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Body weight reduction in combat sports
Abstract and Figures
Background and Study Aim: Competitions in combat sports are based on direct fight of competing parties. Weight limits in individual weight categories, are formal conditions for admitting to compete. Therefore, competitors are obliged to adapt their body weight to a particular weight category in a given time. The aim of this study was to knowledge about methods, including the length and other details of weight loss in combat sports with weight categories.
Material and Methods: The study included 53 experienced athletes (37 men and 16 women) competing in judo, wrestling Greco-Roman and freestyle, kickboxing, karate, box, thai box and taekwondo. The athletes practiced combat sports in average 14.9 ± 4.4 years. Participants responded to a battery of questions (created by an experts), which was focused on personal information (e.g. age, sex, combat sport, length of sport practice, weight category and successes), reduction process (number of reductions per year, weight monitoring, using supplements, problems during weight reduction, etc.), methods of weight reduction and sources of information.
Results: The results showed that 77.4 % of the participants regularly reduce their weight before competition and this reduction comprises in average 5.4 % of body weight (average body loss was 3.9 ± 2.3 kg, range from 1 kg to 10 kg). The most commonly applied body weight reduction methods included reduced food and liquids intake, diet changes, increased sweating and increased physical activity for higher energy output.
Conclusions: The body weight reduction prior to competitions turned out to be a common practise. The rapid body weight reducing methods can negatively influence sport performance and also athlete’s health. Finding the most common ways of weight reduction is the first step to remedy inadequate procedures for body weight reduction.
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... Ions play a role in nerve conduction, muscle contraction, and the production of stimuli necessary for carrying water and other substances into intra-cells and from extra-cells (Born, 1999;Demirkan, 2010;Hall, 2015). With loss of fluids and impaired electrolyte balance (Dehydration); athletes experience such acute cardiovascular disorders as declining plasma volume, deteriorated thermoregulation, arrhythmia, tachycardia, reduced blood pressure, negatively affected distribution of nutrition/energy sources, slow discharge of metabolic wastes, elevated urine density, reduced storage of liver glucose, weakened muscle strength and lower performance (Dorfman, 2011;Choma et al. 1998;Degoutte et al.2006;Coufalova et al. 2013, Hall, 2015Wilmore and Costill, 2004;Demirkan, 2010). Besides, dehydration also produces negative mood and hormonal changes (Yıldırım, 2015;Degoutte et al 2006). ...
... It was reported that losing weight in a short time causes a decline in insulin concentration (Degoutte et al. 2006;Rossow et al., 2013;Mäestu et al.,2010), a rise in cortisol concentration (Degoutte et al. 2006, Yıldırım 2015 and a reduce in total testosterone levels (Yıldırım, 2015;Rossow et al.,2013;Mäestu et al.,2010;Hagmar et al.,2013). When the literature is examined, it is noted that athletes perform fast weight loss in a short time through pre-competition fluid and diet restrictions; which produces negative effects on metabolism and endocrinal parameters, reduces athletes' performance by impairing their physiology and psychology, and exercise-related stress and therefore, testosterone hormone changes are examined (Daly et al. 2005;Brownlee et al. 2005;Degoutte et al.2006;Coufalova et al. 2013;Yıldırım, 2015). In wrestling, one of the sports in which weight classes are used, many changes happen in weight classes and competition rules. ...
... In the current study, it was found that wrestlers lost body weight by 3.96% in a short time in the precompetition period (1-5 days) ( Table 1,2). According to the results of the current study, which were similar to other studies in the literature (Yıldırım, 2015;Artioli et al. 2010;Lambert and Jones 2010;Demirhan 2012;Coufalova et al. 2013); it was identified that athletes' weekly weight loss was more than 1.5%. Athletes said that they performed weight loss mainly through food and fluid restrictions and partly through exercises. ...
