A Systematic Review of the Impact Overload on Road Pavement Batu City, Indonesia

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A Systematic Review of the Impact Overload on Road Pavement Batu City, Indonesia
Alfi Nurhidayat1* , Khairul Hisyam Bin Kamarudin2
1 Razak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 54000, Malaysia
2 Urban and Regional Planning Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru
81310, Malaysia
Corresponding Author Email: alfinurhidayat@umm.ac.id
Copyright: ©2024 The authors. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
https://doi.org/10.18280/ijtdi.080105
ABSTRACT
Received: 16 November 2023
Revised: 6 January 2024
Accepted: 15 January 2024
Available online: 31 March 2024
Batu City, a premier tourist destination in Indonesia, has experienced a significant influx
of tourists, leading to an upsurge in vehicular traffic. This increase in vehicular load has
precipitated premature deterioration of the city's road pavements. A systematic approach
to addressing this degradation is imperative for the refinement of road planning strategies,
tailored to the pavement's lifespan, and for the development of a holistic road construction
policy that aligns with the actual traffic load. This study employs a systematic literature
review (SLR) to investigate the effects of vehicle overloading on the structural longevity
of road pavements in Batu City. A keyword-driven search was conducted, resulting in the
selection of 50 pertinent articles which were scrutinized to determine the extent of the
impact that overloaded vehicles have on road infrastructure within tourist-heavy urban
centers and to identify effective management solutions. The findings from the SLR indicate
that excessive vehicle axle loads, or the presence of cities with high vehicular traffic,
considerably expedite pavement damage and diminish the structural lifespan, as supported
by evidence from 48% of the analyzed journals. These insights have practical implications
for the assessment of road geometric designs, the examination of construction techniques
and materials, and the formulation of models or policies that are congruent with the
functional requirements of the city.
Keywords:
average daily traffic, design life,
infrastructure planning, policies, tourist city,
vehicle overload
1. INTRODUCTION
Roads are land transportation infrastructure covering all
parts of the road, including supporting buildings and
equipment intended for traffic on the ground surface, above
ground level, underground and/or water level, and above water
level, except for railroads. and cable roads. Based on the Law
of the Republic of Indonesia Number 38 of 2004, roads are
classified based on their designation, encompassing public
roads with functions categorized as arterial roads, collector
roads, local roads, and environmental roads. Additionally,
special roads are designated for specific purposes such as the
distribution of goods and services, and are not intended for
general traffic. According to Mohamed et al. [1] for the core
transportation infrastructure, the road network has an intrinsic
role in developing social and economic growth for each region
and country. In addition, the existence of roads is also very
important to support the growth of agriculture, culture, and
other sectors [2]. Methodological gaps in addressing problems
related to overloading, caused by heavy loads or an increase in
the number of vehicles in several large cities in Indonesia, are
often rooted in the lack of awareness among the public as road
users. For instance, there is a significant gap in the
predominant preference of the community for private vehicles
over public transportation. These factors undoubtedly
contribute to the heightened risk of premature damage to road
pavements. Despite the government's efforts to enact
regulations to tackle these issues, the cultural inclination in
Indonesia remains resistant to swiftly comprehending and
adhering to new regulations. Consequently, their
implementation tends to be a time-consuming process.
Roads are currently often damaged in a relatively very short
time (early damage), both roads that have just been built and
roads that have just been repaired (overlay). According to
Zainal et al. [3] basically, the road will experience a decrease
in its structural quality by the increasing age of the road,
especially if it is passed by vehicles with heavy loads and tends
to exceed the provisions. According to Romadhoni et al. [4]
the development and movement of people from one place to
another in Indonesia is currently very high, making an efficient
and well-maintained road network a very urgent need. Along
with the increased movement of people and goods, increasing
the concentration of people, especially in strategic areas, many
vehicles also use these main roads over the planning limit [5].
In addition, there are physical and environmental
developments of the metropolitan area [6], the distribution of
the population that forms an urban sprawl result in unplanned
and uncontrolled growth on the outskirts of the city, often
characterized by low-density housing, single-use zoning, and
increased reliance on private cars for transportation [7]. The
International Journal of Transport Development and
Integration
Vol. 8, No. 1, March, 2024, pp. 49-60
Journal homepage: http://iieta.org/journals/ijtdi
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population of Indonesia is increasing every year, reaching a
notable growth rate of 1.13% in 2023 [8] is accompanied by a
rising number of vehicles, reaching 153.40 million units [9].
