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John Castellani, President
Johns Hopkins University
Joy Zabala, President Elect
Assistive Technology and Leadership
Brenda Heiman, Vice President
Louisiana Tech University
Ted Hasselbring, Past President
University of Kentucky
Tara Jeffs, Secretary
Bowling Green State University
Cheryl Wissick, Treasurer
University of South Carolina
James Gardner, Awards Chair
University of Oklahoma
Brenda Heiman, CAN Coordinator
Louisiana T
ech University
Michael Behrman, Member-at-Large
George Mason University
Sean Smith, Member-at-Large
University of Kansas
Wendy Schweder,Membership Chair
University of South Carolina-Aiken
Cynthia Warger, Publications Chair
Cindy Anderson, Publicity Chair
National-Louis University
Joel Mittler, Research and Evaluation Chair
Long Island University-CW Post Campus
Susan Mistrett, Web site Editor
Cindy Anderson and Kevin Anderson,
Newsletter Editors
Editorial Policy and Goals
Journal of Special Education Technology is a refereed professional journal that presents up-to-date information and
opinions about issues, research, policy, and practice related to the use of technology in the field of special education.
JSET supports the publication of research and development activities, provides technological information and
resources, and presents important information and discussion concerning important issues in the field of special
education technology to scholars, teacher educators, and practitioners. JSET is a publication of the Technology and
Media (TAM) Division of the Council for Exceptional Children.
The goals of TAM include:
•Promoting collaboration among educators and others interested in using technology and media to assist
individuals with exceptional educational needs.
•Encouraging the development of new applications, technologies, and media that can benefit individuals with
exceptionalities.
•Disseminating relevant and timely information through professional meetings, training programs, and
publications.
•Coordinating the activities of educational and governmental agencies, business, and industry.
•Developing and advancing appropriate technical standards.
•Providing technical assistance, inservice, and preservice education on the uses of technology.
•Monitoring and disseminating relevant research.
•Advocating for funds and policies that support the availability and effective use of technology in this field.
•Supporting the activities, policies, and procedures of CEC and the other CEC divisions.
TAM Board Members
Subscriptions and Membership in TAM
The Journal of Special Education Technology (JSET) is a traditional print-on-paper publication (4 issues per year)
that is sent to subscribers and members of the Technology and Media Division of the Council for Exceptional
Children (TAM). Access to a companion online edition is provided free of charge (
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Subscriptions to JSET are available without membership in TAM at the following rates:
Individual domestic mail: $40 per year
Institutional or foreign mail: $89 per year
All inquiries concerning s
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Cathy Ryan
Boyd Printing Co., Inc.
49 Sheridan Ave.
Albany, NY 12210
800-877-2693
cryan@boydprinting.com
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pinquiries should be directed to the address below or a membership brochure may be found
online at the TAM Web site at: http://www.tamcec.org.
The Council for Exceptional Children
1110 North Glebe Road
Suite 300
Arlington, VA, 22201-5704
703-620-3663 or 1-888-CEC-SPED toll free
TTY: 703-264-9446
FAX: 703-264-9494
http://www.cec.sped.org
Technology Use by Students with Intellectual Disabilities: An Overview .......................................................7
Michael L. Wehmeyer, Sean J. Smith, Susan B. Palmer
University of Kansas
Daniel K. Davies
AbleLink Technologies
Creating a Technology Toolkit for Students with Mental Retardation: A Systematic Approach .....................23
Phil Parette, Brian W. Wojcik
Illinois State University
Computer Assisted Instruction to Teach Item Selection in Grocery Stores:
An Assessment of Acquisition and Generalization ..........................................................................................33
Karen Hutcherson, John Langone, Kevin Ayres, Tom Clees
The University of Georgia
Internet-Based Multimedia T
ests and Surveys for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities ..........................43
Steven E. Stock, Daniel K. Davies
AbleLink Technologies, Inc.
Michael L. Wehmeyer
University of Kansas
Emerging T
echnologies and Cognitive Disability .............................................................................................49
David Braddock
University of Colorado System and Coleman Institute for Cognitive Disabilities
Mary C. Rizzolo
University of Illinois at Chicago
Micah Thompson
Coleman Institute for Cognitive Disabilities
Rodney Bell
ASSET Consulting
2003 in Review: A Synthesis of the Special Education Technology Literature.................................................57
Dave L. Edyburn
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
3
Table of Contents
Volume 19 • Number 4 • Fall 2004
4
Journal of Special Education Technology
CALL FOR APPLICATIONS
EDITOR
JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY
The Executive Committee of the Technology and
Media Division (TAM) of the Council for Exceptional Children
announces a search for Editor of the Journal of Special Education Technology (JSET).
An individual or team is sought to take over management and production
responsibilities of the journal beginning January 1, 2006.
The position requires previous publishing and editing experience
and familiarity with the field of special education technology.
Candidates must be TAM members.
The term of the appointment will be January 1, 2006 through December 31, 2009.
The editor of the Journal of Special Education Technology
is a member of the TAM Publications Committee with duties
related to the timely publication of a high-quality professional journal.
The application procedure and further details are available at the TAM Web site.
http://www.tamcec.org/news/editor_search.htm
Journal of Special Education Technology. 19(4), Fall 2004 5
Journal of Special Education Technology
The articles and some of the columns in this special issue
focus on technology use by students with intellectual
disabilities. In the Findings and Purposes section of the 1988
Tech Act (PL 100-407) Congress stated that the provision of
AT devices and services to individuals with disabilities enables
"individuals to: (a) have greater control over their own lives, (b)
participate in and contribute more fully to activities in their
home, school and work environments, and in their
communities, (c) interact to a greater extent with non-disabled
individuals, and (d) otherwise benefit from opportunities that
are taken for granted by individuals who do not have
disabilities” (p. 1044). These are outcomes valued by most
citizens. However, as discussed in the first article in this
special issue, it appears that the promise of AT has been,
largely, unfulfilled for people with intellectual disabilities.
A focus on technology use by people with mental
retardation is a fairly recent phenomenon. In 1982, the
national headquarters of the Association for Retarded Citizens
(now The Arc of the United States) launched a programmatic
initiative called the Bioengineering Program, intended to
address the lack of focus in technology development for people
with mental retardation. For more than a decade, this
program developed technology for and advocated on behalf of
people with mental retardation (Brown & Cavalier, 1992;
Cavalier & Brown, 1998; Mineo, 1985; Mineo & Cavalier,
1985). By the late 1990s, educators, family members, and the
general public’s awareness of the potential of technology had
grown, including as it pertained to the education of students
with disabilities. For example, the Reauthorization of the
Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act in 1997
mandated that the IEP of every child with a disability consider
A
T as an option as part of the student’s program. The
establishment of the Coleman Institute on Cognitive
Disabilities at the University of Colorado in 2001, further
raised the visibility of issues pertaining to cognitive access.
We believe that this issue is timely for a number of
reasons. First, there is the aforementioned increased visibility
of issues pertaining to ensuring cognitive access. Second, it is
increasingly evident that technology will play a major role to
ensure universal access to learning for all students, including
students with intellectual disabilities, and thus it is important
to consider what works and what is needed with regard to this
population.
Third, we are in the midst of a reconceptualization of what
it means to have an intellectual disability in which technology
can play an ever broader role. The 9th Edition of AAMR
handbook on definition and classification of mental retardation
(Luckasson, et al., 1992) introduced a functional definition and
classification system intended to link the classification of
mental retardation to a system of supports. In this edition of the
AAMR classification manual, mental retardation is defined not
as something that a person has or something that is a
characteristic of the person, but instead as a state of functioning
in which limitations in functional capacity and adaptive skills
must be considered within the context of environments and
supports. Luckasson, et al. (1992) noted “mental retardation is
a disability only as a result of this interaction” (p. 10); that is,
only as a result of the interaction between the functional
limitation and the social context, in this case the environments
and communities in which people with mental retardation live,
learn, work and play.