Reducing pre-competition body weight in wrestlers is a widely used method. However, losing weight fast in a short time influences athletes' hydration levels, electrolyte levels, and stress status negatively. The purpose of the study was to determine wrestlers' pre-competition body weights, hydration and electrolyte levels, and stress hormone changes. The study sample was composed of 24 young male wrestlers. Wrestlers' pre-tests were performed 20 days before the competition and post-tests were performed at competition weighing-time. With tests, wrestlers' body weights and heights were measured. Also, with the help of the specialists, 5 cc. of blood samples were drawn from the forearm veins of the participant wrestlers. According to plasma osmolarity (POsm) levels of the wrestlers, their hydration status was evaluated. Also, analyses were made for potassium, calcium, chloride, magnesium, and iron electrolyte levels as well as stress hormones such as cortisol, prolactin, total testosterone, and insulin hormone. For the analyses of the data; descriptive statistics and the Wilcoxon Rank test were employed. The correlation between plasma osmolarity and hormones was assessed using the Spearman correlation coefficient. There were significant differences between wrestlers' pre-test and post-test measurements in terms of body weights, plasma osmolarity, cortisol, prolactin, total testosterone, sodium, potassium, chloride, iron, and magnesium values. It was identified that during pre-competition wrestlers' body weights reduced by 3.96% and they became exposed to dehydration, their cortisol and prolactin hormones increased but their total testosterone decreased.
... [12,13]. Effects of weight loss can have adverse physiological effects on the body like a higher heart rate, impaired circulation and respiratory function, impairment of thermoregulatory processes and the risk of excessive body temperature, decreased renal blood flow and possible kidney problems as well as salt reduction in the body [14]. ...
... The main problem of inadequate body weight regulation is not visible only in wrestling, the same problems occur in other combat sports as boxing, judo, taekwondo, kickboxing athletes and martial mixed arts practitioners [8,14,[18][19][20] as well as other sports with weight categories as rowing and equitation [3] or weight lifting. All research studies but one have indicated negative psychological aspects of RWL; the exception is a study presenting a theory that wrestlers successful in RWL gain mental advantage over their opponents [15]. ...
... The values of body weight loss in this research are in compliance with previous studies [7,16,17], while in other research higher weigh loss was determined [6,14,19,28]. Percentage of body weight loss in this research was lower then other research [6,19,29,30]. Even lower values of percentage body weight loss they can still negatively affect the wrestler's abilities, performance, psychological state, competitive result and health [31,32]. ...
Reasons why wrestlers and athletes of other combat sports (boxing, judo, taekwondo, etc.) reduce weight loss are better anthropometric characteristics of wrestlers (longitudinal and skeletal volume) compared to opponents in lower weight categories, better focus and motivation of wrestlers, etc. Main cognitive goal of this research was knowledge about the relationship of rapid weight loss indicators and selected psychological indicators on success of Croatian wrestlers.
The research was conducted on 200 Croatian Greco-Roman style wrestlers. The amount of weight loss, the percentage of weight loss, and specific urine density (USG) were determined. Profile of Mood States Questionnaires (POMS), pre-competition anxiety (SCAI-2), goal orientation (TESQ), and intrinsic motivation (IMI) were used.
Statistically significant correlation (p = 0.003) of rapid weight loss indicators and selected psychological indicators, with success was determined. Statistically significant correlation was found in the POMS variables (fatigue, p = 0.014), pre-competitive anxiety (self-confidence, p = −0.017), task orientation (p = 0.019) and intrinsic motivation (competence, p = −0.025).
Successful wrestlers, despite being dehydrated, are less tired, more interested, more satisfied, have greater confidence and are more task-oriented than less-successful wrestlers. It is assumed that there are differences between age groups of wrestlers which should be investigated by future research.
... Dietary management for weight class athletes is important according to general training period, before and after competition, and recovery period. However, it has been reported that many weight class athletes do not recognize the importance of nutrition and try to lose weight rapidly before competition [6,8,11,12]. ...
... As for methods of weight control, weight class athletes fast, restrict fluid intake, train in plastic suits and saunas, as well as diet and exercise [5,6,8,11]. In addition, many weight class athletes try to lose weight in a short time period [2,12]. Weight loss in a short time (e.g., more than 5% loss of body weight within 1 week) has adverse effects on aerobic endurance, body function (e.g., cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal function), emotions, and overall sport performance [4,14,15]. ...