Consequently, there is a substantial demand for road
transportation. According to a study by Arifin [10], road
construction is intended to provide services based on planned
longevity. However, in reality, many sections experience a
reduction in service life due to damage to road pavements. The
most dominant factor causing rapid road damage is the
excessive load received by road construction, exceeding the
planned load.
Tourist mobility is a central concern in planning, urban
spatial planning, and tourism activities, as well as in
maintaining the quality of life for various groups involved.
Tourist cities with high visitor potential must organize urban
areas by adjusting road user patterns to prevent the blockage
of movement circulation [11]. Tourists in Indonesia seek a
more flexible mode of travel to accommodate their diverse
travel needs, primarily opting for private vehicles [12]. The
visiting pattern of tourists in Batu City shows a preference for
private vehicles such as cars, motorcycles, or native city buses,
as opposed to public transportation options like city buses or
local public transport, resulting in an increased traffic load.
The number of road users to and from the Batu City area
continues to rise annually, leading to frequent vehicle
congestion and traffic jams due to the growth of vehicles that
is not proportionate to the existing lanes [13]. When examined
from a mechanical perspective, the high volume of vehicles
entering Batu City leads to the stress experienced by the road
structure surpassing the planned capacity. This excess stress
can be likened to the stress induced by overloading a vehicle
axle, as it produces similar effects, notably resulting in
permanent deformation of the road pavement structure.
Consequently, the material is prone to cracking at an
accelerated rate. The combination of wheel load and high tire
pressure that is ignored can damage the surface layer and the
overall pavement structure [14]. Regional policy formation
greatly influences travel patterns in a city [15]. The local
government of Kota Batu has developed and implemented
regulations and official frameworks, such as Local Regulation
No. 3 of 2011 regarding Permits for Public Transport Routes.
This regulation supersedes Regional Regulation No. 10 of
2010, which pertains to Parking Fees on Public Road Sides.
Additionally, odd-even rules have been applied to regulate
vehicle traffic in Batu City. However, it is perceived that these
regulations are still suboptimal in addressing traffic
congestion and the growing number of excess vehicles in Batu
City. Drawing insights from other tourist cities in Indonesia,
such as Bogor, Bali, or Yogyakarta, an emphasis is placed on
urban planning and traffic flow management to mitigate road-
related issues. Potential strategies include increasing road
capacity, redirecting traffic, improving and promoting public
transport, and leveraging real-time traffic flow technology.
In connection with the advancement of vehicle overload
theory, this research aims to provide an update through an
analysis of the impact of overload resulting from the
increasing number of vehicles in the research area, thereby
generating comprehensive data. This data will serve as
valuable input for road pavement life plan engineering to
enhance its effectiveness in accommodating vehicular
movements. Additionally, the research will formulate policies
within a sustainable operational framework at the Batu City
government level. These policies will be utilized for the
planning and development of tourist areas, incorporating
optimal city planning and traffic management practices.
Research on the impact of overloaded vehicles on road
damage has been carried out and published in several journals
over the last few years. The overload in question is a vehicle
with a load that exceeds the Heaviest Axle Load (MST) limit
which affects the value of the Equivalent Standard Axle Load
(ESAL) and causes road damage to occur more quickly
(cutting the actual road plan life) [3, 4, 16-18]. In operational
terms, the damage factor represents the number of passes
equivalent to one standard axle producing the same wear effect
as one truck pass [19]. Adopting from these studies, a journal
article on this topic will raise the issue of the effect of excess
traffic/number of vehicles going in and out of Batu City on
flexible pavement structures which have an impact on
reducing the plan life of the road using case studies of tourism
cities in Indonesia. The following questions aim to discuss and
synthesize open issues relating to future research directions:
1. What are the main causes of the occurrence of the
road load phenomenon related to the age of the road/pavement
and the planning of the road network in Batu Tourism City?
2. What is the impact on the road/sidewalk planning
scheme for Kota Wisata Batu due to the increasing number of
vehicles using the road in the tourist city?
Specifically, this research will focus on qualitatively
identifying the results of data analysis. The methods or
approaches employed for data analysis encompass vehicle
volume analysis, axle load analysis, the AASHTO method for
calculating remaining pavement due to overload [16, 20], the
linear regression method for comparing the equivalent value
of passenger cars, and the IRI (International Roughness Index)
method for assessing road surface conditions. The
examination of causal factors will facilitate the determination
of the relationship between vehicle growth and its impacts,
aiming to propose an operational framework as the primary
target for improving policies [21] and road planning in the
current and future context of the study area.
