The role of place attachment in tourism research

Abstract

Place attachment has become an important concept in tourism-related research, with substantial relevance for the nature of the human-place relationship and behavioural intentions and outcomes. Following a review of the place attachment literature in tourism, this article reviews the studies on the conceptualisation of place attachment, its antecedents and influencing outcomes, and explores its potential in the areas of sustainable tourism, destination resilience, and destination competitiveness.

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The role of place attachment in tourism research
Larry Dwyer, Ning (Chris) Chen & Jenny (Jiyeon) Lee
To cite this article: Larry Dwyer, Ning (Chris) Chen & Jenny (Jiyeon) Lee (2019) The role of
place attachment in tourism research, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36:5, 645-652, DOI:
10.1080/10548408.2019.1612824
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ARTICLE
The role of place attachment in tourism research
Larry Dwyer
a,b,c,d
, Ning (Chris) Chen
e
and Jenny (Jiyeon) Lee
f
a
Visiting Research Professor, Business School, University of Technology, Sydney;
b
Adjunct Professor, Griffith Institute for Tourism (GIFT),
Griffith University, Australia;
c
Adjunct Professor, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia;
d
Board Chair, International Academy
for the Study of Tourism;
e
College of Business and Law, University of Canterbury;
f
School of Marketing, UNSW Business School, University of
New South Wales
ABSTRACT
Place attachment has become an important concept in tourism-related research, with substantial
relevance for the nature of the human-place relationship and behavioural intentions and out-
comes. Following a review of the place attachment literature in tourism, this article reviews the
studies on the conceptualisation of place attachment, its antecedents and influencing outcomes,
and explores its potential in the areas of sustainable tourism, destination resilience, and destina-
tion competitiveness.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 2 February 2019
Accepted 1 April 2019
KEYWORDS
Place attachment;
sustainable tourism;
destination competitiveness;
tourism resilience
Introduction
Place attachment has been widely studied across dis-
ciplines and applied to tourism studies to understand
individual-place relationships, as well as to effectively
manage and marketing tourism destinations.
Originating from environmental psychology, the con-
cept of place attachment is an important construct
that reflects the multi-facet nature of the meanings
both tourists and residents ascribe to physical environ-
ments. Indicative of substantial researcher and industry
interest in this topic, over a hundred of peer-reviewed
academic articles have been published in top-tier tour-
ism journals over the past three decades.
As tourism products and services are particularly
complex and difficult to create and manage positive
experiences and relationships, scholars have suggested
that place attachment has been an instrumental con-
struct to effectively explain tourist and resident beha-
vioural intentions (e.g., Chen & Dwyer, 2018; Chen,
Dwyer, & Firth, 2014b,2015,2018; Hosany, Prayag,
Van Der Veen, Huang, & Deesilatham, 2017; Lee, Kyle,
& Scott, 2012; Tsai, 2012). It has been also found to be
closely related to involvement (Hwang, Lee, & Chen,
2005; Kyle, Graefe, Manning, & Bacon, 2004a,2004b),
past experiences (Hammitt, Backlund, & Bixler, 2006),
and place satisfaction (Chen et al., 2014b; Lee et al.,
2012). Marketing researchers have paid attention to the
construct to further our understanding of consumer
loyal behaviours by shifting to their focus on its attitu-
dinal (or emotional) aspects (e.g., Malär, Krohmer,
Hoyer, & Nyffenegger, 2011; Whan Park, MacInnis,
Priester, Eisingerich, & Iacobucci, 2010).
As tourism research progressively addresses topics
such as sustainability, destination competitiveness,
and tourism resilience, place attachment may play an
even bigger part in the future research. Reflecting the
fundamental human-place relationship, place attach-
ment may contribute to our understanding of tourism
sustainability from an environmental psychology per-
spective. The shift of focus from place experiences to
forming strong attachment also has substantial rele-
vance for destination competitiveness. The individual
and group resilience within a tourism destination can-
not neglect how both residents and tourists are con-
nected to the place.