... Similarly, Kim et al. [21] found that weight-classed athletes lost 6.5% of their body weight. Previous studies have reported that weight class athletes showed an average body weight reduction of 2.5%-5.4% [6,11,12], which is lower than that of the current study. In a study on adolescent weight class athletes, Park et al. [34] reported that an 8% body weight reduction significantly decreased cardiovascular function capacity while a 3% body weight reduction did not, suggesting the optimal level of weight reduction. ...
Background/objectives:
This study aimed to examine differences in weight control practices, beliefs, self-efficacy, and eating behaviors of weight class athletes according to weight control level.
Subjects/methods:
Subjects were weight class athletes from colleges in Gyeong-gi Province. Subjects (n = 182) responded to a questionnaire assessing study variables by self-report, and data on 151 athletes were used for statistical analysis. Subjects were categorized into High vs. Normal Weight Loss (HWL, NWL) groups depending on weight control level. Data were analyzed using t-test, ANCOVA, χ2-test, and multiple logistic regressions.
Results:
Seventy-three percent of subjects were in the HWL group. The two groups showed significant differences in weight control practices such as frequency (P < 0.01), duration and magnitude of weight loss, methods, and satisfaction with weight control (P < 0.001). Multiple logistic regression showed that self-efficacy (OR: 0.846, 95% CI: 0.730, 0.980), eating behaviors during training period (OR: 1.285, 95% CI: 1.112, 1.485), and eating behaviors during the weight control period (OR: 0.731, 95% CI: 0.620, 0.863) were associated with weight control level. Compared to NWL athletes, HWL athletes agreed more strongly on the disadvantages of rapid weight loss (P < 0.05 - P < 0.01), perceived less confidence in controlling overeating after matches (P < 0.001), and making weight within their weight class (P < 0.05). HWL athletes showed more inappropriate eating behaviors than NWL athletes, especially during the weight control period (P < 0.05 - P < 0.001).
Conclusions:
Self-efficacy was lower and eating behaviors during pre-competition period were more inadequate in HWL athletes. Education programs should include strategies to help athletes apply appropriate methods for weight control, increase self-efficacy, and adopt desirable eating behaviors.
... Furthermore, RWL increases the chances of injury 4 , and therefore attempts have been made to reduce its prevalence in sports such as wrestling 11 . Recent studies 5,[12][13][14] have revealed the extremely high prevalence of 89% of RWL is present among judo players. This is alarmingly higher than in other combat sports (e.g. ...
... 5 . The studies on RWL in judokas have methodological flaws, including mixing different combat athletes 12,13 , and including both child and adult judokas 14 . As of 2014, new rules by the International Judo Federation (IJF) regarding weigh-ins have been implemented in international competitions 15 . ...
... This high prevalence is similar to a previous study 14 conducted in Brazil (89%). When compared to other combat sports (wrestling, jujitsu and taekwondo 3,5,13 , the prevalence of RWL in judo is much higher. A possible explanation is that judokas report that RWL gives them a psychological advantage over their opponent 12 . ...
... No studies were found in literature which would concern the comparison and analysis of health behaviors in people who practice CS and MA recreationally, engage in them in addition to practicing other sports, and have remarkable achievements in them, in the context of their quality of life. So far, studies most often focused on a particular combat sport or martial art [7,[22][23][24]. ...
... Competitors are required to adjust their weight to a given weight category at a given time; monitoring the maintenance of appropriate body weight is common. Through a proper dosage of physical exertion during practices and proper nutrition they control their body weight [24]. Practicing martial arts for 12 weeks (3 hours a week) is also a feasible exercise intervention in adult overweight and obese women and can have a positive effect on weight control and overall health. ...