The functional definition of mental retardation by the
AAMR emphasizes the interaction between the person with
the disability and the context in which he or she lives, learns,
works, or plays. By defining disability as a function of the
interaction between the environment and a person’s
functional limitations, the focus of the problem shifts from
being a deficit within a person to the identification and design
of supports to address that person’s functioning within that
context, with an enhanced focus on accommodations and
modifications to the context. Technology, thus, becomes a
critical support to enhance performance across multiple
environments, including school.
In the first article in this special issue, Wehmeyer,
Smith,Palmer, and Davies overview the literature pertaining
to technology use by individuals with intellectual disabilities,
and examine barriers to that use. The second article, Parette
and Wojcik, examines the idea of creating a technology toolkit
that would be useful with students with intellectual
disabilities. In the next manuscript, Hutcherson, Langone,
Ayres, and Clees report on a study of computer assisted
instruction to teach a functional skill important for many
Introduction to the Special Issue on Technology Use by Students
with Intellectual Disabilities
MICHAEL L. WEHMEYER
SEAN J. SMITH
University of Kansas
6 Introduction
Journal of Special Education Technology
students with intellectual disabilities, grocery shopping.
Fourth, Stock, Davies, and Wehmeyer present a pilot study of
the use of a multi-media tool to enable persons with
intellectual disabilities to indicate preferences in vocational
and employment options. Finally, Braddock, Rizzolo,
Thompson, and Bell provide a look at emerging technologies
that may benefit individuals with cognitive and intellectual
disabilities.
REFERENCES
Brown, C.C., & Cavalier, A.R. (1992). Voice recognition
technology and persons with mental retardation and severe
physical impairment: Response differentiation and affect.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 11, 196 – 206.
Cavalier, A.R., & Brown, C.C. (1998). From passivity to
participation: The transformational possibilities of speech-
recognition technology. TEACHING Exceptional Children,
30(6), 60 – 65.
Luckasson, R., Coulter, D.L., Polloway, E.A., Reiss, S., Schalock,
R.L., Snell, M.E., Spitalnick, D.M., & Stark, J.A. (1992).
Mental retardation: Definition, classification, and systems of
supports. Washington, DC: American Association on
Mental Retardation.
Mineo, B. (1985). Technology for the future: A report from the ARC
Bioengineering Program. Exceptional Parent, 15(6), 11-12.
Mineo, B., & Cavalier, A.R. (1985). From idea to implementation:
Cognitive software for students with learning disabilities.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 18, 613 – 618.
7
Journal of Special Education Technology
The U.S. Department of Education report “Computer
and Internet Use by Children and Adolescents” (National
Center on Educational Statistics, 2001) illustrated the degree
to which technology use, particularly electronic and
information technologies like computers and the Internet, has
become a pervasive part of the educational process. This study
found:
1. About 90% of children and adolescents ages 5–17 (47
million) use computers and about 59% (31 million) use
the Internet.
2. About three-quarters of 5-year-olds use computers, and
over 90% of teens (ages 13–17) do so. About 25% of 5-
year-olds use the Internet, and this number rises to over
50% by age 9 and to at least 75% by ages 15–17.
3. More children and adolescents use computers at school
(81%) than at home (65%). (NCES, 2001, p. iv).
Unfortunately, the National Center on Educational
Statistics (NCES) also found that 5 to 17-year-olds without a
disability were significantly more likely to use computers and
the Internet than their peers with disabilities. Furthermore,
even among students with disabilities it is likely that students
with intellectual disabilities are less likely to have access to
and benefit from technology. The reasons for this are varied,
certainly, but essentially there have been few efforts to ensure
that computers and other technology devices are cognitively
accessible. The National Council on Disability (1996) noted:
“…other than trying to make computers generally easier
to use, no specific features targeted at users with cognitive
/ language impairments are known to be part of current
computer design, nor have any been included in any of
the design guidelines that would not have been included
in the set of guidelines for making products easier to use
by this population.”
This article overviews technology use by students with
intellectual disabilities, with a particular focus on electronic
and information technologies, such as computers, that are
widely used in education. Issues pertaining to barriers to such
use for this population are also examined.
TECHNOLOGY USE BY STUDENTS WITH
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES
There are only a few studies examining the degree to
which students with intellectual disabilities use technology.
Derer, Polsgrove, and Rieth (1996) investigated assistive
technology (AT) use in classrooms by surveying teachers who
worked with students with disabilities. These researchers
found that students with intellectual disabilities constituted
between 10% and 23% of students with disabilities using AT,
and that 34% of students with intellectual disabilities were
using some form of AT. Derer and colleagues identified six
barriers to technology use for students with disabilities,
including locating and procuring equipment, lack of time for
training students and teachers to use the equipment as well as
time to obtain and prepare equipment for use, high cost of
devices and the lack of funds to access devices or services, and
teacher knowledge about and training in the area of assistive
technology.
The Arc, a national association on intellectual
disabilities, conducted a national survey of parents regarding
the use of technology by their school-age son or daughter with
Technology Use by Students with
Intellectual Disabilities: An Overview
MICHAEL L. WEHMEYER
SEAN J. SMITH
SUSAN B. PALMER
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
DANIEL K. DAVIES
ABLELINK TECHNOLOGIES
Technology is a prevalent feature of educational environments today. Unfortunately, in too
many cases students with intellectual disabilities do not have access to or are not able to use
such technologies. This article overviews the literature pertaining to the use of technology by
students with intellectual disabilities, examines characteristics of this population that impact
technology use, and provides a review of the literature pertaining to technology use by
students with intellectual disabilities across several functional domain areas.
Journal of Special Education Technology. 19(4), Fall 2004
Overview of Technology Use8
Journal of Special Education Technology
an intellectual disability (Wehmeyer, 1999). The survey
consisted of five areas of questions focusing on the use of
technology for a specific purpose: (a) mobility technology
devices, (b) hearing and vision technology devices, (c)
communication technology devices, (d) home adaptations,
and (e) environmental control and independent living devices.
An additional set of questions tapped into the student's use of
personal computers. Specifically, the survey solicited
information about technology use in each functional area and
computer use and availability, unmet needs with regard to
each of the functional areas and computer use, barriers to
technology use, training to use the technology, and
satisfaction with technology use.
Although a wide array of devices were used by students
with intellectual disabilities, the most striking finding was
that in four of the five use-specific areas, the percentage of
students who could potentially benefit from assistive devices
but did not currently have access to such devices was greater
than the percentage of students who currently used such
devices. Cost was the greatest barrier identified, followed by
information about devices and device complexity.
With regard to computer use, 68% of respondents
indicated there was a computer in their home, and an
additional 15% indicated that their son or daughter had
access to a computer in another environment, mostly in
school programs. When asked to identify what the student
with an intellectual disability did with the computer, most
noted educational activities. For respondents whose family
member did not use computers either at home or elsewhere,
78% indicated they believed that their family member could
benefit from a computer. The most frequently cited barrier to
computer use was the cost or lack of funds, followed by the
lack of training available, lack of information about what the
computer could do to benefit the family member, the
complexity of the device, and the lack of assessment.
In summary, The Arc’s survey found that students with
intellectual disabilities generally underutilized technology. In
most functional-use areas, more students who might benefit
from assistive technology devices did not have them than
students who did. Device cost, training, assessment, and
complexity were identified as primary barriers. Encouragingly,
however, 83% of students had access to a computer
somewhere, although the range of activities for which these
computers were used was limited. The survey did not
determine Internet use, but as explored subsequently, there is
reason to believe that many people with cognitive disabilities
have only limited access to the Internet.