Based on the literature of place attachment across
disciplines, this article not only provides an overview of
how it has been conceptualised over the time and
related to other concepts in tourism studies but also
highlights future directions for tourism research.
The importance of place attachment in tourism
research
Place-related concepts such as sense of place and
place/destination attachment have gained in popular-
ity in the tourism literature. Of these notions, place
attachment, originating from attachment theory, refers
to “a positive connection or bond between a person
and a particular place”(Williams & Vaske, 2003, p. 831).
In our keyword search in Scopus (“tourism”AND “place
CONTACT Larry Dwyer larry.dwyer@uts.edu.au
JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
2019, VOL. 36, NO. 5, 645–652
https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2019.1612824
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

attachment”OR “destination attachment”in the area
of titles, abstracts, and keywords), we found a total
number of 177 peer-reviewed articles published in
tourism academic journals over the past three dec-
ades. The number of articles published in each year
have been steadily increasing, reaching 43 in 2018 (see
Table 1 and Figure 1).
Conceptualising place attachment
Environmental psychologists have defined place attach-
ment by broadly embracing the relationship between
people and a physical setting (Lee, 2009). According to
Altman and Low (1992), it encompasses many similar
concepts of human-environment relations such as
topophilia, place identity, insidedness, genres of place,
sense of place, environmental embeddedness, and
community sentiment. Of these notions, place attach-
ment underlines an affective attitude people have to
the environment. Building on attitude theory in the
disciplines of psychology and marketing, Stedman
(2002) and Jorgensen and Stedman (2006) have con-
ceptualised sense of place as a general attitude an
individual or a group has toward spatial settings. Just
as attitude has an evaluative judgment encompassing
cognitive, affective, and behavioural domains (Bagozzi,
Tybout, Craig, & Sternthal, 1979), so sense of place is
understood as an attitude that incorporates self-
referent beliefs, emotions, and behavioural commit-
ment (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2006).
In a tourism context where human interactions play
a key role in shaping one’s experiences within a given
destination, the notion of place attachment further
extends to any service relationships that individuals
are emotionally attached (Trauer & Ryan, 2005).
Tourists and visitors alike tend to develop place attach-
ment if their social interactions and involvement within
the destination are meaningful (Milligan, 1998). The
intensity of emotional tie a tourist has to a particular
place varies ranging from immediate sensory to long-
lasting, deeply rooted affection (Altman & Low, 1992).
Researchers have generally conceived place attach-
ment as a multidimensional construct. The number of
salient dimensions and their relationships with antece-
dents and outcome variables vary across contexts and
samples (Lee et al., 2012). For example, Gross and
Brown (2006) found the construct to converge into
a single dimension in their analysis of tourist experi-
ences in five tourism regions in Australia, whereas their
later work (2008) found it bi-dimensional.
Nonetheless, it has been noted that bi-dimensional
conceptualisation is prevalent in the literature –
namely, place identity and dependence (e.g., Cheng,
Wu, & Huang, 2013; Gross & Brown, 2008; Lee, Graefe,
Table 1. Number of articles on place/destination attachment in tourism journals (data from Scopus, the year 2019 excluded).
Year 1988 2002 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
# of paper 12451515
Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Total
# of paper 9 11161220162543176
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1988 2002 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
#ofPa
p
er
Figure 1. Number of journal articles on place/destination attachment and tourism (data from Scopus, the year 2019 excluded).
646 L. DWYER ET AL.

& Burns, 2007; Lee et al., 2012; Loureiro, 2014; Moore &
Graefe, 1994; Warzecha & Lime, 2001; William & Vaske,
2003). The former refers to a cognitive domain of sense
of place, encompassing beliefs about one’s relationship
with the place (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2006; Stedman,
2002). In a recreational setting, place identity is related
to emotional-symbolic meanings that a visitor ascribes
(Schreyer, Jacob, & White, 1981) and self-identification
with that setting (Williams & Roggenbuck, 1989). It can
be developed through either “positively balanced cog-
nitions”(Proshansky, Fabian, & Kaminoff,1983)or
“repeated exposure of a place regardless of whether
that exposure is based on actual experiences”(Zajonc,
2001; see Lee, 2009, p. 30). As a conative domain of
sense of place (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2006; Stedman,
2002), the latter refers to the behavioural exclusivity of
the place in comparison to alternatives. Tourists and
visitors perceive the place as special to them (i.e., func-
tional meanings, Schreyer et al., 1981) as it is a suitable
setting to take on a certain activity (Moore & Graefe,
1994). Therefore, place dependence is considered as
a useful measure to compare the current setting with
other alternatives with similar attributes (Williams,
Patterson, Roggenbuck, & Watson, 1992).