Background: The quality of life of a society is conditioned by many factors, and depends, among other things, on preferred behavior patterns. Combat sports (CS) and martial arts (MA) have a special educational potential in the area of shaping positive behavior patterns and transmitting moral values which could help reduce aggression in society. The aim of the work was to determine the relationship between health behaviors and the quality of life of people who practice combat sports and martial arts (CS and MA) recreationally, in addition to practicing other sports, and as competitors at the master level. Methods: The research embraced 543 people who practice combat sports and martial arts. Three groups were selected: recreational (n = 362), people who reconciled practicing various sports (n = 115), and competitors who practiced combat sports or martial arts at the master level (n = 66). The average age of the respondents was 24.49 ± 7.82. The standardized WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire and another questionnaire for a lifestyle survey were applied. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare several independent samples. In the case of determining statistical significance of differences the Mann-Whitney test was employed, and for the qualitative data analyses the trait frequency and the independence chi-square test were used. The effect size was calculated for each test ( E R 2 , rg, Cramér’s V). The value of p ≤ 0.05 was assumed to be statistically significant. Results: The highest quality of life (in the physical, psychological and environmental domains) was characteristic of the competitors, who practiced only combat sports and martial arts. They also displayed the most health-oriented behaviors. The surprising results were: lower quality of life in the assessment of nondrinkers and nonsmokers, and higher among people who were overweight. Conclusions: We have found positive correlations between practicing CS and MA, health behaviours and higher scores in quality of life self-evaluation, particularly where practitioners are exclusively focused on CS and MA and practice these at a competitive level. Our findings thus support the growing evidence that competitive level CS and MA are an effective means of improving people’s quality of life. Future research needs to clarify whether CS and MA can also be recommended to recreational and non-competitive practitioners as a means to improve their subjective quality of life.
... Unfortunately, this schedule is not the general rule, and competitors use to worry about their weight a few weeks before a competition, being thereby more prone to adopt unhealthy dietary strategies. These include forced caloric and water restriction (53% of competitors), excessive transpiration, self-induced vomiting (4% of competitors) and the use of diuretics and laxatives (10% of competitors) (Coufalová, Prokešová, Malý, & Heller, 2013;Filaire, Rouveix, Pannafieux, & Ferrand, 2007;Franchini, Brito, & Artioli, 2012;Kazemi, Shearer, & Choung, 2005). These strategies can have detrimental physiological (muscle glycogen depletion, dehydration) and psychological impact (incorrect focus on contest objectives) (Pettersson, Ekström, & Berg, 2013). ...
Weight control in contact sports implies an additional stress to competitors, mostly when strategies to reduce it are inadequate. The present work analyzes if a correct diet planning could decrease anxiety in competitors. The validated CSAI-2 questionnaire was used before and after the weight control with judo, karate and taekwondo competitors from both genders following a free diet vs those that followed a diet plan. Results indicated that the intensity for somatic and cognitive anxiety in the pre-weight event was lower in male and female competitors following a controlled diet. Regarding gender, no differences in anxiety intensity and directionality were observed between individuals following a free diet in the pre-weight event. Regarding sport discipline, judo and taekwondo practitioners presented higher somatic and cognitive anxiety than karate competitors did. Altogether, the correct control of the corresponding weight throughout the sports season decreases anxiety and increases self-confidence, allowing to the participants to focus on the contest objectives.
... Similar to the fighters analyzed in this study, other combat sports athletes often restrict food and fluid intake in the week of the competition and on the day before the weigh in wear warm clothing or wetsuits in training sessions aiming to increase sweating and promote weight reduction by dehydration [2,3,7,[27][28][29]. In fact, the use of methods like restricting fluid intake, laxatives, diuretics, exercise using sweat/plastic/rubber suits in heated rooms, saunas, and hot salt bath can lead athletes to a high level of dehydration and heat stress and become harmful to health and performance [30]. ...