BARRIERS TO TECHNOLOGY USE BY STUDENTS
WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES
There are several reasons students with intellectual
disabilities do not use technology, but two seem particularly
important; the characteristics of students with intellectual
disabilities that limit their technology use and the lack of
universal design features that take into account issues of
cognitive accessibility.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL
DISABILITY THAT IMPACT TECHNOLOGY USE
The Arc’s study focused mainly on barriers external to
the learner, like funding, training, or maintenance. However,
one of these external barriers, device complexity, is in essence
a function of learner characteristics and the abilities students
bring to bear in using technology. Characteristics of learners
with intellectual disabilities typically involve impairments in
the following cognitive ability domains: (a) language,
communication, and auditory reception, (b) reasoning, idea
production, and cognitive speed, (c) memory and learning, (d)
visual perception, and, (e) knowledge and achievement
(Carroll, 1993).
In general, to promote technology use by students in this
population, educators need to consider issues pertaining to
these areas of limitation in cognitive abilities and ensure that
technology adequately addresses them. We have recently
conducted comprehensive examinations of the impact of
these limitations on technology use by students and adults
with intellectual disabilities (Wehmeyer, Smith, and Davies,
in press; Wehmeyer, Smith, Palmer, Davies, & Stock, 2004)
and briefly summarize the findings from these examinations
in this section.
Language and Communication Ability
and Auditory Reception
Impairments in language and communication ability
impact technology use in several ways. Impairments in
receptive and expressive communication skills limit the
degree to which some students with intellectual disabilities
will be able to utilize technology, particularly the expanding
class of telecommunication technologies. Additionally, a
growing means of inputting information used by technology
(e.g., computer programs) involves speech input devices.
Problems of speech articulation pose barriers in both cases,
but other factors pose problems with these and other
technologies. Similarly, more complex verbal instructions,
such as those often found in voice mail systems, may limit
use for people with cognitive impairments.
Impairments in reading and writing abilities also
introduce barriers to effective technology use. The most
obvious is often that the primary input mode to access a wide
array of computer technology involves typing or, with newer
handwriting transcription technologies, writing abilities. Even
when input is not required, most software programs require
rather high levels of reading ability to navigate. Many
instructions to technology use and maintenance are written,
Wehmeyer 9
Journal of Special Education Technology
often in overly complex formats that people with intellectual
disabilities cannot read or understand. Although the
technology field is increasingly embracing the use of more
universally accepted graphics to communicate information,
most technology continues to rely primarily on text to present
program options and provide instructions to users.
Technology devices often emit tones and other sounds
intended to convey meaning. Often, however, it is difficult to
discern their meaning even for experienced technology users.
With computers, the audio signal is many times accompanied
by a text message in a message box or somewhere else on the
computer screen. Technology developers generally assume the
ability for users to read the accompanying text message. The
need to read to understand the meaning of the audio signal
thus limits the number of users with intellectual disabilities
who can understand the computer-generated message.
The language involved in technology use is often not
consistent with that of everyday communication.
Terminology used in some technology systems is often
complex and may introduce new definitions of common
terms. For example, a menu in a computer program, while
conceptually similar (i.e., an array of choices) to the common
use of menu at a restaurant, may confuse a student with an
intellectual disability. Many examples of these language-
related barriers can be identified by considering the terms used
in common software applications (e.g., file, tools, window,
drive). Use of terms with multiple meanings and abstract
metaphors (e.g., files, folders) can pose barriers to people with
intellectual disabilities, who respond to language based on a
more literal, concrete representation of the world.
Reasoning, Idea Production, and Cognitive Speed
Reasoning abilities involve capacities in areas such as
sequential reasoning (i.e., deductive, logical, and verbal
reasoning, symbol manipulation, match problems), inductive
ability (i.e., requiring a person to inspect a class of stimulus
materials to infer a common characteristic), and quantitative
reasoning (e.g., those requiring reasoning based on
mathematical properties and relations, including critical
evaluation, arithmetic reasoning and problem solving, math
aptitude, and number series, classification and operations).
Idea Production refers to abilities required for individuals to
produce ideas and communicate them, including ideational
fluency, naming facility (i.e., naming common concepts),
associational fluency (i.e., producing words/concept that are
associated), expressional fluency, word fluency, sensitivity to
problems, originality/creativity, figural fluency (i.e., producing
original drawings or sketches), and figural flexibility (i.e.,
solving figurative problems).
In that these domains encompass abilities that are
considered to be at or near the core of what is ordinarily meant
by intelligence, it follows that they significantly impact the
ability of students with intellectual disabilities to use
technology. For example, virtually all appliances, devices, and
software systems require some level of sequential reasoning,
even if it is as simple as having the ability to assess whether
the system is turned on or not. This may be true for a wide
range of simple to complex technologies, from knowing
whether the iron is on, to activating an augmentative
communication system. To the more complex side of things,
most computer programs are complex and interactive,
requiring the user to constantly take actions and draw
conclusions from the system’s reaction as to what is the most
likely next move.
The impact of limitations in numeracy on technology use
can also be seen in the many systems that involve numerical
comprehension and manipulation. From setting a stove
temperature and dialing a telephone to using calculators and
entering data, situations abound where limitations in
numeracy skills impact technology use. Limitations in this
area can be compensated for by providing non-numerical
interventions to improve access, such as in picture-based
speed dial telephones or special markings on dials or switches
to cue the user to a specific setting or switch when many
choices are available.
Mainstream computer programs invariably offer a myriad
of interface choices at any given time, many of them providing
multiple input options for the same output (e.g., text menu,
key board shortcuts, button toolbars). Specialized computer
programs can be created that utilize a limited number of
repetitive processes that are largely linear in nature. This
means that at any given time while interacting with the
software either a single choice is available for the next step, or
system-generated cues such as audio prompts guide the user
to the next-most-likely action. Other examples of limiting
choice options to make technologies more accessible include
desktop software that provides access to a limited set of
computer features or augmentative communication device
and keyboard overlays that reduce or reprogram available keys.
Other technologies present their own challenges to the
capacity of students with cognitive impairments to reason
abstractly. Communication devices often include
customizable pictures or text buttons that, when pressed,
speak the indicated word or phrase. To provide added
functionality, most of these devices include a feature that
allows the user to create different overlays, or layers, so that
more words or phrases can be accessed. For example, a typical
device may have 16 buttons that can be programmed to speak
a designated phrase. But an additional switch allows the user
to activate another layer of programming so that the same 16
buttons can speak entirely different phrases. However, many
of these devices are not usable by students with mental
retardation, due in part to the inability to conceive of these
different layers.
Overview of Technology Use10
Journal of Special Education Technology
Memory and Learning Skills
Mainstream technology interfaces are often complex as
developers seek to provide users with a wide array of program
features that, in the end, require the student to learn and
remember multiple steps to complete a process. Too often this
occurs at the expense of simplicity of use. Thus, while many
students without cognitive disabilities may find these
interfaces challenging, their complexity often renders the
technology system unusable by students with intellectual
disabilities. For example, many students with intellectual
disabilities have difficulty performing personal budgeting
activities independently. There are now several commercially
available software programs that automate the functions
associated with balancing a checkbook, paying bills online,
and maintaining a budget. With such supports, students with
intellectual disabilities may only need to be taught how to
input data, as opposed to the skills related to math, which are
less attainable for many students. However, almost without
exception, the interfaces for these software programs are too
complex and confusing for use by people with cognitive
impairments and, in the end, they are unable to use them to
perform the function for which they are intended.
When considering technology supports for students with
memory and learning limitations, technology designers must
provide intuitive interfaces without overwhelming students
with too many options. Often it is better to provide a single,
consistent approach to performing a program function than
providing multiple methods for accomplishing the same task.