Scholars across disciplines have indicated that social
and emotional bonding in specific settings are addi-
tional essential elements of place attachment. An envir-
onmental psychology study by Hidalogo and
Hernández (2001) highlighted the importance of mean-
ingful social interactions in developing place attach-
ment in various physical settings (i.e., houses,
neighbourhoods, and cities). In leisure and tourist des-
tination settings, Campbell, Nicholson, and Kitchen
(2006) revealed that social bonding was prominent in
creating true loyalty among private health club mem-
bers. Kyle, Mowen, and Tarrant (2004), who termed
visitors’emotional bonds with the physical setting as
affective attachment, examined the relationship
between motivation to visit an urban park and attach-
ment to that setting. Likewise, Tsai (2012) confirmed its
dimensional validity and significant influence on
a tourist’srevisit behaviour in Singapore. Ramkissoon,
Smith, and Weiler (2013) also demonstrated place
attachment as a second-order construct –place identity
and place affect are strong predictors of behavioural
intentions, followed by place dependence and place
social bonding.
Some tourism researchers have recently identified
issues with applying these dimensions of place attach-
ment in studying short-term tourists mainly because
such dimension as place identity often requires a long
term to form. Based on interaction theories, Chen,
Dwyer, and Firth (2014a) proposed additional dimen-
sions of place memory and expectation in relation to
an individual’s interactions and experiences within
a place to reflect temporal dynamics of place attachment
(see Figure 2). Place memory is the retrieved memory
reflecting attachment to a place based on individual
experiences, while place expectation is the reflected
expectation of future experiences in this place. With
the addition of these two dimensions, they found that
the explanatory power of place attachment was
enhanced in understanding people’s attachment to
a place from both short-term and long-term interactions
with that destination.
Antecedents of place attachment
Variables associated with the attachments formed by
tourists and visitors to particular settings have been iden-
tified in Lee’s(2009) work. The series of studies examining
visitors’relationships with leisure activities and settings by
Place
Dependence
Conative Affective Cognitive
Place
Identity
Social
Bonding
Individual
Social
Affective
Attachment
Physical
(Williams & Roggenbuck, 1989;
Williams & Vaske, 2003)
(Kyle, Graefe, &
Manning, 2005)
(Yuksel, Yuksel,
& Bilim, 2010)
(Williams & Roggenbuck,
1989; Williams & Vaske,
2003)
Nature
Bonding
(Raymond, Brown, & Weber, 2010)
Place Memory Place Expectation
(Chen, Dwyer, &
F
irth, 2014a; 2015) (Chen, Dwyer, &
Firth, 2014a; 2015)
PAS T FUTUREPRESENT
Figure 2. Dimensions of place attachment.
(Source: Chen, Dwyer, & Firth, 2014a;2015; Kyle, Graefe, & Manning, 2005; Raymond, Brown, & Weber, 2010; Williams & Roggenbuck, 1989; Williams & Vaske,
2003; Yuksel, Yuksel, & Bilim, 2010).
JOURNALOFTRAVEL&TOURISMMARKETING 647

Kyle et al. (2004a,2004b), Hwang et al. (2005),Leeetal.
(2007), and Gross and Brown (2006,2008)foundthat
involvement in leisure activities plays a key role in devel-
oping emotional attachment to natural environments.
The level of place attachment is also determined by past
experiences (Hammitt et al., 2006), substitution for alter-
natives (Hammitt & MacDonald, 1983), and the frequency
of use and proximity of destination (Moore & Graefe,
1994). Tourism researchers have further found other
place attachment antecedents, including tourist motiva-
tion, service interactions (Prayag & Lee, 2018), and social
factors (Woosnam et al., 2018).