Abstract Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate the weight loss behaviors among Brazilian professional mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes. Methods One hundred and seventy nine Brazilian professional MMA athletes (164 males and 15 females; age: median 25 years, range = 19-37 years) from different regions of the country answered an adapted version of a questionnaire developed to characterize weight loss behavior. In addition, questionnaire scores were associated with extremes in behavior. Results All athletes stated that they had engaged in weight loss procedures to make weight for competition and ~ 35% had engaged in weight loss procedures twice in the last season, usually losing a magnitude of up to 10% of their body mass. About 26% started their weight loss procedures in a time span of 30 days prior to competition. When athletes were analyzed by sex and weight classes, no significant differences were found in the questionnaire score. In contrast, international level athletes showed significant differences in the questionnaire score when compared to state (P < 0.001) and national (P < 0.05) level athletes. Athletes also reported always use a combination of gradual diet (64.2%), restricting fluid intake (62.6%), and sweat suits (55.9%) as methods to cut weight. Additionally, athletes reported the usage of diuretics (~ 49%) and laxatives (~ 32%) at least once in their professional MMA carrier. The most influential sources of weight management behaviors were coaches, training partners, and physical trainers. Conclusion Brazilian professional MMA athletes commonly undergo weight loss procedures through harmful and illegal methods regardless of sex, weight class, although international level athletes demonstrated weight management behavior that was found to be even more aggressive.
... Similar to the fighters analyzed in this study, other combat sports athletes often restrict food and fluid intake in the week of the competition and on the day before the weigh in wear warm clothing or wetsuits in training sessions aiming to increase sweating and promote weight reduction by dehydration [2,3,7,[27][28][29]. In fact, the use of methods like restricting fluid intake, laxatives, diuretics, exercise using sweat/plastic/rubber suits in heated rooms, saunas, and hot salt bath can lead athletes to a high level of dehydration and heat stress and become harmful to health and performance [30]. ...
Purpose
The aim of this study was to investigate the weight loss behaviors among Brazilian professional mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes.
Methods
One hundred and seventy nine Brazilian professional MMA athletes (164 males and 15 females; age: median 25 years, range = 19–37 years) from different regions of the country answered an adapted version of a questionnaire developed to characterize weight loss behavior. In addition, questionnaire scores were associated with extremes in behavior.
Results
All athletes stated that they had engaged in weight loss procedures to make weight for competition and ~ 35% had engaged in weight loss procedures twice in the last season, usually losing a magnitude of up to 10% of their body mass. About 26% started their weight loss procedures in a time span of 30 days prior to competition. When athletes were analyzed by sex and weight classes, no significant differences were found in the questionnaire score. In contrast, international level athletes showed significant differences in the questionnaire score when compared to state (P < 0.001) and national (P < 0.05) level athletes. Athletes also reported always use a combination of gradual diet (64.2%), restricting fluid intake (62.6%), and sweat suits (55.9%) as methods to cut weight. Additionally, athletes reported the usage of diuretics (~ 49%) and laxatives (~ 32%) at least once in their professional MMA carrier. The most influential sources of weight management behaviors were coaches, training partners, and physical trainers.
Conclusion
Brazilian professional MMA athletes commonly undergo weight loss procedures through harmful and illegal methods regardless of sex, weight class, although international level athletes demonstrated weight management behavior that was found to be even more aggressive.
Introduction
In sports where competitors are divided into weight classes, a problem of obtaining the desired body mass on the competition day occurs. This issue is present primarily in martial arts, with an exception of fencing. Therefore, adjusting body mass is a component of the training process and happens cyclically due to participation in tournaments (Sterkowicz, 2006). These procedures are used most frequently before competitions in order to fit into the limits of a lower or higher weight class (Sterkowicz et al., 2005). Taekwondo tournaments participants are divided into weight classes, just like is wrestling, judo, and other martial arts. The purpose of the division is to ensure fairness of the fights by selecting opponents of similar morphological and physiological characteristics. Nonetheless, decreasing body mass for the purpose of qualifying into the lower weight class is a frequent phenomenon (Janiszewska et al., 2012). A large percentage of the competitors reduces body mass during the short period preceding the official weighting before a tournament, then go back to the natural body mass during the several hours before the tournament starts (Kazemi, 2005; Fleming, 2009). It is possible that the competitors reduce body mass as a result of discarding excessive fat reserves in specific body parts. However, very frequently it is competitors of very low fat body content rapidly reducing body mass before a tournament solely through dehydration, since it is the only way to qualify to the lower weight class (Shirreffs, 2009). Rapid and quick body mass reduction leading to dehydration, however, is not without influence on body functions. Reports on the problem suggest that occurring negative physiological consequences result in motor skill changes. Nonetheless, there are no reports unequivocally naming the type of motor skills connected to dehydration.