For example, in most Windows-based word processing
systems, computer users can copy and paste text in a variety
of ways: (a) highlighting the text and making appropriate
selections [edit – copy – edit – paste] from the text toolbar and
dropdown menu, (b) highlighting the text and clicking on the
copy icon on the toolbar, followed by the paste icon, or (c)
highlighting text and right-clicking on the highlighted text,
then selecting copy and paste from that menu. Such a range
of options may be too complex for some students with
intellectual disability for whom it may be simpler to stick to
one modality (e.g., using the icons on the toolbar) across
multiple task activities. In general, devices that require users
to memorize and learn long sequences of commands to
succeed present barriers for students with intellectual
disabilities.
Visual Perception Abilities
Visual Perception Abilities refer to the cognitive
component of vision (i.e., as opposed to impairments to
sensation, such as blindness), including impairments in
visualization, spatial relations, closure speed (i.e., the ability
to combine disparate visual stimuli into a meaningful whole),
closure flexibility (i.e., ability to manipulate, visually, multiple
objects or configurations, such as hidden figure tasks), serial
Other examples may be as simple as failure to recognize
or understand the meaning of when the computer cursor
arrow turns into a hand icon when it is placed over a clickable
element of a Web site, or in understanding the difference
between a single click, a double click or a right-click. Even the
most basic of software features—such as in the practice of
disabling or graying-out buttons when they have no practical
use—often are too subtle to be recognized by users with
cognitive disabilities.
Using technology on a regular basis often entails problem
identification and problem solving by the technology user that
may serve as a barrier to people with intellectual disabilities.
Many technology users rely on their ability to generalize
previous learning to problem solve unexpected occurrences.
However, many individuals with intellectual disabilities have
limited ability to generalize learning from one situation to
another and therefore do not develop the workaround
strategies that users of technology develop to overcome
problems. This may be due to the learning demands related
to the acquisition of knowledge and skills to use a program or
device, lack of experience with the technology, excessive
complexity, poor interface design, program or system bugs
and failures, or conflicts with other technologies.
Cognitive Speed abilities include skills in areas such as
rate-of-test-taking and reaction time. Limitations in these
abilities may impact technology use. Current technology
devices generally have ample processing power, and do not
require users to wait for very long for actions to be
accomplished. One exception, however, is the area of utilizing
dynamic content and applications delivered over the Internet.
While access speeds are increasing rapidly, there still can be
delays when using Web applications due to the type of
connection as well as the type of media being delivered (e.g.,
streaming audio and video). The inability to detect when to
wait for a program or Web page to catch up after making user
inputs can lead to errors as users may click buttons multiple
times waiting for the program to do what it is supposed to do,
without realizing that the first button press was sufficient.
The ability to respond quickly to operate technology
devices can also be an important factor in technology
operations for students with intellectual disabilities. For
example, some ATMs require users to make inputs within
very short time spans. If a person is slow at making an input,
the ATM will either display a text message such as “Do you
want to continue?” — which many people with intellectual
disabilities would not be able to read — or may simply end the
activity. Some ATMs, when expelling the ATM card for the
user to take, sound an audio tone for a short time and, if the
card is not taken quickly, the card may be taken back into the
machine and kept. Cognitive speed limitations that impair a
student’s ability to use technology fast enough can introduce
barriers to technology use.
Wehmeyer 11
Journal of Special Education Technology
perceptual integration (i.e., integrating sequential images),
spatial scanning (i.e., speed in exploring a visual field),
perceptual speed (i.e., speed of finding desired images or
stimuli), imagery (i.e., ability to image or visualize
performance or action sequence), length estimation,
perception of illusion, and perceptual alternations. These
factors relate to the abilities in “searching the visual field,
apprehending the forms, shapes, and positions of objects as
visually perceived, [and] forming mental representations”
(Carroll, p. 304).
Limitations in visual perceptual ability can have a
significant impact on one’s capacity to operate software
programs and in particular, software operating systems. As
graphical user interfaces using pointing devices such as a
mouse or touchpad have evolved and become the dominant
mode of interacting with computers, the ability to scan, locate
and act upon key information on the display screen has
become of paramount importance. Attending to relevant
environmental cues can often be difficult for students with
intellectual disabilities, and this difficulty also exists when
viewing complex displays, with potentially many windows,
buttons, and other screen elements. Larger computer
monitors combined with increasing display resolutions
provide the capability to populate the computer display with
many windows and graphical elements including icons,
menus, and other images. Without careful attention, screen
clutter can be very distracting and can make managing a
computer session very difficult or impossible for users with
visual spatial limitations
Another significant limitation can result from difficulty
mastering the skill of moving the mouse or other pointing
devices and associating that with moving the arrow or pointer
on screen. With most computers, the predominant input
control device is a mouse, trackball, or touchpad. The ability
to successfully correlate hand movements with the movement
of the arrow on screen is necessary to use these standard input
devices. Touch screens are often a good alternative given their
direct cause effect function, but they are still more expensive
and are not standard equipment with off-the-shelf commercial
systems. In addition, touch screens are only useful if the
software applications that will be used have a user interface
designed with larger buttons and controls to allow them to be
selected with a finger on the display.
Additionally, visual perceptual impairments can impact a
student’s interactions with virtually any type of technology
device, including difficulty in following instructions for the
device use, difficulty with operating device controls, and so forth.
Knowledge and Achievement Abilities
Knowledge and achievement abilities involve general
school achievement, verbal information and knowledge,
information and knowledge in mathematics and science,
technical and mechanical knowledge, and knowledge of
behavioral content (personal-social interaction knowledge).
Computers are common tools for acquiring new knowledge
and generating new works of achievement and are used to
learn about nearly any topic as well as to produce, such as in
writing, composing music, or generating artistic works. The
majority of software applications that have been used for
students with intellectual disabilities to acquire new
knowledge or abilities have been developed for other groups,
primarily for children. Thus, age-appropriateness has often
been absent when it comes to learning software for students
with intellectual disabilities, as few applications have been
designed with the appropriate user interfaces and with ranges
of appropriate content. Early reading or basic math programs
may be beneficial for some students, but generally the
programs that are available are not age-appropriate for older
students and adults with intellectual disabilities.
Programs for writing, such as word processors, may be
useful for a minority of users with intellectual disabilities
who have attained some level of literacy skills. Better
success may be achieved in using painting and graphics
programs, although these vary greatly in complexity of
operation. Simpler-to-use drawing programs allow users
with intellectual disabilities a vehicle for artistic expression,
but there are also barriers to independent use. Mouse skills
are usually required, which often presents a barrier.
Alternative input devices can be used effectively, however,
including graphics tablets or touch screens. Saving files and
printing the finished product may also be difficult as menus
and print options may be difficult to navigate. There
appears to be a great opportunity for innovation in the area
of creating software applications that can be used
independently by individuals with various levels of
cognitive ability to generate creative content.
FEATURES OF TECHNOLOGY THAT
ADDRESS USER CHARACTERISTICS
Universal Design
Journal of Special Education Technology (JSET) readers
will be familiar with the principles of universal design as
applied to technology design, including equitable use,
flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible
information, tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size
and space for approach and appropriate use (The Center for
Universal Design, 1997). If all technology devices took into
account all of these principles, it is quite likely that many
more devices would be useable by students with intellectual
disabilities.
However, several might be particularly important in light
of the previous discussion on cognitive abilities and the
impact of limitations in these areas on technology use. First,
Overview of Technology Use12
Journal of Special Education Technology
disabilities. This committee identified four classes of
strategies that achieve this: (a) redundant, user-controlled
modality of information, (b) streamlined, user-controlled
amount and rate of information, (c) procedural support, and
(c) content organization.