2. METHODOLOGY
This research aims to measure the impact of increasing the
number of vehicles on the design life of roads, identify
methods and approaches to overcome these problems, and
propose an operational framework to improve road
management. In line with these aims and objectives, this
research employs a systematic literature review as the most
appropriate method to establish a theoretical foundation by
drawing on various studies conducted previously. This
approach supports the resolution of the researched problem,
enhances the understanding of the context based on a scientific
framework, and ensures that the research incorporates the
latest updates.
In conducting a literature review, this research synthesized
the current body of knowledge by following the steps outlined
by the studies [22, 23]. After formulating the problem, the
subsequent stages included (1) Article identification; (2)
Article selection and study evaluation; (3) Data analysis and
screening; and (4) Reporting and utilizing results. It is
important to note that this study did not include a separate
assessment of the quality of the reviewed articles. Instead, the
focus was on reviewing the most relevant literature of vehicle
overload and government policies impacting road pavements
in tourist cities. Thus, the discussion, implications, and
conclusions can be presented at the end of the study.
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Understanding the workflow through the methodology
adopted in this research is explained in Figure 1 above with
the following description:
Figure 1. Research methodology
2.1 Article identification
In this study, article identification was carried out by
searching using the right keywords to compile a literature
review. This study chose "Vehicle Overloading", "Road
Pavement", "Policy", "Tourist City " as keywords. Similar
words were identified and used as alternative words during the
search process, such as those relating to “Sustainable Road
Construction”, “Sustainable Road Transport”, “Highway
Damage”, “Age of Road Pavement Plans”, “Tourism City
Growth”, “Urban Sprawl”, “Vehicle Mobility”. The search
was conducted on September 7, 2021 and renewed on March
9, 2023.
2.2 Article selection and study evaluation
In Figure 2, it is explained that the keywords mentioned are
used in databases such as Science Direct, Google Scholar,
Journal of Science Publishing, and Taylor & Francis. After
looking through some of these databases, about 200 have been
found. Exclusion criteria apply to articles under 2010, using
Indonesian or English with appropriate keywords (e.g.
"Vehicle Overloading" in Science Direct, Journal of Science
Publishing, or Taylor & Francis). The study evaluation was
carried out in relation to the contributions that were dismissed
during the "title analysis" then "abstract analysis" until the 50
most suitable articles were obtained.
51

Figure 2. Article selection and study evaluation
2.3 Data analysis and screening
Data analysis and filtering is done by taking relevant
information based on the research discussed. Identification is
done by looking at things that are needed for further research.
Data analysis details several aspects in the article as
comparison material using descriptive analysis methods
(general information and content) as well as data collection
using comparative analysis, contrastive analysis, and
systematic review meta synthesis methods which can be
described as follows:
2.3.1 Comparative analysis
Comparative analysis is a method of looking at two or more
similar objects to see the differences and similarities they have
[24]. This study employs comparative analysis to explore
similarities and differences within the same research object,
such as overloading on road pavements, which can impact the
condition or design life of the pavement, as well as data
analysis methods and anticipated problem-solving.
2.3.2 Contrastive analysis
Contrastive analysis is a systematic method used to identify
structural differences and similarities of two particular things
[25]. Through contrastive analysis, data can be discerned by
examining the distinctions among the selected journals,
enabling the drawing of conclusions. Differences between
journals in this study can be identified based on overloading
resulting from an increase in the number of vehicles, road
functions, city functions, and policies implemented to address
various road-related issues.
2.3.3 Systematic reviews meta-synthesis
This method is used to present results by combining data
from various studies conducted on similar research topics [26].
In this study, data were obtained online or digital libraries by
searching and selecting journals/articles using keywords as
well as several predetermined exclusion and inclusion criteria
so that new ideas for research could be obtained [27]. The
compilation of various data for the overload topic involved
incorporating traffic analysis data, road infrastructure
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planning data, and several methods used. To address potential
contradictions or gaps in the findings, the combined data will
be adjusted to the specific conditions of the city or region that
is relevant or closely aligned with the study area.
2.4 Reporting and using results
The articles used will be arranged in a recapitulation table
based on the contents of the description that contributed to the
research.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Descriptive analysis
3.1.1 General information analysis
Based on literature analysis from several journal articles, it
is known that interest and attention in conducting research
related to the topic of overloading has been carried out
continuously since 2013 until now due to population growth
factors accompanied by increasing vehicle ownership in
various parts of the world. This topic is generally discussed by
journals related to the field of study of Transportation and
Civil Engineering.
