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Towards an Adaptive Blockchain for Internet of
Vehicles
Leo Mendiboure1, Sassi Maaloul1, and Hasnaa Aniss1
COSYS/ERENA Lab, University Gustave Eiffel, Bordeaux, France
{leo.mendiboure,sassi.maaloul2,hasnaa.aniss}@univ-eiffel.fr
Abstract. Cybersecurity is an essential requirement to enable the de-
ployment of Cooperative-Intelligent Transportation Systems (C-ITS). In
vehicular networks, Blockchain is a solution often considered to secure ex-
changes between nodes. In fact, this technology could enable each vehicle
to check by itself the content of each message it receives, without the need
to trust its neighbors. Nevertheless, Blockchain was initially designed for
wired networks. Therefore, its deployment in vehicular networks would
imply considering the features of this environment: high mobility, vari-
able C-ITS applications’ requirements, limited vehicles capabilities, etc.
That is why, in this paper, after comparing existing solutions, we in-
troduce a new adaptive Blockchain framework, designed to address the
vehicular environment challenges. We also describe a Blockchain archi-
tecture that could support this framework and present future directions
that will contribute to its implementation and evaluation.
Keywords: Internet of Vehicles (IoV), C-ITS, Cybersecurity, Blockchain,
Adaptive, Consensus, Quality of Service, AI, Energy Efficiency
1 Introduction
The1Internet of Vehicles (IoV) paradigm, in vehicular networks, is becoming
more and more important today [26]. In fact, the IoV architecture could enable
vehicles to communicate with each other efficiently and with their environment
thanks to the integration of different technologies, including Software Defined
Networking and 5G cellular networks [28].
In particular, IoV could support essential services for connected and auto-
mated vehicles: Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (C-ITS) [6]. C-ITS,
by enabling the exchange of information related to vehicles’ behavior (hard
breaking, lane changing, etc.) and environment (obstacle detection, pedestrian
detection, etc.) aim to improve both road safety and traffic efficiency. However,
C-ITS will only enhance road safety if the communications between vehicles are
secure. Indeed, if a malicious entity (vehicle, roadside equipment, etc.) was able
to transmit erroneous information, C-ITS could actually increase the level of
insecurity.
1Note: This is a pre-print version not corrected by the editor
2 L. Mendiboure et al.
That is why, many researchers are currently trying to define solutions to
secure vehicular networks. To authenticate and control the access of vehicles,
and thus to check their identity, different standardized architectures, based on a
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), have already been proposed [16]. Nevertheless,
even an authenticated entity could be malicious and spread misinformation. That
is why, checking the reliability of the messages, to reinforce the trust between
vehicles, is another crucial issue [10].
Blockchain technology [21], a popular distributed ledger technology, based
on a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network and a consensus algorithm, could be a way
to achieve that [17]. Indeed, this technology is designed to enable the secure
exchange of information between nodes. It could allow each vehicle to check
by itself the content of each message it receives, without the need to trust its
neighbors (distributed ledger). This corresponds perfectly to a situation where
it is impossible to know if and which vehicles are malicious. Consequently, the
Blockchain approach appears to be an interesting way to improve security in
vehicular networks.
However, this technology was initially designed for wired networks. Therefore,
its deployment in vehicular network would require taking into account high level
of mobility of vehicles and limited lifetime of communication links. Beyond that,
it might also be necessary to take into account the diverse requirements of C-ITS
applications (Quality of Service, security, etc.), user preferences (privacy) as well
as the fluctuating capabilities of vehicles (energy, storage, communication, etc.).
Thus, to be applied in IoV and C-ITS, the Blockchain will have to be adaptive
[13].
To date, the issues related to the adaptation of the Blockchain technology
to the vehicular context have not been sufficiently addressed in the literature
[19]. Indeed, many papers directly apply this technology without discussing its
limitations. Therefore, in this paper, we introduce a new Blockchain framework,
adapted both to the vehicular context (mobility, link lifetime), and to the C-ITS
application requirements, user preferences and vehicle capabilities. The main
contributions of this paper are:
–a comparison of the state-of-the-art solutions aiming to integrate the Blockchain
technology into the IoV environment;
–the identification of design requirements as well as an architecture and
technological tools that could contribute to the definition of an optimal
Blockchain framework for IoV;
–a presentation of future directions that will allow the implementation of this
adaptive Blockchain framework.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 compares the state-of-
the-art solutions aiming to enable the deployment of the Blockchain technology
in IoV and C-ITS. Then, Section 3 introduces the proposed adaptive Blockchain
framework. Finally, the main challenges related to the deployment of this frame-
work are tackled in Section 4.