Strategies to ensure that the device design contains
redundant, user-controlled information include the use of
visual examples (e.g., diagrams, graphic icons, line drawings),
in addition to or instead of text, providing information both
in visual and auditory formats, providing descriptions of
pictures, captions, and so forth, and allowing multiple
methods that allow users to locate and use controls (e.g.,
shape, size, texture, color, labels, voice output) (TAC, 1999).
Allowing users to control the amount and rate of information
and streamlining information provided is the second strategy
identified. Such strategies support students with attention
and memory limitations by allowing a user to control aspects
(i.e., size, placement, appearance) of display elements, by
providing simple, standardized layouts for devices and
controls, presenting information in a step-by-step fashion,
keeping needed information available until the user dismisses
it instead of timing display changes such as information on
the screen of a digital phone, eliminating functions that
require simultaneous action, providing mechanisms to speed
up, slow down, or repeat information, and using select-and-
confirm strategies that involve users confirming they have
completed a step in the process (TAC, 1999). Procedural
support strategies address executive function, planning, and
sequencing issues, reducing memory load and limiting
distraction. Such strategies include providing step-by-step
instructions, cue sequences and feedback cues in multiple
formats, the use of wizards to offer help and support
operation, and automating more complex aspects of the
technology use (e.g., storing phone numbers in memory).
Finally, content strategies include keeping language simple,
highlighting key information or providing summaries of
information, and so forth.
TECHNOLOGY USE BY STUDENTS WITH
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES: LITERATURE REVIEW
T
echnology use relevant to students with intellectual
disabilities will, necessarily, go beyond how technology is used
in the classroom, primarily because the educational programs
of students with intellectual disabilities involve content in
both core academic content areas and in functional, life skills
areas offered in school and in the community. So, in addition
to the use of technology for traditional instructional purposes,
such as computer assisted instruction, to promote academic
progress and achievement, students with disabilities can
benefit from technology to support learning in a wide array of
life skills areas. In this section we examine the literature
pertaining to the use of technology by students with
devices that abide by the flexibility in use principle inherently
accommodate for use by a wider range of individual
preferences and abilities. This includes providing options that
accommodate for users’ accuracy and precision, and adapt to
a user’s pace. For example, computer programs providing
multiple input and output options (e.g., auditory, visual, icon)
fit this category, as do telephones that have larger buttons
with more space between numbers (The Center for Universal
Design, 1997). Issues of simplicity and intuitiveness of use are
obviously important for students with intellectual disabilities.
As noted previously, many devices are overly complex and
operate counter to users’ expectations, including common
appliances such as VCRs and alarm clocks. Universally-
designed devices also typically provide some supports
(prompting, graphic, visual, or audio directions) for use. The
principle of perceptible information requires not only that
information needed to operate the device be easily seen, but
also that such information be provided in multiple modes,
with redundant presentation of information.
Finally, an important and often overlooked feature for
students with intellectual disabilities is the principle of
tolerance for error. As noted previously, students with
intellectual disabilities frequently make mistakes in using
technology and if that error results in a failed use, the device
becomes essentially impossible for students to use.
Developing technology that never encounters unexpected
errors is virtually impossible. However, given the difficulty
many students with intellectual disabilities have responding
to unexpected errors, it is imperative that priority be placed on
identifying highly reliable technology supports for these
students. Device failure is often a function of device
complexity. The more complex a device is and the more
features it has, the more likely it is to have unexpected errors.
At times it may be more important to identify less complex
devices with fewer features if they provide the benefit of
greater reliability. Moreover, many devices have, in essence, a
one-strike-and-you’re-out policy where one error (e.g., wrong
key stroke, wrong button) results in the failure of the user’s
session. For example, the value of a dialogue box that prompts
you to confirm a selection (e.g., deletion, exit) becomes
evident when you inadvertently hit the exit icon without
having saved work on an ongoing activity. The dialogue box
allows you to select Cancel and does not immediately delete
unsaved work. Students with intellectual disabilities need
devices that minimize the potential for error, but also which
allow errors to occur without dire consequences.
Another example of how features of technology address
the characteristics of users with intellectual disabilities
involves recommendations from the Telecommunications
Access Committee (1999), which was commissioned to look
at engineering and design features that would ensure access to
telecommunications technology for people with cognitive
Wehmeyer 13
Journal of Special Education Technology
intellectual disabilities within seven functional use areas: (a)
communication, (b) mobility, (c) environmental control, (d)
activities of daily living and community inclusion, (e)
education, (f) employment, and (g) recreation and leisure.
Communication
Being able to communicate is, of course, a critical skill
that facilitates student interactions with others, including
peers and adults, and enables students to meet their basic
needs. Romski and Sevick (1988) noted that the field has
adopted a broad definition of communication, including
vocalizations, gestures, and other modes of expression, from
among which technology plays a central role. A number of
research studies have identified the importance of using
technology to provide alternative means of communication
for persons with multiple and cognitive impairments
(Blischak, 1999; Meyers, 1994; Schepis, Reid, Behrmann &
Sutton, 1998).
Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)
involves the use of technology in the form of voice output
communication aids (VOCA) and synthesized speech, but
may also include a wide array of options for communication
from low-tech message boards, signing, symbols, pictures and
visual prompts to very complex technology (Blamires, 1999;
Blischak & Lloyd, 1996; Hooper & Hasselbring, 1985).
Sigafoos and Ianoco (1993) suggested that, in selecting
such a device, a student and his or her family, in conjunction
with a wider team of related services personnel, should look
at such factors as symbol options (e.g., real objects,
photographs or line drawings); the representation of the
message and how that message is accessed (e.g., direct
selection, eye gaze, scanning); the options for output such as
visual or speech output; and the expandability/ portability of
the device, related to storage capacity for communication
units and the size/weight of the device.
Research concerning AAC and individuals with
intellectual disabilities has focused on diverse, but related
aspects of the communication process, including
communicative intent (Dicarlo & Banajee, 2000), social
interaction (Abrahamson, Romski & Sevcik, 1989),
functional communication (Dyches, 1998), symbol
recognition (Abrahamson, et al., 1989), and communication
to encourage positive behavior support (Danquah, Mate-Kole
& Zehr, 1996). Dicarlo and Banajee (2000) evaluated the
effects of VOCA devices for young children with significant
developmental delays who were not verbal. The Alpha Talker
(Prentke-Romich) and a Dual Rocking Lever Switch (Enabling
Devices) using Picture Communication Symbols (Mayer-
Johnson) were used with two children who were two-years-
old. Increased communication initiations were found for
these children following baseline observation and training on
the use of one of these devices for each child. At any age,
VOCA devices: (a) lessen the burden on the listener, (b) serve
as a means of getting attention, rather than having to gain
attention first before communication starts, and (c) facilitate
typical communication by storing messages in advance
(Dicarlo & Banajee, 2000; Mustonen, Locke, Reichle,
Solbrack & Londgren, 1991). Use of AAC technology has also
been shown to improve speech comprehension, speech
production, improved attention span, visual attention in a
visual-motor task, and improved social interaction in a study
conducted with children with intellectual disabilities
(Abrahamson, et al., 1989).
Studies have shown the benefit of people with intellectual
disabilities using a simple switch to produce functional
communication using a tape-recorded message (Dyches,
1998) or to signal the need to continue an activity (Gee,
Graham, Goetz, Oshima & Yoshioka, 1991). They have also
been shown as effective to support a person to demonstrate a
preference or make requests for activities (Wacker, Wiggins,
Fowler & Berg, 1988).