3.1.2 Content analysis
Based on the analysis of the main themes from the journal
articles that have been collected, most of the research
contributions reviewed discuss phenomena that occur in traffic
and flexible road pavements with an outline of the discussion
containing the influence/impact of vehicle overloading on
construction or pavement life (n=19), review of models or
control efforts in overcoming road problems and overloading
that occur (n=16), development of urban areas from
urbanization factors (n=1), phenomena and development of
cities as tourist attractions (n=5), transportation strategies
sustainable (n=1), and policy implications or enforcement for
transport within an urban area (n=8). Table 1 contains the
contributions considered for the literature review and provides
specific knowledge which contains Main Themes, Theoretical
Lenses based on the author's report, Methods used, and Sectors
Investigated.
Table 1. Summary of selected articles, methods and research sector prior to the screening process
General Information
Fill
Aut.
Journal
Journal Themes and
Theoretical Lenses
Method
Research Sector
[28]
J. Procedia Social
and Behavioral
Sciences
Urban freight transport policy
oriented model
Operational policy-oriented model analysis,
methodological approach to urban goods
movement survey
Urban Area
[29]
J. Urban Studies
Urban transport policy – New
Urban Politics
Interview, quantitative and qualitative analyzes of
urban policy, and the NUP literature
Manchester
Olympics and
Commonwealth
Games Project
[21]
J. Transportation
Research Part E:
Logistics and
Transportation
Review
Overloading control for
optimizing road handling
costs – road transport
interaction model
Two-level model approach (representing the
interaction between vehicle loading practices and
road planning authority policies)
Mexico
[30]
J. Procedia-Social
and Behavioral
Science
Controlling vehicle
overloading – BOT
Existing condition axle load survey, identification
of overload effect, overload control
New Delhi, India
[14]
J. Procedia
Engineering
Durable and sustainable road
construction – geometric
design, road UR and axle
loads
Axle load analysis, quality of construction against
UR, analysis of recycled materials for pavement
Developing country
[31]
J. Transportation
Engineering
Impact of excess traffic on
road performance
Analysis of toll road traffic database for 5 years,
UR and ESAL
Toll road
[17]
J. Works of Civil
Engineering
Effect of overloading – road
performance – road UR
supply demand analysis (road performance,
flexible pavement, overloading)
Pringsurat Highway
Section, Ambarawa-
Magelang, IDN
[16]
J. Civil and
Environmental
Engineering
Effect of vehicle loads –
degree of damage & road UR
Data collection and analysis of the remaining UP &
DKJ from overloading
Prabumulih Street
KM 32 Indralaya,
South Sumatra, IDN
[32]
International
Journal of Civil &
Structural
Engineering
Research
Parking patterns for different
parking facilities
Survey of variations of vehicles in parking lots, t
tests, and parking patterns
India
[33]
J. of Economics and
International
Business
Management
Traffic violations in urban
areas a management
perspective
Descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests
City of Windhoek
Namibia
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[34]
J. Construction and
Building Materials
Asphalt pavement rutting
behavior
Generalized Kelvin model, proposed new method,
tangential stiffness matrix and vehicle load mode
selection, and constant power in limited model.
Mountain Road,
China
[35]
International
Journal of
Pavement
Engineering
Effect of overloaded vehicles
– road UR
Analysis of moving load data by WIM, asphalt
pavement analysis, and fatigue life of pavement
structures
Poland
[3]
J. Online Student of
Civil Engineering
Effect of vehicle load – road
damage
Data collection and analysis of MST & UR roads
Pahlawah Street
Section, Citeureup,
Bogor, IDN
[36]
J. Ghana Institute of
Journalism
Overloaded goods trucks on
toll roads
Fgd, interview, distribution of questionnaire and
observation
West African
Highway
[37]
J. Bridge
Engineering
Characteristics and impact of
overloaded extra heavy truck
Statistical monitoring of traffic data, classification
of typical vehicle types, analysis of traffic
scenarios, chi-square test, and comparison of
Chinese and AASHTO codes
Xuanda Highway,
China
[38]
J. Transportation
Research Prodia
Enforcement of overload
regulations on commercial
vehicles – WIM
Determination of project location, implementation
time, due diligence on WIM's response value and
performance, evaluation and enforcement of
regulations
Nantes, France
[39]
International
Journal of Advance
Research in Science
and Engineering
Study of traffic and transport
elements – medium urban
planning approach
Traffic statistics survey and analysis, speed study,
parking demand analysis, integration of multimodal
transport, and model simulation with SUMO
India
[2]
J. Infrastructure
Study of early pavement
