magnetite. Lectins are eluted with 0.3 M monosaccharide solutions and recovered from
particles by a magnetic field [67].
Cytotoxic effects of lectins may be revealed by antitumoral and antiviral activities and also by deleterious effect on
microorganisms (Table 3); lectins of different carbohydrate specificities are able to promote growth inhibition or death
of fungi and bacteria. Table 4 shows proposed applications of lectins for detection, typing, and control of bacteria and
fungi that cause damage to plants and humans.
Antibacterial activity on Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria occurs through the interaction of lectin with
components of the bacterial cell wall including teicoic and teicuronic acids, peptidoglycans and lipopolysaccharides;
study revealed that the isolectin I from Lathyrus ochrus seeds bind to muramic acid and muramyl dipeptide through
hydrogen bonds between ring hydroxyl oxygen atoms of sugar and carbohydrate binding site of lectin and hydrophobic
interactions with the side chains of residues Tyr
100
and Trp
128
of isolectin I [68].
The inhibition of fungi growth can occur through lectin binding to hyphas resulting in poor absorption of nutrients as
well as by interference on spore germination process [58]. The polysaccharide chitin is constituent of fungi cell wall and
chitin-binding lectins showed antifungal activity; impairment of synthesis and/or deposition of chitin in cell wall may
be the reasons of antifungal action [69]. Probably the carbohydrate-binding property of lectin is involved in the
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antifungal mechanisms and lectins of different specificities can promote distinct effects. Plant agglutinins are believed
to play a role in plant defense mechanism against microorganism phytopathogens [70].
Table 3 Plant lectins with antimicrobial activity.
Plant (tissue) Lectin specificity Antimicrobial activity
Araucaria angustifolia (seed) GlcNAc Clavibacter michiganensis, Xanthomonas axonopodis pv.
passiflorae
Artocarpus incisa (seed) GlcNAc Fusarium moniliforme, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Artocarpus integrifolia (seed) GlcNAc F. moniliforme, S. cerevisiae
Astragalus mongholicus (root) Lactose/D-Gal Botrytis cincerea, Fusarium oxysporum, Colletorichum
sp., Drechslera turcia
Eugenia uniflora (seeds) Carbohydrate
complex Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium bovis, Escherichia
coli, Klebsiella sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Streptococcus sp., Staphylococcus aureus
Gastrodia data (corms)
α-Man/ GlcNAc B. cinerea, Ganoderma lucidum, Gibberella zeae,
Rhizoctonia solani, Valsa ambiens
Hevea brasiliensis (latex) Chitotriose B. cinerea, Fusarium culmorum, F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi,
Phycomyces blakesIeeanus, Pyrenophora triticirepentis,
Pyricularia oryzae, Septoria nodorum, Trichoderma
hamatum
Myracrodruon urundeuva (heartwood) GlcNAc B. subtilis, Corynebacterium callunae, E. coli, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, Streptococcus
faecalis.
Fusarium solani, F. oxysporum, F. moniliforme,
Fusarium decemcellulare, Fusarium lateritium, Fusarium
fusarioides, Fusarium verticiloides
Ophiopogon japonicus (rhizome) Man Gibberella saubinetii, R. solani
Opuntia ficus indica (cladodes) Glc/Man Colletrotrichum gloesporioides, Candida albicans, F.
oxysporum, F. solani
Phaseolus coccineus (seeds) Sialic acid Helminthosporium maydis, Gibberalla sanbinetti, R.
solani, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Phthirusa pyrifolia (leaf) Fru-1,6-P2 B. subtilis, K. pneumoniae, Staphylococcus epidermidis,
S. faecalis
F. lateritium, R. solani
Pisum sativum (seed) Man Aspergillus flavus, F. oxysporum, Trichoderma viride
Sebastiania jacobinensis (bark) Carbohydrate
complex
F. moniliforme, F. oxysporum
Talisia esculenta (seeds)
Man Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, F. oxysporum, S.
cerevisiae
Triticum vulgaris (seeds) GlcNAc Fusarium graminearum, F. oxysporum
Urtica dioica (rhizome) GlcNAc B. cinerea, C. lindemuthianum, Phoma betae,
Phycomyces blakesleeanus, Septoria nodorum,
Trichoderma hamatum, T. viride
D-Gal: galactose; Fru-1,6-P2: fructose-1,6-biphosphate; Glc: glucose; GlcNAc: N-acetylglucosamine; Man: mannose.
References: [70-85].
Myracrodruon urundeuva Fr. All is broadly distributed in Brazil. Considered a hardwood, it is very resistant to
degradation by microorganisms; its heartwood contains antimicrobial lectin [70]. The heartwood lectin inhibited Gram-
positive (Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium callunae, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus faecalis) and Gram-
negative (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) bacteria but was more effective on
Gram-positive than on Gram-negative bacteria. The lowest minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined for
S. aureus (0.58 µg/mL) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) for this bacterium was 8.1 µg/mL; K.
pneumoniae was the least sensitive microorganism (MIC of 9.37 µg/mL). The lectin is a chitin-binding protein with
antifungal activity against Fusarium strains; the highest percentage of growth inhibition was obtained for F. oxysporum
(60.8% ± 2.9) and similar inhibition was detected against Fusarium decemcellulare (51.1% ± 3.8) and Fusarium
fusarioides (51.1% ± 1.9).
Phthirusa pyrifolia leaf lectin with a unique affinity for fructose-1-6-biphosphate showed antimicrobial activity [71].