However, Lee (2009) maintains that salient attach-
ment antecedents vary depending on destinations with
different physical features based on empirical evidence.
For instance, Lee (2001) found that destination attrac-
tiveness, past experience, satisfaction, family trip tradi-
tion, and tourists’age at their first visit were the
significant predictors of attachment to a particular
beach area, while only place attractiveness and family
trip tradition were the significant predictors of attach-
ment to the city.
Interestingly, earlier studies on the causal relation-
ship between place attachment and satisfaction
report conflicting findings. Some researchers have
found no relationship between place attachment
and satisfaction with a tourist destination (Lee,
2009). For example, Lee (2001)andLeeandAllen
(1999) found that destination satisfaction was
a weaker predictor of place attachment compared
to such antecedents as destination attractiveness
and family trip experiences.
Others have found a significant positive relationship,
but their causality is unclear. On the one hand, Lee et al.
(2012) and environmental psychologists (e.g., Ringel &
Finkelstein, 1991) provide empirical evidence that satis-
faction with a festival and home/neighbourhood envir-
onment is closely related to the extent that an individual
identifies with or relies on that setting. In a comparative
study between Australian and Chinese residents’place
attachment and destination promotional behaviours,
Chen et al. (2014b) found that place satisfaction was
a strong indicator of different dimensions of place
attachment including place identity, place dependence,
social bonding, and affective attachment. Similar results
can be found in other studies such as Chen et al. (2015),
who examined Chinese students’attachment and beha-
viours in Australia, and Ramkissoon and Mavondo (2015),
who tested the relationships among place satisfaction,
place attachment, and pro-environmental behavioural
intentions. On the other hand, Ramkissoon et al. (2013)
found place attachment to be a significant antecedent of
place satisfaction.
The application of place attachment to tourism
studies
The construct of place attachment has been adapted in
many disciplines to study human behaviour in relation to
the physical environment. Geographers and environmen-
tal psychologists have defined attachment to a place ran-
ging from homes, communities, and societies (e.g.,
Altman & Low, 1992;Milligan,1998). Leisure researchers
have empirically shown that the construct is useful not
only for better understanding recreationists’behaviour
but also to address managerial issues in resource manage-
ment (Moore & Graefe, 1994; Warzecha & Lime, 2001).
Building on these studies, tourism scholars have paid
attention to the role of place attachment of tourists and
local residents in explaining their psychology and beha-
viour, as well as tourism destination management and
development.
Place attachment and tourist psychology and
behaviour
Studies on place attachment in tourism have advanced our
understanding of tourist behaviour and psychology.
Notably, much work has been done in regard to tourists’
loyalty to a destination or particular service. The logic
behind the relationship can be found from the conceptual
similarity of the constructs of place attachment, psycholo-
gical commitment, and attitudinal loyalty. According to
Kyle and others (Kyle et al., 2004a;Lee,2009; Lee & Kyle,
2014), psychological commitment is conceptually similar
with place attachment as it binds individuals to consistent
behaviours as a result of emotional bonds with a physical
environment. They also note that some dimensions of the
two constructs are analogous. The first commitment
dimension, referred to as position involvement (Pritchard,
Havitz, & Howard, 1999), corresponds to the place identity
dimension of place attachment because these dimensions
are related to a cognitive process that links self-images to
a brand or place. The informational process dimension of
commitment is conceptually consistent with the place
dependence dimension in place attachment as informa-
tional complexity and cognitive consistency are the under-
lying mechanism that individuals wish to keep
a relationship to maximise psychological benefits and
reduce any costs associated with their decision-making. In
this regard, psychological commitment has been viewed as
a necessary condition of developing visitor/tourist beha-
vioural loyalty (Lee, 2009; Pritchard et al., 1999).