Thus, the purpose of the paper was to determine the influence of intentional dehydration on the level of the following motor skills: stamina (strength), coordination (simple reaction time and upper limb movement speed), and speed of taekwondo practitioners.
Sixteen healthy, active male combat sports athletes
participate as a volunteer for this study. Athletes were lost
minimum 3% of their body weight within 24 hours. During
this period, bodyweight(BW), urine specific gravity (USG),
body composition (total body water (TBW), muscle mass
(MM), body fat mass (BF %), visual reaction time (VRT) and
auditory reaction time (ART), dynamic balance (DB), as
well as handgrip strength (HS) and back extension strength
(BES) were estimated. Measurements were taken in three
different time (pre-test (baseline), post-test and during
competition phase). No statistical significant difference in
DB, reaction time, HS and BF% were evidenced. On the
other hand statistically significant decrease was seen in
BES, TBW and MM. Moreover significant increase was
found in USG. The results of this study revealed that 3%
body weight loss within 24 hours had negative effects on
physical performance especially back extension strength. It
was also observed that there were important changes in
bodycomposition.
Background The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of learning of some wrestling techniques on the efficiency in a contact game. Material/Methods: The research was conducted on a sample of 20 handball players (10-12 years). Experimental and control group rated the effectiveness in contact play before and after the treatment. The treatment consisted of learning and practicing five wrestling techniques applied on the preparation part of the training session. Results: Initial testing did not show statistically significant differences in efficiency between groups in defense and in attack. Results of the final testing showed that statistically significant differences between the experimental (defense p=0.04, attack p=0.02) and control group (defense p<0.01, attack p=0.03). Analysis of differences between groups show that the experimental group achieved statistically significant (p<0.01) better results in defense and attack performance. Conclusions: The research has shown that teaching young handball players wrestling techniques can significantly improve their performance. and Study Aim: copy is for personal use only-distribution prohibited. This copy is for personal use only-distribution prohibited. This copy is for personal use only-distribution prohibited. This copy is for personal use only-distribution prohibited. This copy is for personal use only-distribution
Background and study aim: Kickboxing is a sport which assumes the division into weight categories. The purpose of the research was to establish how many contestants reduce their body weight before start, and whether classic massage and local cryotherapy help to minimize negative effects of rapid weight loss.
Material/Methods: The research covered 9 women and 16 men performing kickboxing. The research method was author’s questionnaire and chosen tests of motor fitness by Denisiuk.
Results: In selected groups 33% of contestants reduce their body weight in the pre-start period before every competitions. This reduction, in average, amounts to 4.07% at men and 3.93% at women. The most commonly applied body weight reduction methods included reducing the amount of food and liquids, increased physical activity and procedures in the sauna. During the reduction of body weight, contestants felt deterioration of mood, smaller strength and endurance, and headaches. Functional trials performed during rapid weight loss pointed to regression of results connected with the process of reduction. Massage and local cryotherapy allowed to maintain results of a relatively consistent level, connected to the result preceding the reduction.
Conclusions: The reduction of body weight before championships turned out to be common practice. The methods of reducing body weight in short time negatively influence the mood of contestants, which may lead to the deterioration of their effort capabilities, and what follows, weaker sports results. The use of massage and cryotherapy allows to maintain strength on a level close to the one before the reduction.
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of learning of some wrestling techniques on the efficiency in a contact game. The research was conducted on a sample of 20 handball players (10-12 years). Experimental and control group rated the effectiveness in contact play before and after the treatment. The treatment consisted of learning and practicing five wrestling techniques applied on the preparation part of the training session. Initial testing did not show statistically significant differences in efficiency between groups in defense and in attack. Results of the final testing showed that statistically significant differences between the experimental (defense p=0.04, attack p=0.02) and control group (defense p<0.01, attack p=0.03). Analysis of differences between groups show that the experimental group achieved statistically significant (p<0.01) better results in defense and attack performance. The research has shown that teaching young handball players wrestling techniques can significantly improve their performance.