Computers can be useful as AAC devices for individuals
with intellectual disabilities. Hetzroni, Rubin and Konkol
(2002) showed that a classroom PC was used effectively as
AAC incorporating eye gaze technology for young girls with
Rett Syndrome. Similarly, the System for Augmenting
Language (SAL); (Romski & Sevcik, 1996) instructional
approach uses computer-based speech output devices to pair
symbols with English words. Partners in communicative
interactions learn to use the device to augment their speech
input to the participant’s symbol input, and ongoing
resources and feedback to support both communication
partners are put in place.
Mobility
Limitations in mobility have implications for most
functional life areas, such as employment, recreation, and
community inclusion. Despite the pervasiveness of
limitations related to mobility among people with intellectual
disabilities, there is little research evaluating the use of
technology applications to the problem and, in most cases,
this literature base has focused only on adult populations,
typically adults with cognitive disabilities who are aging and
losing ambulation. Nevertheless, some of this research has
potential implications for students.
For example, Lancioni, Olivia, and Gnocchini (1996)
taught two adults with intellectual disabilities and visual
impairments to use a radio/light system to assist in indoor
travel in familiar and unfamiliar environments. The device
was capable of turning the lights on as the user approached,
and subsequently turning them off as the user passed a light
source. Researchers programmed both the device and light
sources for the appropriate route during test sessions. Results
demonstrated that not only were the two subjects able to use
14 Overview of Technology Use
Journal of Special Education Technology
intellectual disability. Lancioni, O’Reilly, Oliva, and Coppa
(2001a, 2001b) showed that two boys with multiple
disabilities could use microswitches to control aspects of their
environment, providing a greater range of response options
and opportunities for environmental input than without such
switches. Hammel, Lai, and Heller (2002) conducted a
longitudinal study of people with developmental disabilities
who were aging, and found that a majority of persons had
better function with regard to community living outcomes
with the use of AT.
Education
The use of computer assisted instruction (CAI) has
become more prevalent in schools, though the majority of
studies examining CAI focused on commercial math and
spelling programs with students with learning disabilities
(Hofmeister, 1984; Higgins & Boone, 1990; Horton et al.,
1988). For students with intellectual disabilities, studies of
the impact of CAI have focused on basic skills and the
practice and automation of these skills. Because CAI can be
individualized, repetitive, and systematic in its presentation
of material, it has been found to be particularly promising for
providing extended practice needed to promote the
automaticity of basic skills (e.g., mathematics, word
recognition) (Kinney, Stevens, & Schuster, 1988).
Lin, Podell and Rein’s (1991) study of word recognition
improvement typifies a series of comparisons between CAI
and traditional instruction. In this study, 45 students with
mild intellectual disabilities used a word attack program to
strengthen word recognition skills. On the computer screen,
the word was first introduced, followed by a phrase, and then
a series of complete sentences. The outcome of the drill and
practice CAI was an increase in the response rate for students,
but no significant change in the number of correct words
identified. The increased response rate was attributed to
improvement in students’ ability to monitor their performance
as well as the immediacy of the feedback and reinforcement in
the CAI condition. Similarly, Podell, T
ournaki-Rein, and Lin
(1992) found a decrease on average from 22 seconds to 7
seconds for 71 individuals with a mild intellectual disabilities
practicing addition. This exemplifies findings from a series of
CAI studies (e.g., Margalit & Roth, 1989; Podell, Tournaki-
Rein, & Lin, 1992) that found an increase in response rate but
not a significant improvement in correct responses. Results are
consistent across an array of academic content areas,
including, addition and subtraction, word recognition, and
spelling (Farmer, Klein, & Bryson, 1992).
Lin, Podell and Tournaki-Rein (1994) examined CAI and
mathematic skills in students with and without intellectual
disabilities. In the addition portion of their study they found
minimal difference, but in the subtraction portion differences
between the CAI and pencil-and-paper conditions was found.
the system to orient and move independently in the familiar
environment, they were also able to successfully generalize
use of the light guiding system to an unfamiliar environment.
Other studies have dealt with more common mobility
technologies or addressed gross motor movement for people
with intellectual disabilities, as opposed to destination-based
movement issues. May (1983) demonstrated that a
wheelchair user with severe cognitive and physical disabilities
could benefit from a switch-activated system that played
music when she lifted her head into a desired position.
Similarly, Horn and Warren (1987) used a computer system
that activated toy reinforcers to substantially increase motor
skills (e.g., pulling, kneeling, sitting up) in two young children
with severe, multiple disabilities.
Activities of Daily Living, Environmental Control,
and Community Integration
Technology use can support greater independence in
activities of daily living, control over one’s environment, and
enhanced community integration (Anderson, Sherman,
Sheldon & McAdam, 1997; Felce & Emerson, 2001;
Lancioni, 1994; Johnson & Miltenberger, 1996). In general,
the impact of technology use on community inclusion has not
been examined directly and is inferred from the capacity of
technology to support greater independence in daily living
activities and in environmental control, as well as the
potential for technology to support greater mobility around
the community.
A case study by Lancioni, O’Reilly & Campodonico
(2002) supported the efficacy of audio prompts delivered via a
portable tape player in reducing the time needed for a young
adult with multiple disabilities to complete dressing and
washing activities. Similarly, Browning and White (1986)
demonstrated the efficacy of interactive video-based
instructional materials to promote greater community
participation and functional life skills for students with
intellectual disabilities, and Langone and colleagues have
shown the efficacy of video-based instructional materials to
promote community integration skills like grocery shopping
(Langone, Shade, Clees, & Day, 1999; Mechling, Gast, &
Langone, 2002).
Riley, Bodine, Hills, Gane, Sanstrum, and Hagerman
(2001) showed that use of The Tickle Box (Adaptive Learning
Company), a reminder system that includes a modified pager
to help people manage their own activities, by a young woman
with fragile X syndrome enabled her to independently
complete more daily living tasks than when she was not using
the device.
Control over one’s environment is also an important
component of increased independence to which technology
can contribute (Hammel, 2000), though there are few studies
that have examined this with regard to individuals with
15
Wehmeyer
Journal of Special Education Technology
students to understand directions, discriminate the worth of
coins, and develop appropriate social skills.
From early examinations, researchers have expanded
multimedia applications reflecting a constructivist approach
to learning. Rather than teacher-directed instruction,
multimedia-based efforts have fostered learning through
media tools. According to Langone and colleagues (1999) a
simple multimedia computer-based instruction program can
be used to establish match-to-sample skills, as well as
subsequent generalization of those skills to the natural setting
for students with moderate to severe mental retardation.
Using photographs of cereal boxes as part of an interactive
multimedia tutorial, Langone and his colleagues increased the
likelihood that selection of specified cereal boxes would
generalize to the grocery store in the community.
Other studies have employed media, including video
illustrations, to serve as training illustrations for
understanding, application and subsequent use in the
classroom or community setting (Mechling, Gast, & Langone,
2002; Morgan & Salzberg, 1992). The outcome reported by
Haring et al., (1995) and others is that individuals with
intellectual disabilities can learn skills via rich media-based
illustrations in one setting that will generalize to another
setting (e.g., community, home).
Finally, Lieber and Semmel (1989) conducted a study to
examine whether grouping students impacted social and
instructional interaction between children with disabilities
and their typically developing peers. The purpose of the study
was to compare social and instructional interaction, by way of
microcomputers, based on group configuration and
alterations to task difficulty. Although the primary focus was
not on inclusive practices, per se, the findings from this study
have implications with regard to the potential role that
technology can play in promoting inclusive practices for
students with mental retardation. Lieber and Semmel found
that when paired with typically developing peers with the use
of computer technology as the focal point, children with
intellectual disabilities were more likely to interact with peers,
make positive self-evaluation statements, and make negative
peer-evaluation statements.