There have been empirical examinations on the cau-
sal relationship between place attachment and destina-
tion loyalty. Studies by Lee (2003) demonstrate that
place attachment is a strong predictor of loyalty to
648 L. DWYER ET AL.

a national forest and ski resort. Lee et al. (2012) further
investigated the usefulness of the construct to assess
visitors’attitudes (i.e., values, meanings, and prefer-
ences) toward tourism settings and the effectiveness
to predict their destination loyalty. They found that
satisfied visitors at a festival reported a moderate level
of emotional attachment to the festival hosting destina-
tion, thus developing destination loyalty. Hosany et al.
(2017) also found a significant mediating role of place
attachment as well as place satisfaction between tour-
ists’emotions and intention to recommend.
Furthermore, Prayag and Ryan (2012) observed that
destination image and personal involvement signifi-
cantly affected place attachment that, in turn, positively
predicted tourists’loyalty to Mauritius through visitor
satisfaction. Tsai (2012)affirmed that the three dimen-
sions of place attachment (place identity, place depen-
dence, and affective attachment), to a similar degree,
positively impacted tourists’revisit frequency. Loureiro
(2014), in a context of rural tourism, also found place
attachment along with positive emotions and memory
to be a significant predictor of behavioural intentions.
In a series of studies, Chen et al. (2014b,2015,2018)
further found the various effects of the place attach-
ment dimensions on residents’different types of word-
of-mouth (WOM) behaviours―one-to-one WOM, one-to
-many WOM, and many-to-many WOM. In a cross-
cultural study, Chen et al. (2014b) found the impact of
different dimensions of place attachment on Chinese
students’intention to recommend Australia as
a tourism destination, as well as their willingness to
help in tourism encounters. More specifically, they
demonstrated that place identity and social bonding
significantly affected Shanghai residents’one-to-one
WOM behaviour while affect attachment was the sole
predictor among Sydney residents. This suggests that
a cultural difference may play a role in influencing the
salience of the dimensions place attachment in relation
to various types of WOM behaviours. Chen et al. (2015,
2018) in their subsequent work found place memory
and place expectation to be significant predictors of
different WOM behaviours. These studies imply the
importance of building positive place experiences for
destination marketing and management.
In addition to destination loyalty, previous work has
empirically shown that place attachment is a significant
predictor of tourist pro-environmental behaviours. For
instance, Ram, Björk, and Weidenfeld (2016) found an
effect of place attachment on perceived authenticity of
tourism attractions, thereby encouraging visitors’pro-
environmental behaviours. Cheng et al. (2013) found
that when island tourists had an attachment to
a destination, they then displayed environmentally
responsible behaviour. Ramkissoon et al. (2013) further
observed that the second-order place attachment con-
struct positively influenced pro-environmental beha-
vioural intentions in an Australian national park.
Interestingly, the impact of each dimension of place
attachment on such behaviour has been found to vary
across studies. For instance, Tonge, Ryan, Moore, and
Beckley (2015), who conducted an on-site visitor survey
at Ningaloo Marine Park, Australia, reported that place
identity and place dependence had strong positive effects
on visitors’pro-environmental behavioural intentions
whereas Qu, Xu, and Lyu (2019) found the positive influ-
ence of both places affect (i.e. affective attachment) and
place dependence on the environmental activation of
mass tourists and a negative role of place identity in
a study on tourists visiting Sanya, China.
Place attachment and residents’attitude towards
and perception of destination management and
development
Recent research has provided empirical evidence of the
utility of place attachment to evaluate local residents’
attitude towards and perception of tourism manage-
ment and development. For example, Gu and Ryan
(2008) studied local residents’attitude towards tourism
development and place in a Beijing heritage area in the
consolidation stage of its destination life cycle. Based
on the identity process model in environmental psy-
chology, they found that the intrusiveness of tourists,
residence duration, and the importance of the destina-
tion as a heritage asset, was all conducive to place
attachment. Song and Soopramanien (2019) revealed
the significant role of social bonding in influencing
Chinese urban residents’pro-environmental behaviours.