damage factors – handling
costs
Comparison of damage with previous research,
classification of damage factors (fishbone
diagram), identification of damage factors, analysis
of the relationship between KPJ and handling costs
(IRI and SDI)
Indonesia
[4]
J. Pakuan
University
Influence of vehicle load –
road UR
Data collection and analysis of MST, TP & UR
roads
Mesuji Street,
Lampung, IDN
[40]
J. Science and Civil
Engineering
Applications
Influence of vehicle load –
road UR
Data collection and analysis of TP, UR roads &
MST
Section Gusig-SP3
Blusuh, West Kutai,
East Kalimantan IDN
[41]
J. Sustainability
The impact of tourism in the
context of cities – the concept
of overtourism
Tourism investigation, identification of managers,
determination of respondents, interview,
identification of perception patterns and
management of overtourism
13 Tourist Cities in
Europe
[42]
J. of Destination
Marketing and
Management
Overtourism and city survival
Ambidextrou management approach (exploitation
& exploration)
City of Venice, Italy
[43]
J. Civil Static
Overload effect – road UR
ADT and vehicle overload data collection, VDF
analysis and its increase due to overload, and
ESAL analysis for road UR
Manado-Bitung Road
Section, IDN
[44]
International
Journal of
Pavement
Engineering
The impact of traffic loads on
flexible pavements
Determination of typical fleet composition at the
study site and simulation of heavy traffic flow with
two scenarios
City of Portoviejo,
Ecuador
[45]
J. Road Materials
and Pavement
Design
Effect of vehicle speed and
overload on road pavement
Stress-strain response simulation, pavement
transient dynamic analysis, and implicit dynamic
analysis
China
[7]
J. of Urban and
Regional Planning
The phenomenon of urban
sprawl to changes in land use
on the outskirts of the city
Literature review and urban sprawl analysis
Suburban Area, IDN
[46]
J. Transportation
Research Procedia
Pavement damage –
overloaded vehicles
Pavement structural analysis (Brazilian Method),
HDM-4 Models analysis, and life cycle cost
analysis for 30 years
Brazil
[12]
J. Transportation
Research Part A:
Policy and Practice
Policies on travel behavior of
workers by public transport
Identification of dominant travel patterns by transit
commuters and analysis of household travel
activity surveys
US residents in all 50
states and the District
of Columbia
[47]
J. Transportation
Research Part A
Evaluation of city-scale built
environment policies with
new mobility
Nested logit mode choice modeling methods and
synthetic population analysis
New York City, USA
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[48]
J. Construction and
Building Materials
Rutting resistance factor –
multi sequence repeated
loading test
MSRL test (specimen depth, separated layers,
stress strain rate correlation, Compound Strain Rate
(ec) indication, distribution analysis, and ANOVA
Jiangsu Province,
China
[49]
J. Tourism
Management
Development of road and
transportation infrastructure
for tourism
Data collection by online survey using a
questionnaire (n = 350 people)
China-Pakistan
Economic Corridor
[50]
J. Sustainability
Smart tourism city
A conceptual approach to the definition of a smart
tourism city
Smart Tourism City
concept
[51]
J. Frontiers in
Sustainable Cities
Traffic calming on mobility,
road safety, and pavements
Measuring spot speed and vehicle speed profile,
visual inspection, geodetic laser leveling
instrument
Abuakwa-Bibiani
Toll Road
[52]
J. Engineering,
Mathematics and
Computer Science
Modification of the impact of
the zero overloading policy
on road UR
Comparison of CESA with 4 policies and policy
changes
Java North Coast
Road (Pantura), IDN
[53]
Proceedings of the
4th International
Conference on
Indonesian Social
and Political
Inquiries
Sustainability of road
infrastructure – weigh bridge
policy
Qualitative descriptive by obtaining information
from related parties
Central Java and the
Special Region of
Yogyakarta IDN
[54]
J. Infrastructures
Futue mobility overview –
smart roads
Assess the characteristics of smart roads by
considering their advantages and disadvantages
Highway
Infrastructure
[55]
J. Transportation
Research Part A
Legal establishment of
commercial vehicle weight
limits – WIM & the Act
WIM trend analysis, administrative survey (n = 37)
of road transport operators, respondent
characteristic survey, binomial regression test,
overload mitigation and regulation, regulatory
recommendations
Abu Dhabi, Emirates
[56]
J. of Traffic and
Transportation
Engineering
(English Edition)
Pavement engineering and
material innovation –
pavement engineering
research review 2021
Performance analysis and modeling of asphalt
binder, mix performance and modeling of
pavement materials, multi-scale mechanics, green
and sustainable pavements, and strong pavements
China
[57]
Simulation
Modeling Practice
and Theory
Urban transport simulation
model specifications – travel
and tour based models to
convert deliveries into vehicle
flows.