Towards an Adaptive Blockchain for IoV 3
2 Related work
In this section, we present the main research papers that focused on the definition
of an adaptive Blockchain for vehicular networks (cf. Section 2.1). We also argue
for the definition of a new, adaptable and global Blockchain framework for IoV
and C-ITS (cf. Section 2.2).
2.1 State-of-the-art solutions
As stated in the introduction, a Blockchain framework designed for vehicular
networks should take into account the vehicular context (mobility, links lifetime,
etc.), the diverse requirements of C-ITS applications (Quality of Service, security,
etc.), the user preferences (privacy) and the fluctuating capabilities of vehicles
(energy, storage, communication, etc.).
–Vehicular context: Regarding the adaptation of the Blockchain technology to
the vehicular networks’ characteristics (link lifetime, high mobility), an idea
that is being highly studied today is to consider local Blockchain networks.
These local ledgers (micro-Blockchain) could be used to enable vehicles lo-
cated within the same area to exchange information while abstracting their
mobility. However, this solution, first introduced in [4], was defined without
considering vehicular applications’ requirements: Quality of Service, informa-
tion distribution area, etc. Therefore, this idea cannot be applied to C-ITS
services;
–Application requirements: Regarding applications, existing works can be di-
vided into two categories, security-related papers such as [11, 27] and Qual-
ity of service-related papers such as [12, 14, 24]. These works are relevant in
their field, as they attempt to improve both the security and the Quality
of Service of a Blockchain framework in vehicular networks. However, they
have the same limitation: they do not aim to adapt the performance level
(security, Quality of Service) to the application requirements but to maxi-
mize them. A maximum level of security and a maximum level of Quality
of Service are not required for all applications and could lead to significant
additional costs: energy, computing, communication, etc. Therefore, these
works propose only a partial and non-optimal solution;
–User preferences: Blockchain frameworks, designed for vehicular networks,
have not addressed this user preference awareness so far. Indeed, privacy-
preserving trust models, such as [15], do not take into account user prefer-
ences as they only aim to enhance privacy. Therefore, this idea still needs to
be explored;
–Vehicle Capabilities: The main goal of the studies focusing on this point
is to improve the performance of the Blockchain network by selecting only
Blockchain nodes that can guarantee a high processing and communication
capacity [14, 24]. Indeed, this could reduce latency and improve throughput.
However, such a selection process could lead to an overload of these nodes in
some situations (important quantity of information exchanged). Therefore,
4 L. Mendiboure et al.
it would be important to propose other mechanisms to use a more significant
number of nodes and balance energy consumption and computation load.
2.2 Positioning
Table 1. Comparison of the different vehicular architectures
PPPPPP
P
Prop.
Params. Vehicular
Context
Applications
Requirements
User
Preferences
Vehicle
Capabilities
[4] Partial No No No
[11] No Partial No No
[27] No Partial No No
[12] No Partial No No
[14] No Partial No Partial
[24] No Partial No Partial
Proposition Yes Yes Yes Yes
Various papers have already been proposed in the literature to improve ve-
hicular networks security thanks to the Blockchain technology (see Section 2.1).
As can be seen in Table 1, these papers aimed to adapt the Blockchain technol-
ogy to the vehicular context [4], to the C-ITS applications requirements [12, 14,
24, 11, 27] and to the vehicles capabilities [14, 24].
However, these issues (applications requirements, vehicle capabilities, vehic-
ular context) have only been partially addressed. Indeed, state-of-the-art papers
have tried to maximize Blockchain performance rather than to adapt Blockchain
to the actual requirements of Blockchain applications. Therefore, the proposed
solutions could result in significant overheads. Moreover, none of the solutions
proposed so far simultaneously meets these three objectives (vehicular context,
applications requirements, vehicles capabilities). Finally, user preferences have
not been considered so far in these different Blockchain frameworks.
That’s why, in this paper, we introduce a new Blockchain framework for IoV
and C-ITS. This framework aims to take into account both vehicular context,
C-ITS application requirements, user preferences and vehicle capabilities.
3 An adaptive Blockchain framework for vehicular
network
In this section, we introduce a Blockchain framework designed to secure vehicular
networks. It aims to address the discussed limitations (see Section 2) and to offer
a forward-looking solution for Blockchain-based vehicular systems.