Employment
Employment is an area of both importance and
dependency for people with intellectual disabilities, and
technology use has become an increasingly important way to
support them to gain and maintain employment. In 1987,
Gaylord-Ross identified the use of instructional technology as
an important element in successful supported employment
efforts. While the use of technology for job training and job
skill development, as emphasized by Gaylord-Ross, is still
important, the emphasis in this functional area has grown to
include the use of technology to provide on-the-job supports
Faster response time was reported and attributed to the
inherent features of the computer-based program. Similarly,
Leung (1994) found that teaching simple addition to children
with intellectual disabilities using a computer could improve
sustainable performance and generalize to paper-and-pencil
applications and related tests.
The application of CAI to students with intellectual
disabilities has also been shown to benefit skill generalization.
For instance, Stevens, Blackhurst, and Slaton (1991) delivered
instruction on word recognition and spelling via CAI. Student
spelling and word recognition performance improved
significantly and outcomes indicated that immediate
generalization from computer training to teacher-directed
handwritten format can occur without the need of continuous
computer-assisted feedback. Likewise, Jaspers and Van
Lieshout (1994) showed that students who received
technology-based external modeling instruction outperformed
other children.
Distinct from CAI but equally important in education is
research conducted to examine the use of computers or
related technologies to assist in the continued engagement of
students in the learning experience or a functional task
(LeGrice & Blampied, 1994). Lancioni and his colleagues
conducted a series of studies to explore the effectiveness of
technology and the role it can play in promoting task
performance (Lancioni et al., 1999; Lancioni et al., 2000;
Lancioni, O’Reilly, Campdonico, & Mantini, 2001). In these
studies, an electronic device, similar to a PDA, emitted
auditory and tactile prompts (i.e., vibrations) and offered step-
by-step instructions in the task to be completed. Lancioni and
his colleagues found that the computer-based strategy
improved performance across tasks for individuals with
moderate to severe intellectual disabilities.
Briggs et al., (1990) examined prompt systems for
adolescents with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities
focusing on a self-operated auditory prompting system. Like
Lancioni and colleagues, Briggs et al. observed generalization of
the use of the self-prompting device across settings as well as
maintenance of the skill and the problem-solving behavior.
LeGrice and Blampied (1994) integrated video prompts to
support successful completion of a task. Unlike Lancioni and his
colleagues, the video prompting involved preparing the individual
to correctly perform the steps. The focus here was to transfer the
video prompts to the personal operation of a computer.
Studies of the use of video prompting that emerged in
special education technology literature during the late 1980s
have examined the impact of this technology across disability
categories, including students with intellectual disabilities
(Woodward & Rieth, 1997). Both Cuvo and Klatt (1992) and
Wissick, Lloyd, and Kinzie (1992) used multimedia
technologies to assist learners with intellectual disabilities to
learn to tell time, with the latter also focusing on teaching
16 Overview of Technology Use
Journal of Special Education Technology
and real time assistance to workers with intellectual
disabilities. In addition, technology is being used to teach
complex job related skills that do not pertain to a specific task
or activity, but rather the acquisition of positive behavioral
and social skills necessary for successful employment (Storey
& O’Neil, 1996; Morgan & Salzberg, 1992).
More recent examinations of technology use to improve
vocational outcomes for individuals with intellectual
disabilities have generally addressed two areas; improvement
of specific job task performance while minimizing human
supports from others (i.e., job coaches, supervisors) and
improvement of social and behavioral skills related to work
settings. Such applications of technology have generally
yielded positive vocational outcomes (Barkvik & Martsson,
2002; Davies, Stock & Wehmeyer, 2002a; Mitchell, Collins,
Shuster & Gassaway, 2000; Taber, Alberto & Frederick, 1998).
Teaching appropriate job-related social skills is an area
where technology has been applied to support workers with
intellectual disabilities. Mitchell and colleagues (2000) taught
three students with mild intellectual disabilities to use a
cassette recorder as an auditory prompting system to assist
with a variety of vocational skills in a middle school. The
ability of the students to learn to operate the recorder and
follow the instructions was assessed, as well as the ability to
generalize the acquired skills to another setting. In addition,
effects on skill maintenance were assessed. Students were
taught how to turn on the cassette recorder, listen to the
auditory instructions while wearing headphones, and to turn
off the cassette recorder after listening to the instruction and
hearing a beep. Students were instructed to verbalize the step
and then perform it. A multiple probe across behaviors design
was used and the results demonstrated that students were
able to acquire the targeted skills and that the skills did
transfer to another setting.
In another study, a portable cassette recorder with step-
by-step recorded prompts was used to evaluate the utility of a
self-operated auditory prompting system with five school-age
workers with moderate intellectual disabilities using prompts
delivered in one-word or multiple word instruction segments
(Taber, Alberto, & Frederick, 1998). Instructions were
presented in a to-do list format. Subjects were taught to press
the play button to listen to the task, and then stop the
recorder in between tasks. The number of successful
transitions from one task to another measured task
performance, as subjects had demonstrated great difficulty
moving from one task to the next independently in baseline
sessions. Results showed significant improvement in the
ability to change from one task to the next when using either
the single or multiple word auditory prompting system. There
were no significant differences found when comparing the
single and multiple word auditory prompting approaches.
Computer-based prompting devices with specialized
interfaces have been applied to support vocational tasks.
Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer (2002a) evaluated the impact of
a handheld computer based system designed to provide self-
directed audio and picture prompts on improving task
accuracy and independence in accomplishing two different
vocational assembly tasks, folding pizza boxes and packaging
a commercial software product. Ten adolescents and young
adults with intellectual disabilities performed each task with
and without the presence of the technology system. Results
indicated that the computerized prompting system
significantly improved task performance. In addition, these
gains were achieved with significantly greater independence,
as measured by the amount of assistance required from a job
coach to complete each task. In addition, subjects expressed
positive reactions as well as preference for using the
specialized prompting system.
In addition to technology applications for providing self-
directed prompting to facilitate task performance, research
has also addressed use of technology to promote time
management in vocational settings. Davies, Stock and
Wehmeyer (2002b) described a software program running on
a palmtop computer that can be used by supervisors, job
coaches or educators to create a picture and audio-based
scheduler that can be programmed to prompt users on
specific vocational activities at a particular time or according
to a pre-defined schedule of activities. At the prescribed time,
the handheld computer turns itself on and alerts the student
to the activity using a combination of audio and visual
alarms, a picture cue representing the event, and personalized
audio messages describing what the individual needs to do at
the particular time. Study participants were required to
initiate a number of tasks at specific times. An error was
recorded if the individual failed to initiate the activity at all, if
he or she did not initiate the activity within one minute of the
scheduled time, or if the activity was initiated too early.
Results showed significant improvement in the ability to
initiate tasks on schedule in response to the prompting
system as compared to baseline data.
Although studies of the application of technology in
supported employment have been sparse, extant evidence
suggests that technology systems, particularly those designed
to address support and user interface needs of individuals
with mental retardation, can improve vocational outcomes
for many individuals. These outcomes can also be sustained
over time, as demonstrated by Mann and Svorai (1994). Their
project demonstrated successful placement of 17 of 27
persons during a three-year demonstration project of
individuals who had utilized a computer training system to
learn skills necessary to retain basic computer jobs.
Recreation and Leisure
Applications of technology to the area of sports,
recreation, and leisure skills has considerable promise to
improve the quality of life of students with disabilities (Cain,
1984). Being able to fill spare time in purposeful ways is
important to one’s quality of life. Recreational programming
of age-appropriate skills can help to bridge the gap between
students with and without disabilities for inclusion in
community settings (Sedlak, Doyle & Schloss, 1982).