Travel-based model analysis, tour formation
heuristics, and delivery sequencing models
Comparative Models;
Singapore Vehicle
Operations Data
[58]
International
Journal of Environ
mental Research
and Public Health
Tourism urbanization factors
in tourist cities
State space analysis method, standard deviation
ellipse, and spatial autocorrelation analysis
35 Major Tourist
Cities, China
[59]
J.E3S Web of
Conferences
Sustainable transportation
strategy
Identification and evaluation of city conditions,
population, number of vehicles, and transportation
infrastructure
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
[60]
Thesis
Impact of traffic loading on
the road
Shaft load measurement with static axle weighing
machines and moving weighing machines with
visual inspection and questionnaire
Cabanas Highway,
Kenya
[61]
International
Journal of
Geotechnique
Construction
Materials and
Environment
Impact of overload on
pavement design life - WIM
WIM and VDF surveys, as well as a comparison of
Cumulative ESAL and Pavement Damage Ratio
Lampung and
Palembang, IDN
[62]
J. Engineering
Failure Analysis
Pavement structure failure –
overload
Discussion with stakeholders, visual route survey
of the road, conduction of test pits in the most
severely damaged sections of the road, collection
of soil samples, & generation of soil profiles
Minna-Kateregi-Bida
Road, Nigeria
[63]
J. Transportation
Geotechnics
Effect of overload and road
pavement sealing conditions
– road UR
Stress-strain analysis with AEMC, pavement
condition analysis with FWD, deflection simulation
with BackMeDiNa
BR-116/BA, Brazil
[64]
J. Construction and
Building Materials
Investigation of early failure
mechanisms of national roads
– pavement bonding,
overloading, and layer
stiffness
Numerical parametric study with variable bonding
conditions between pavement, overloading and
layer stiffness, laser crack measurement system,
and variation of base layer stiffness from DCP test
Bangladesh National
Highway
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[65]
J. of Regional and
Rural Development
Planning
Urban sprawl
recommendations for
controlling space utilization
and development
Analysis of urban sprawl adoption from related
research, analysis of autocorrelation of Moran and
LISA indices, analysis of alignment of land use and
spatial pattern of RTRW, and overlay
Karawang Regency,
West Java, IDN
[66]
J. Research in
Transportation
Business and
Management
Tourist mode of transport
Multinomial logit regression analysis
Barcelona
[67]
J. Earth and
Environmental
Science
Transportation infrastructure
development
Spatial concentration analysis using the LQ index
approach and assessing the direction of spatial
planning policies
East Kalimanta IDN
[68]
J. Omega
Road network restoration
efficiency – an integrated
framework
Model-based data analysis for interdependent
coordination “damage assessment”, “road
restoration” and “aid distribution” and integrative
frame work development
Miami-Dade and
Broward Highways
USA
Notes: ADT = Average Daily Traffic; DKJ = Degree of Road Saturation; UR = Planned Age; UP = Pavement Age; US = United States of America; CESA =
Cumulative Equivalent Single Axle Load; BOT = Built Operational and Transfer; WIM = Weight in Motion; LQ = Location Quotient; MST = Heaviest Axle Load;
ANOVA = Analysis of Variance; MSRL = Multi-Sequenced Repeat Load; NUP = New Urban Politics; KPJ = Road Pavement Damage; TP = Pavement Thickness;
RTRW = Regional Spatial Plan; IDN = Indonesia; PSO = Particle Swarm Optimization; SUPAS = Inter-Census Population Survey; VDF = Vehicle Damage Factor;
LISA = Local Indicator of Spatial Association; ESAL = Equivalent Standard Axle Load; DCP = Dynamic Cone Penetration; SUMO = Simulation of Urban Mobility;
FWD = Falling Weight Deflectometer.
3.2 Literature review results
Based on the literature review summary for this study, 30
out of 62 studies, or 48% of the most relevant journals, indicate
that vehicle loads exceeding specified limits can notably
impact the condition of the structure or the lifespan of highway
pavement and potentially lead to an increase in traffic
accidents. As explained by Santana et al. [63] overloading the
vehicle axle accelerates pavement damage and has an impact
on the structure's lifespan, establishing a close relationship
between the prediction of pavement life and the increase in the
percentage of vehicle load on the road. A total of 14 studies
explained that vehicle overload can be identified from normal
vehicles and heavy vehicles with loads that exceed the heaviest
axle load (MST) limit of each Axle Standard Equivalent Load
(ESAL). The extensive variations found in the literature
reviewed above contribute to a comprehensive perspective.