Towards an Adaptive Blockchain for IoV 5
3.1 Design requirements
As indicated in the introduction of this paper, we have identified four key points
characterizing the IoV and C-ITS basic requirements. To be efficiently applied
in vehicular networks, the proposed Blockchain framework, will have to address:
– Vehicular context: the vehicular environment is characterized by a high
level of mobility of the nodes and a short lifetime of the communication
links. The proposed Blockchain framework will have to take into account
these characteristics. It will have to guarantee an efficient distribution of
information despite this mobility. In particular, it will be necessary to guar-
antee the real-time distribution of critical information related to road safety,
and consequently, to enable an efficient information prioritization;
– Applications requirements: C-ITS applications have a large range of
Quality of Service and security requirements. Therefore, the proposed frame-
work must adapt data distribution to applications’ requirements (different
Quality of Service and security levels). To enable that, this framework will
require information related to C-ITS applications (expected performance),
real-time network state (real-time performance) and real-time Blockchain
nodes’ state;
– User preferences: The proposed Blockchain framework will have to take
into account the users’ preferences. This could correspond to the level of
privacy protection expected by this user or to his involvement in the veri-
fication and validation process of the information stored in the Blockchain
ledger. Other points can also be defined. These users preferences will have
to be stored in a Blockchain ledger;
– Vehicle capabilities: Vehicles are mobile nodes and they necessarily have
a limited capacity (storage, calculation, communication, energy). The pro-
posed Blockchain framework must consider this factor and the load associ-
ated with data validation and storage must be efficiently distributed among
the different Blockchain nodes. Mechanisms will have to be implemented to
guarantee the framework’s operation even if a Blockchain node is overloaded
or crashes. In addition, the consensus algorithm used by the Blockchain
framework will have to guarantee a high level of energy efficiency.
3.2 Proposed Blockchain architecture
The architecture proposed to implement this framework extends the one we
introduced in [18] and aims to provide a higher level of adaptation. This archi-
tecture, shown in Figure 1, has three main characteristics:
– different types of Blockchain nodes are considered: Unlike what we
proposed in [18], here, we consider both full and light Blockchain nodes to
improve Blockchain network’s performance. Full nodes are Blockchain nodes
that participate in both data validation and data storage. Light nodes only
have data access (they have a copy of the Blockchain ledger) and do not
6 L. Mendiboure et al.
Fig. 1. Proposed Blockchain architecture for IoV
participate in the data validation process. These lightweight nodes could be
used to take into account the capacity of different Blockchain nodes. Indeed,
some vehicles could have enough storage capacity to store the Blockchain
ledger but insufficient computing capacity to verify its reliability. Thus, by
using these vehicles as light Blockchain nodes, it might be possible to enhance
the data availability level without overloading them;
– different equipments are considered to host these Blockchain nodes:
This is also a significant improvement compared to what we proposed in [18],
that could enable a higher level of scalability. We consider that Blockchain
nodes could be hosted by vehicles, but also by other User Equipments (UE)
that could be integrated in the Internet of Vehicles (smartphones, surveil-
lance cameras, etc.), by network equipments (Base Stations, Road Side Units)
and also by remote servers (cloud servers). Such an architecture could be
a way to take advantage of all available nodes’ capabilities (computation,
storage, communication, energy). We could therefore imagine positioning
the verification and data storage functionalities at optimal locations accord-
ing to the specific requirements of each C-ITS application. We could also
consider using different types of nodes depending on the expected level of
security;
Towards an Adaptive Blockchain for IoV 7
– a multi-level Blockchain structure is considered: We consider a sub-
network decomposition of the Blockchain architecture. Depending on the
requirements of each C-ITS application and the vehicular density, a street,
a city or a region could be considered as a sub-network (see Figure 1: Lo-
cal Blockchain Network). As we demonstrated in [18], such an architecture
could significantly improve the level of scalability of the Blockchain architec-
ture: maximum throughput, reduced latency, etc. Moreover, this architecture
could be used to optimize the data storage/verification process and to trans-
mit a given information only to relevant Blockchain nodes (located within a
same geographical area).
It can be noted that this architecture also has common features with the
architecture we proposed in [18]:
–First, the Blockchain network is considered as a public network and all IoV
nodes can be involved in this network (both for reading and validating data).
The Blockchain is primarily seen as an alternative way of securing exchanges
between vehicles (and other IoV nodes);
–Then, the authentication of Blockchain nodes is based on a traditional Public
Key Infrastructure (PKI). The architecture usually used for certificate gen-
eration in C-ITS could be used to generate certificates for Blockchain nodes.