Likewise, Guo, Zhang, Zhang, and Zheng’s(2018) study
findings indicated positive influences of place identity
and place dependence on the perceived resilience of
residents in tourism destinations. Chen and Dwyer
(2018), exploring the effects of place satisfaction and
dimensions of place attachment on residents’citizen-
ship behaviours, found that place expectation moti-
vates residents’proactive participation in regional
tourism development.
Sustainable tourism and place attachment
Intherecenttourismliterature, the idea of optimising
existing tourist systems to create more profitable, stable,
and resilient entities for sustainable growth has been
greatly promoted (Gössling, Ring, Dwyer, Andersson, &
Hall, 2016). Prior to this, the dominating ideology in tourism
development was to take growth-oriented economic
JOURNALOFTRAVEL&TOURISMMARKETING 649

perspectives by increasing tourist numbers and pursuing
economic maximisation (Dwyer, 2016,2018;Hall,2014). To
establish a sustainable tourism system requires both max-
imising economic benefits from an existing tourism system
and maintaining economic resilience for this system (Biggs,
Hall, & Stoeckl, 2012). This further requires all stakeholders’
proactive involvement and participation in the develop-
ment and functioning of this system (Liu, 2003). This may
be influenced by the relationships between them and the
place or the destination (Chen & Dwyer, 2018;Chenetal.,
2015,2018). The emphasis on developing a sustainable and
resilient tourism system suggests the importance of place
attachment by all stakeholders. Although Chen and others
tested the association between place attachment and pro-
environmental behaviour, the links with sustainability need
further exploration. This possible linkage is based on the
assumption that the stronger is place attachment, the less
likely are stakeholders (including tourists) to act in ways
that increase economic, social, and environmental costs of
tourism-related activity.
Tourism resilience and place attachment
To enhance our discussion on tourism sustainability,
resilience has generated appeal in the tourism literature
capturing the core aspects of sustainability (Hall, 2017).
There has also been extensive discussion on the capa-
city of communities to adapt and ultimately sustain
their tourism enterprises (Gössling, Hall, & Weaver,
2009; Hall, Prayag, & Amore, 2017; Orchiston, Prayag,
& Brown, 2016). As globalisation has forged unprece-
dented interconnectedness of the local to the global,
a crisis in one part of the global system can influence
on local systems. Therefore, it is possible that the devel-
opment of adaptive capacities is subject to the extent
of place attachment. This construct, also referring to as
the sense of place, has been widely studied in respect
of its impact on individual and group resilience in multi-
ples disciplines such as social psychology (Cox & Perry,
2011) and environmental studies (Chow & Healey, 2008;
Kelly & Hosking, 2008). Advances in our knowledge of
the enablers of individual and group resilience can help
DMOs and practitioners formulate tourism policies at
the destination level.
Destination competitiveness and place attachment
Often situated in a global market, a tourism destination
is required to think about its competitiveness from an
international perspective for its tourism development
and policymaking (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003). Destination
competitiveness is somehow linked to the attractive-
ness of the destination, tourist experiences it offers,
and its ability to deliver goods and services that per-
form better than other destinations (Dwyer & Kim,
2003). In this sense, the notion of place attachment
would be of critical importance to destination competi-
tiveness. The greater the extent to which destination
experiences foster place attachment, the greater the
extent of favourable word of mouth destination pub-
licity offered by tourists, the greater the propensity of
tourists to repeat visit. Aforementioned in the preced-
ing section, the findings of prior work have highlighted
have implications for tourism industry practitioners and
destination managers. Our knowledge of the determi-
nants of place attachment thus can provide an impor-
tant input to strategy formulation in order to enhance
destination competitiveness.
Conclusion
Following a review of the place attachment literature in
tourism, this article identifies various studies on the con-
ceptualisation of place attachment, its antecedents and
influencing outcomes. We argue that the findings to
date are relevant to a host of challenges faced by tour-
ism researchers. In particular, the three areas we identi-
fied in this paper would potentially benefitfromthe
application of place attachment to tourism research.
They include sustainable tourism, destination resilience,
and destination competitiveness. As research on the
topic of place attachment proceeds, attention to these
issues holds substantial promise to deliver benefits to
tourism industry stakeholders and destination managers.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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