The benefit obtained from this examination is that the
advantages and disadvantages of prior research can be
identified, aiding in achieving objectives and enhancing the
current research. Generally, the AASHTO method is
commonly employed in designing roads, and it provides
empirical evidence of traffic loads over the design life.
Although this method is widely used and considered the best
for problem-solving in road pavement, there has been no
update to the method to reflect current times. Nevertheless,
other research introduces various methods, particularly the
Weigh In-Motion (WIM) analysis, which is recommended and
considered more efficient, especially in urban areas with high
vehicle intensity. This analysis facilitates the accurate
collection of vehicle load data through a sophisticated system.
However, the implementation of this method remains
uncommon due to its high costs and the need for experienced
and professional regulators.
Most of the articles that have been reviewed (as many as
80%) indicate problems related to traffic and roads, including
overloading which often occurs in big cities with rapid
development and population growth followed by high vehicle
movements. The countries with the greatest number of
discussions related to problems that occur on the road
pavement include China, India, Arabia, and Indonesia. Based
on the review of the article above, addressing road problems,
especially overloading, can be approached through various
means. This includes evaluating the geometric design of the
road and reviewing the techniques and materials used in
planning road pavements. Furthermore, existing issues serve
as a basis for enhancing discipline by establishing models,
regulations, or policies that coordinate all activities within a
city. This involves considering multiple aspects such as the
city's function, roads as infrastructure, accessibility, and
vehicles as means of transportation. The implications of such
policies generally involve interventions such as simulating
travel models or altering the function of vehicles in the city,
with an emphasis on promoting the use of public transportation
as a primary driving force. Local governments, as stakeholders,
play a crucial role in conducting focus group discussions and
formulating policies. Notable examples include New York
City implementing a smart city approach to realize its built
environment policy, the United Arab Emirates formulating
and implementing an effective weight limit law for road safety,
and China planning the layout of a tourism toll road network.
3.3 Key findings and discussion
This research in the context of the discussion will discuss
the current limitations with ongoing research flows in the
future for investigations between policy enforcement and the
impact of vehicle overload on road pavement. Table 1
provides a summary of several forms of problem-solving
efforts related to the impact of overloaded vehicles in urban
areas. However, there are still many deficiencies in analyzing
the problem in question, including a lack of supervision of
vehicles crossing urban roads, a lack of firmness towards road
users, drainage or supporting road bodies that are not
functioning properly, and pavement construction that is not
strong and easily damaged to support the vehicle load [3, 4, 16,
17, 40, 43]. However, so far there has been no research related
to vehicle overloading that examines the number of vehicle
movements. This research will encourage further efforts to
overcome existing problems by establishing policies that are
sought directly from the city government of the research
location.
Contextual factors that influence overloading include: First,
the results are affected by the context of vehicle overload
56

which can reduce the life of the pavement plan so that the road
will be damaged more quickly [40]. There are other factors
that might influence this, so the literature suggests considering
the types of vehicles that pass with a tendency to exceed the
maximum provisions [3, 16, 63] checking the large vehicle [3,
4, 61, 69] measuring the reproducibility of the vehicle flow
model between zones or adopting a choice of sequential
destinations [57, 70] maintenance costs and overloaded
vehicles [31, 46, 55] vehicle speed and design of pavement
structures or mixes [45, 51, 64, 71], geometric design of roads
[14] replacement of vehicle equipment [72] maintenance of
waterways (drainage) [2, 4] or modification of road pavement
forming materials [48, 64, 71].
Second, discussion of the city context from a socio-
economic perspective is as a center for tourism activities
which is very dependent on road, transportation, and
communication infrastructure [67]. In addition, the high level
of urbanization causes the intensity of urban growth
concentration to also increase [73]. Future issues related to
urbanization suggest the need for a direction to improve spatial
planning based on city conditions [65] and provide easy
accessibility, topography, availability of vacant land,
transportation routes and land prices [7] while issues related to
the activities of tourist cities, namely changing the pattern of
visiting tourists by public transportation [12] collecting lots of
data from different cities and find scope for several factors in
capturing the overall characteristics of tourism activities [74]
develop a tourism mobility plan [29, 58, 66], overcome
overtourism and support tourism development [42] or
developing the integration of expressway networks and
tourism resources [49, 75].