This solution could also enable pseudonyms generation for these nodes and
thus enhance user privacy;
–Thereafter, for inter-Blockchain networks’ communications (locals and global
Blockchain), solutions such as channels [2] used by Hyperledger Fabric, a
popular Blockchain implementation [1], could be considered (cf. our imple-
mentation in [18]). This could allow a simplified exchange of information
between these sub-networks;
–Finally, regarding evaluation, tools such as Mininet-WiFi could be consid-
ered [7]. Indeed, it could be used to emulate Blockchain nodes while taking
into account the mobility of the vehicular environment thanks to Simulation
of Urban MObility (SUMO) [3]. Regarding the Blockchain itself, for simple
improvements of existing systems, as we have already done in [18], Hyper-
ledger Fabric or Hyperledger Iroha could be considered. Different types of
evaluations could be carried out, in particular, the performance gain of the
proposed solution compared to state-of-the-art approaches in terms of com-
munication overhead, latency or Blockchain nodes’ CPU usage. It could also
be interesting to evaluate the system’s ability to deal with cyber-attacks
(percentage of malicious nodes supported).
3.3 Considered solutions to meet design requirements
To meet the design requirements identified in Section 3.1, different solutions
could be considered. Some of these mechanisms are presented in this section.
8 L. Mendiboure et al.
Vehicular context To enable the Blockchain framework to operate in a highly
mobile environment, the use of finite-time and fixed-time consensus algorithms
would be an interesting approach [9]. Indeed, this could be used to calculate the
time required to validate and disseminate a given piece of information. Therefore,
combining this information with vehicles data (speed, position, direction, etc.),
it would be possible to determine in real time to which vehicles a given informa-
tion could be transmitted. It could also be interesting to determine an optimal
value for the consensus duration depending on the network topology and the
requirements of the concerned C-ITS application. Another important element in
mobility management is the use of network equipments as Blockchain nodes (cf.
Figure 1). Indeed, as they are fixed nodes, they could be used to transmit infor-
mation to a larger number of vehicles or to nearby roadside equipments. Adaptive
consensus and optimal use of available Blockchain nodes therefore seem to be
two critical factors for the deployment of a Blockchain framework in vehicular
networks.
Applications requirements To meet the requirements of a wide range of
applications, a first important parameter seems to be to be able to adapt the
structure of the chain of blocks to each application [25]. Indeed, different ap-
plications may require a different structure of data as well as a variable access
to these data. Similarly, different applications may require separate consensus.
Indeed, depending on the type of data, different steps may be necessary: simple
verification in the Blockchain ledger, matching of data from different vehicles,
etc. Then, depending on the Quality of Service requirements of the applications,
it may be necessary to adapt the duration of the consensus [9, 9, 8]. Indeed, re-
ducing this duration could improve throughput and reduce latency. However,
increasing this performance level might result in a lower level of security. When
the consensus duration is reduced, the number of nodes participating in the con-
sensus is also reduced. This could facilitate malicious behavior. Therefore, it will
be essential to find a trade-off between performance and security to ensure the
proper functioning of C-ITS applications. To achieve this, it would be possible
to determine, in each situation, an optimal number of nodes participating in the
verification process. Based on that, it would be possible to calculate a realistic
consensus duration. Another way to increase security could be to define for each
Blockchain node a trust index (based on its past behavior) [22]. Then, this in-
dex could be used to select only reliable nodes for the Blockchain verification
process. Therefore, to meet applications requirements, an adaptive consensus, a
dynamic data structure and a trade-off between security and performance seem
to be three important factors.
User preferences Taking into account user preferences is perhaps the simplest
issue to address. Indeed, to enable that, the Blockchain framework should inte-
grate an interface allowing each user to interact with the Blockchain ledger. This
interface should, in particular, offer this user the possibility to modify various
parameters such as the expected level of privacy. The only critical point for this
Towards an Adaptive Blockchain for IoV 9
user preference management would be to store securely, and anonymously, the
data related to each user. It would also be important to determine the different
parameters that each user could modify.
Vehicle capabilities To take into account the variable and limited capacity
of each vehicle, a first obvious solution would be to distribute the workload
fairly among the different Blockchain nodes. This will necessarily reduce the
probability of overloading each node. To go further, a complementary solution
would be to adapt the behavior of the Blockchain to the requirements of each C-
ITS application and to the real-time capabilities of the Blockchain nodes. Some
consensus algorithms can significantly reduce the amount of energy required to
verify data [23]. Therefore, a ”minimal” consensus should be selected for each
application to ensure the proper functioning of this application while reducing
the energy footprint. It could also be interesting to optimally use the available
Blockchain nodes’ capabilities. Indeed, fixed nodes (cloud, network equipment)
have higher capacities: storage, calculation, energy, etc. Therefore, these nodes
could be used for longer-term storage of larger amounts of information, while
vehicles could be used for instant verification of information and for short-term
storage of this information. Thus, fair load balancing, consensus adaptability and
data storage adaptability are three key factors to deal with vehicle capabilities.