Antibacterial activity was detected against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Streptococcus
faecalis but bactericide effect was only detected on Bacillus subtilis (MBC of 0.5 mg/mL). The lectin was an
antibacterial agent more effective for Gram-positive than for Gram-negative bacteria and it was suggested that the
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bacteria sensitivity was related to levels of peptideoglycan on the wrapper. The P. pyrifolia lectin was an antifungal
agent on Fusarium lateritium and Rhizoctonia solani but did not affect the growth of Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus
flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Rhizopus arrhizus, Paecilomyces variotti, Fusarium moniliforme, Candida albicans,
Candida burnenses, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Table 4 Application of lectins in the study of microrganisms
Application Lectin source Year
Antifungal agent Artocarpus incisa, Artocarpus integrifolia,
Ophiopogon japonicus, Opuntia ficus indica,
Phaseolus coccineus, Pisum sativum, Sebastiania
jacobinensis, Talisia esculenta
2002, 2006,
2007, 2008,
2009, 2010
Antimicrobial agent on bacteria and fungi Myracrodruon urundeuva 2009
Biotinylated lectins applicable to large scale
typing of Staphylococcus epidermidis
Triticum vulgaris, Glicine max, Lens culinaris,
Canavalia ensiformis
1992
Clinical microbiology and therapeutic
applications
Eugenia uniflora, Phthirusa pyrifolia 2008, 2010
Colloidal gold-labeled lectin for the direct
microscopic observations of bacterial
exopolysaccharides in Cheddar cheese matrix
using transmission electron microscopy
Ricinus communis 2005
Fluorescein-conjugated lectins for rapid
visualization of Candida albicans, Aspergillus
fumigatus and Fusarium solani
Canavalia ensiformis, Lens culinaris, Triticum
vulgaris, Ulex europeus
1986
Identification of Mycobacterium species (M.
tuberculosis, M. avium) by different
agglutination in a microtiter plate
Canavalia ensiformis, Cladrastis lutea, Galanthus
nivalis, Narcissus pseudonarcissus, Vicia fava,
Vicia sativa
2006
Lectin-magnetic microspheres to distinguish
between bacterial species from aqueous
suspensions
Helix pomatia 1996
Quartz crystal microbalance lectin-based
biosensor to identify the presence of bacteria
Canavalia ensiformis, Lens culinaris, Maackia
amurensis, Triticum vulgaris, Ulex europeus
2008
Selectivity in targeting to skin-associated
bacteria by Con A-bearing liposomes
(Streptococcus sanguis and Corynebacterium
hofmanni) and WGA-bearing liposomes
(Staphylococcus epidermidis)
Triticum vulgaris, Canavalia ensiformis
1995
Tool for studying bacterial infections and
inflammatory processes
Araucaria angustifolia
2006
References: [70-78; 80-92]
A thermo resistant lectin isolated from Eugenia uniflora seeds demonstrated a remarkable non-selective antibacterial
activity [73]; the lectin strongly inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Klebsiella sp. with MIC of 1.5 µg/mL while was less effective in inhibiting the growth of Bacillus subtilis,
Streptococcus sp. and Escherichia coli (MIC of 16.5 µg/mL). Bactericide activity was mainly detected for S. aureus, P.
aeruginosa and Klebsiella sp. (MBC of 16.5 µg/mL); the authors suggested the use of lectin for clinical microbiology
and therapeutic purposes.
The antibacterial activity of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine-binding lectin isolated from Araucaria angustifolia seeds on
phytopathogenic bacteria was revealed by reduction in the colony forming units. The lectin was more effective against
the Gram-positive Clavibacter michiganensis (80% of reduction) than on Gram-negative Xanthomonas axopodis (60%
of reduction). Electron microscopy revealed that treatment with A. angustifolia lectin promoted morphologic alterations
including presence of pores in the Gram-positive bacteria membrane and bubbling on the Gram-negative bacteria cell
wall [74].
Bark of Sebastiania jacobinensis, used by people as medicine to treat infections, contains antifungal lectin of glycan-
complex carbohydrate specificity group [75]. The effect of lectin on growth of Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans,
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium moniliforme and Trichoderma viride was investigated
and the lectin was active only on Fusarium species. The lectin was not toxic for Artemia salina and embryos of
Biomphalaria glabrata and it was suggested that this fact is interesting for perspective of its biotechnological use as
antifungal agent.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Current Research, Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology
A. Méndez-Vilas (Ed.)
402
©FORMATEX 2010

A stable, ion dependent and chitin-binding lectin isolated from Opuntia ficus indica cladodes was able to affect the
growth of Colletrotrichum gloesporioides, Candida albicans, Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani; the lectin
showed high activity against C. albicans, reducing the fungal growth in 59% [77].
Mannose-binding lectins with antifungal activity have been described. The lectin isolated from Ophiopogon
japonicus rhizomes was an antifungal agent against the phytopathogens Gibberella saubinetii and Rhizoctonia solani
but not on Penicillium italicum [76]. The lectin of Pisum sativum seeds inhibited the growth of Aspergillus flavus,
Fusarium oxysporum and Trichoderma viride [81].
3. Conclusion
Plant tissues contain secondary metabolites and lectins with antibacterial and antifungal activities and thus are sources
of natural bioactive molecules to control pathogens that cause diseases in plants and humans. The ability of lectin
selectively to bind microrganisms makes them potential tools to study pathogen species.
Acknowledgements The authors express their gratitude to the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
(CNPq) for research grants and fellowships (PMGP, MTSC and LCBBC), Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível
Superior (CAPES) and Fundação de Amparo à Ciência e Tecnologia do Estado de Pernambuco (FACEPE - PRONEX) for research
grants.
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