We examined gender-related differences in the psychological response to weight reduction in 43 judoists. Twenty-two males and 8 females who required weight reduction [weight reduction (WR) group] (the average percentages of weight reduction observed for males and females were 3.4% and 4.9%, respectively), and 5 males and 8 females who did not require weight reduction (non-WR group). The POMS scores were measured before and after weight reduction. The TMD (total mood disturbance) score in POMS significantly increased after weight reduction only in WR group males. In the female WR group, the anger and depression scores decreased after weight reduction, and the pre-value of the TMD score in this group was relatively high. The psychological stress may be caused by anxiety engendered by the overall concept of weight reduction before actual weight reduction in females, whereas in males it may be caused by the actual weight reduction.
Man has always been curious about himself, a curiosity that began centuries ago with an examination of the soul, and that extended in the period of the Renaissance to his anatomy and certain functions such as the circulation of the blood. Chemical science entered the scene in the 18th century, and burst into prominence in the 19th century. As the various chemical elements were discovered, many were found to be present in body fluids and tissues. Organic compounds were recognized; it became known that body heat was produced by the combustion of food; chemical transformations such as the production of fat from carbohydrate were recognized; and in the 1850s it was determined that young animals differed from adults in certain aspects of body composition. As methods for chemical analysis evolved, they were applied to samples of body fluids and tissues, and it became apparent that life depended on chemical normality; and most importantly it was realized that given the necessary amount of food and water the body had the ability to maintain a degree of constancy of what Claude Bernard called the milieu interieur, in other words its interior chemical en vironment.
Recent research has demonstrated transient affective changes and impairment of short-term memory in college wrestlers as a result of rapid weight loss (RWL) of at least 5% body weight prior to competition. This study examined the effects of RWL on cognition and affect in high school wrestlers. Wrestlers were considered to be engaging in RWL if they were losing over 5% of body weight (n = 14). Those losing less than 1% of body weight (n = 14) were considered maintainers and served as the control group. Both groups were given a battery of tests assessing cognitive performance (Trail Making Tests A & B, Stroop color-word test, Wechsler digit span, and choice reaction/movement time) and affective state (PANAS) at normal weight (5 to 10 days prior to competition) and again 8 to 12 hours prior to weigh-in. Results indicated an average loss of 4.68 kg in the RWL group and 0.29 kg in the control group. A group-by-time MANOVA and univariate follow-up tests indicated a significant group-by-time interaction for positive affect, p < .014, with the RWL wrestlers having less positive affect than the control group just prior to weigh-in. However, none of the cognitive performance tests demonstrated significant differential changes for RWL vs. control groups, p > .10. Given the control for competition effects in the present study, results suggest there are affective disturbances, but not cognitive impairments, associated with RWL of at least 5% body weight in high school wrestlers.
Background Anthropologists' research repeated for over half a century now prove that the body build constitutes one of the elements differentiating sportsmen from persons not carrying out a systematic physical training. However, in the population of sportsmen one deals with the accumulation two factors - features of persons selected to practise a particular sport (thus with the greatest predispositions) and the results of training. The aim of the study was to properties of the body build among judo competitors of the national team compared to persons of the same population not practising professional sport. Material & Methods: The study involved competitors from the Polish national team in men's judo (n=14). Competitors' age 20-30 (x=23 years), body mass 63 kg to 160 kg (x=93.8 kg), body height 166-197 cm (x=179.3 cm), training experience 13±4.2 years. The reference group was made up of students of Warsaw Technical University (Poland). Eighteen basic somatic features were measured. Slenderness, Rohrer's, BMI, and Manouvrier's indices were calculated. Body density, complete body fat, active tissue, overall profile of the body build and internal proportions of the body build were determined. Results: Weight categories (with the increase in body mass, a distinct decrease in slenderness features takes place) are an important factor determining morphological differentiation of judo competitors. Proportions of features of factors analysed internally show that competitors of all weight categories are characterised by particularly strong muscles of the forearm and weak ones of the shank. Conclusions: A selection of an appropriate technique of fight (throws, grips, feints and their combinations) to the body build and other components of the judo competitor's personality still remains an open issue. These problems must be tackled by coaches in reference to particular competitors individually.