4 Future directions
The ideas introduced in this paper should enable the implementation of an adap-
tive Blockchain framework designed for vehicular networks. However, to deploy
this framework, various challenges still need to be addressed.
4.1 An efficient decision making process
To ensure the adaptability of the Blockchain framework to the vehicular context,
to the C-ITS applications’ requirements and to the vehicles’ varying capabilities,
the use of decision making support tools seems to be essential (cf. Section 3.3).
Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques (machine learning, deep learning, etc.)
are now widely studied in vehicular networks [20]. Indeed, they offer an efficient
solution for the automation of decision-making processes: mobility management,
data transmission, etc. However, the use of such tools is necessarily associated
with a significant additional cost: calculation, latency, etc. Therefore, it will be
necessary to determine optimal tools to meet the requirements of the vehicular
environment which may, in some emergency situations, require very low latency
decision making processes. It will then be necessary to integrate these tools into
the Blockchain framework. This is today a significant challenge for Blockchain
networks [5].
10 L. Mendiboure et al.
4.2 An optimal positioning of the Blockchain nodes
The proposed Blockchain architecture aims at enabling the deployment of Block-
chain nodes at different levels (cf. Figure 1): vehicles, UE network equipment,
cloud servers. However, using all the available devices as Blockchain nodes would
be meaningless. The higher the number of Blockchain nodes, the longer the con-
sensus time will be. Such a solution would not be able to meet the requirements
of C-ITS applications (latency, bandwidth). Moreover, it would lead to a useless
over-consumption of energy (storage, calculation, communication). Therefore, it
will be necessary to determine an optimal deployment of Blockchain nodes. This
deployment will have to guarantee a high level of data availability. It will also
have to take into account vehicles mobility and, thus, to enable the real-time
activation/deactivation of Blockchain nodes and the migration of Blockchain
data.
4.3 A trade-off between the different requirements identified
If we consider separately the different elements presented in Section 3 (vehic-
ular context, applications requirements, users preferences, vehicle capabilities),
the implementation of the Blockchain framework may seem simple. However,
considering them together, its implementation seems much more complex. In-
deed, some of these elements are opposed. Reinforcing the security level of C-ITS
applications will necessarily imply a lower Quality of Service (cf. Section 3.3).
Similarly, by distributing the load fairly among the different Blockchain nodes,
the level of security or Quality of Service could be reduced (malicious nodes).
Consequently, it will be necessary to define a priority order between these dif-
ferent elements. It will also be necessary to determine a trade-off between these
different requirements. In specific situations (lack of infrastructure, low number
of vehicles, etc.), reaching such a compromise may be complex.
4.4 The definition of an evaluation environment
A final important challenge will be to define an evaluation/simulation/emulation
environment that will enable us to demonstrate the performance level of the
proposed Blockchain framework. In fact, at the moment, no tool is available to
evaluate the performance of Blockchain architectures in a mobile environment.
Beyond a challenge, the definition of such an evaluation environment could be
an interesting starting point for numerous researchers working on the Blockchain
technology in vehicular networks and, more broadly, mobile environments. The
use of tools usually considered in the vehicular environment (OMNET, ns-2, ns3,
Mininet-WiFi, SUMO, etc.) could be envisaged to design such an environment.
Some possible guidelines are proposed in section 3.2.
5 Conclusions
Distributed systems and, in particular, the Blockchain technology, appear today
as an efficient way to reinforce security in the Internet of Vehicles and to establish
Towards an Adaptive Blockchain for IoV 11
trust between vehicles. However, the application of this technology in vehicular
networks requires to take into account the specific features of this environment.
That is why, in this paper, we focus on the definition of a Blockchain frame-
work adapted to the Internet of Vehicles. To do this, we first highlight the limi-
tations of existing work. Thereafter, we identify four essential characteristics of
the vehicular environment: the vehicular context (mobility, link lifetime, etc.),
the variable requirements of vehicular applications (Quality of Service, security,
etc.), the user preferences (privacy, etc.) and the variable capabilities of the vehi-
cles (storage, computing, communication, etc.). We then propose an architecture
and mechanisms that could take these different elements into account to define a
Blockchain framework adapted to vehicular networks. Finally, we present future
directions that will enable the implementation and evaluation of this framework.
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