Third, the context that leads to organizational and policy
implications can be seen from the relationship between
personality and road and traffic safety behavior [76]. Several
literatures provide input to overcome the problem of road
maintenance and enforcement of overload control [21, 60] by
means of cost optimization and setting fines [21] provision of
separate special vehicle operating environments with an
effective framework [55] installation of weighbridges [30] or
weigh in motion (WIM automatic) [38] pavement
rehabilitation [77] traffic control [33] zero overloading policy
[52] or a proposed discrete choice model to determine
community location choices and departure times [47].
In order to overcome the phenomenon of overload due to
the very high number of vehicle movements at the study site
and investigate the questions raised for future research, it is
necessary to carry out an important combination of theoretical
studies and empirical studies. This is done because there has
not been found similar research or research that is relevant to
similar case studies based on the literature that has been
collected. From this point of view, the existing literature shows
that there are many factors that cause premature pavement
damage due to the phenomenon of vehicle overload (most of
them are trucks, tow trucks, and semi-trailers [3, 4] problem
analysis was also carried out using various types of methods
adapted to the conditions of the study area and the supporting
equipment available in the city or country concerned
(interview/questionnaire [28, 49] simulated traffic movements
[44] visual observations with weighbridges or WIM motion
sensors [30, 38] or track data from GPS [57, 70, 77]. Apart
from that, decision/policy making really needs to be done, one
of which is for the sustainability of road transportation [53]
and smart transportation innovation [54]. This innovation is
possible because many big cities in the world have invested in
and recognized the concept of smart tourism cities and
strategies relate to optimizing a sustainable environment [50].
Methods from the literature have their respective weaknesses
including in terms of time, cost, and other aspects. This
weakness underlies researchers to carry out developments in
the hope that implementation can function not only at the study
site but globally.
4. CONCLUSION
The key findings supporting the research objectives indicate
that the rise in the number of vehicles correlates with an
escalation in the load exerted on road pavements.
Consequently, the percentage of premature damage to road
pavements also increases. Additionally, addressing the issue
of overload can be mitigated or reduced by implementing
policies in a phased manner, tailored to the specific conditions
of the study area. The objective of specialization is to obtain
the whole atlas of specialization chains (graphs) by assigning
various types of members and joints to each available
generalized chain (graphs) subject to the design requirements
and design constraints specified above. Various types of
theories, models, and policy implementations have been used
to examine the impact of vehicle overload which will affect
the pavement structure and the design life of the road itself.
The literature review that has been reviewed conducts research
based on problems that occur in each country or city with
different pavement and environmental conditions so that the
aspects discussed are quite broad but not far from the
core/themes carried out in this study. The process of selecting
and filtering articles, as illustrated in Figures 1 and 2, forms
the foundation of the literature review in this research. It aims
to contribute to an enhanced understanding of issues related to
policies for excessive vehicle numbers, assumed to have
similar implications as excess vehicle loads on road pavement.
This undoubtedly influences the strength of the pavement
structure and its overall lifespan.
Study literature review is carried out to obtain theoretical
foundations that can be used to support solving problems that
occur. In this case, the case study was conducted in Batu City,
East Java, Indonesia. As a result of the city being known as
one of the leading tourist cities because of its potential for
extraordinary natural beauty, the growth of this area also
encourages economic growth. The surge in tourists (inter-city
and foreign) that occurs at any time can cause excessive road
loads, the impact that will be felt if this problem continues is
premature damage to road pavement causing congestion and
even accidents. Seeing the existing conditions, the most
efficient method is used, namely the analysis of the heaviest
axle load by calculating each ESAL value but based on the
number of vehicle movements in and out of Batu City, as well
as the pavement assessment and the plan age of the road using
the AASHTO method. After analyzing traffic and road
pavement, the obtained results will serve as recommendations
for policy formation. The proposed primary policy initiates
with focus group discussions and the engagement of
stakeholders in Batu City. Formulation follows the policy
preparation guidelines set by the Indonesian Government. This
policy includes regulations such as the expansion of main
roads to facilitate vehicle movement, encouraging the shift
from private vehicle use to public transportation in Batu City,
expanding and developing terminals, and implementing traffic
management measures. Therefore, establishing a policy to
57

address the issue of excessive vehicle numbers in Batu City
can serve as a reference for discussions, promoting the
sustainability of street life in line with planning needs. This
policy model can also be applied in similar cases in other areas.
Future research should delve into vehicle load calculations,
particularly involving the increasing number of motorized
vehicles (two-wheeled), and explore more efficient structuring
of tourist city areas.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Batu City Public Works and Spatial Planning Department,
Batu City Transportation Department, and Batu City
Government for their helpful feedback and support our
research.
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