Toy use by children with intellectual disabilities has been
studied extensively. Particularly for young children with
multiple cognitive and sensory disabilities, toys using switches
and other technologies encourage play, motivate movement,
and support cause-effect learning. Switches are simple and
intuitive, and can be mastered with low physical effort (Bailey,
1993). Behrmann, Jones, and Wilds (1989) suggested that
technology can benefit young children to encourage learning,
recreation, and life skills. In fact, various sensory modalities
can be encouraged by technology use: Visual sensory input can
be supported by flashing and blinking light toys; auditory input
by tape recordings, music, sounds; and tactile input through
use of vibrating toys. There has been some discussion of the
motor skills (i.e., range of motion, press and release), visual
perceptual skills (i.e., visual tracking, figure ground), cognitive
or language skills (i.e., cause and effect, attention span that is
sustained and selective, object permanence, making choices),
and social skills (i.e., turn taking, following one-step
directions) needed for initial switch or technology use
(Behrman et al., 1989). However, these skills can be supported
in young or less capable individuals to encourage participation
for technology use.
Research also shows that older students with intellectual
disabilities can benefit from use of microswitch technologies.
In a multi-component study by Kennedy and Haring (1993),
recreational stimuli were used to provide a contingency for
choice. Participants used microswitches to request a change
related to recreation, and the use of this technology increased
the level of alertness and response to interactions by children
and adolescents with intellectual disabilities in school
settings.
Computer or video games provide age-appropriate,
socially acceptable opportunities to both participate in
preferred leisure and recreation activities and learn a number
of cognitive and eye-hand coordination skills. Sedlak, Doyle,
and Schloss (1982) investigated the ability of three
adolescents with severe intellectual disability to learn to play
a popular video game and generalize this skill to a community
setting. T
wo of the three students were able to accomplish
these objectives with a minimum of instruction and follow-
up. Obviously, the nature of computer and video games has
changed dramatically since this study was conducted, and
there is a need for more current information about this use of
technology by students with intellectual disabilities.
In another study, leisure skills, including playing cards,
selecting a television program, playing a sports videotape,
and playing a computer game, were taught to four
secondary students with intellectual and motor disabilities
(Collins, Hall & Branson, 1997). During generalization
these students were able to perform the tasks with little
prompting as monitored by peers without disabilities.
Increased interaction with non-disabled peers was also
supported through the students’ mutual interest in the
technology applications.
The World Wide Web has become a source of recreation
and leisure for many people. Barriers for students with
intellectual disability to use the Web include limited
opportunities to use computers, lack of appropriate and
cognitively accessible Internet-access software, and the
complexity of computer operating systems and amount of
reading required. Davies, Stock, and Wehmeyer (2001)
examined a prototype Web browser, Web Trek (AbleLink
Technologies), which was designed to provide access to the
Internet for individuals with cognitive disabilities. The
performance of 12 adolescents and young adults with
intellectual disabilities was compared on two browsers –
the Web Trek and Microsoft’s Internet Explorer. Measuring
independence, accuracy, and task completion, participants
showed significantly more success using the Web Trek
browser. The Web Trek was able to reduce screen clutter to
minimize confusing symbols, could be personalized to
support user’s preferences, used pictures and audio
prompts rather than text-based directions, and supported
error minimization to support universal design for access.
Recreational pursuits such as exercise and physical
fitness have also been supported with the use of technology. A
study by Stanish, McCubbin, Draheim, and Mars (2001)
measured the effects of leader support to facilitate
engagement in moderate to vigorous physical activity related
to aerobic dance with 17 adults with intellectual disabilities.
The program was video-based and lasted 10 weeks.
Participants were divided into two groups, one that had an
exercise leader. Through the video-based exercise activities,
people with mental retardation were able to engage in
recreational activities that also would lead to improved
health. Douglas, Douglas and Hett (1989) used technology to
provide reinforcement for a 14-year-old student with
moderate levels of intellectual disabilities to ride a stationary
bike so that a minimum amount of teacher supervision was
required for exercise to occur. Of the three conditions (i.e.,
television, flashing lights, or vibrator sound), the most
effective reinforcing consequence for the student’s exercise
behavior was vibrator sound. Another instance of exercise
management was a study completed by Ellis, Cress and
Spellman (1992) that used a digital kitchen timer and an
adapted lap counter to facilitate self-management of exercise
for five students with intellectual disabilities.
17
Wehmeyer
Journal of Special Education Technology
18 Overview of Technology Use
Journal of Special Education Technology
CONCLUSION
There is only limited information about the use of
technology by students with intellectual disabilities, and
while there is a need for more such efforts, there is sufficient
evidence that students with intellectual disabilities can
benefit from technology across multiple domains. The extant
literature base has a bit of a “let’s see if they can use it” feel
with regard to the application of technology solutions for
students with intellectual disabilities. In most cases, there is
little or no evidence that the technology evaluated was
designed to take into account issues of cognitive accessibility.
There needs to be more research examining the impact of
universal design features on technology use by students with
intellectual disabilities, not so much to evaluate whether or
not students can use the technology, but instead to investigate
what design features can, in fact, ensure such use and benefit.
Considering the characteristics of learners with intellectual
disabilities, such as those discussed in this article, is
important both for research and for technology design. In the
meantime, however, teachers should use information about
student characteristics and universal design features to
evaluate and select technology that will maximally benefit
students with intellectual disabilities.
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Michael Wehmeyer is Associate Professor in the Department
of Special Education at the University of Kansas. Sean Smith
is Assistant Professor in the Department of Special Education
at University of Kansas. Susan Palmer is Assistant Research
Professor in the Beach Center on Disability at the University
of Kansas. Daniel Davies is president of AbleLink
Technologies. Correspondence concerning this article should
be addressed to Michael Wehmeyer, Beach Center on
Disability, Room 3136, 1200 Sunnyside Ave., Lawrence, KS,
66045-7534. Email to: wehmeyer@ku.edu.
22
Journal of Special Education Technology
23Journal of Special Education Technology. 19(4), Fall 2004
Journal of Special Education Technology
In 1991, the Association for Retarded Citizens (ARC) of
the United States issued a position statement stating that
assistive technology (AT) could be a useful tool for individuals
with mental retardation. The Division on Mental Retardation
and Developmental Disabilities of the Council for
Exceptional Children published a position statement
recognizing that “persons with mental retardation and
developmental disabilities at all age levels and across cultures
may benefit for assistive technology devices and services”
(Parette, 1997, p. 267). In the same year, the 1997
Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act mandated that educational teams must consider AT for
all students enrolled in special education [29 U.S.C. 2201,
§3(1)]. Despite much subsequent professional discussion
regarding AT service delivery (see Bryant & Bryant, 2003;
Edyburn, 2000b, 2001, 2002; Institute for Matching Person
and Technology, 2004; Judge & Parette, 1998; King, 1999;
Zabala, 2002), professional understanding of the process of
considering and providing AT remains uneven.
Several frameworks have appeared in the literature to
assist education professionals in creating effective matches
between the needs of students with disabilities and
technology that may help students with disabilities to be
successful in the school environment (Bowser & Reed, 1995;
Chambers, 1997; Melichar & Blackhurst, 1993; Institute for
Matching Person and Technology, 2004; Zabala, 1995; 2002).
Each of these frameworks requires education professionals to
react to individual student issues by identifying
characteristics of the student and environment that may
impact the student’s ability to do expected educational tasks,
and make decisions regarding potential AT solutions.
However, though such frameworks for making AT
decisions continue to be implemented nationally, many
education professionals do not feel they have the knowledge
and skills to effectively identify AT solutions (Anderson &
Petch-Hogan, 2001; CEC Today, 1997; Derer, Posgrove, &
Reith, 1996; McGregor & Pachuski, 1996; Edyburn 2004),
and both teachers and students often do not have ready access
to AT devices and materials (Thompson, Siegel, &
Kouzoukas, 2000; Wehmeyer, 1998, 1999). This can result in
teacher, administrator, student, and family frustration that
can compromise the willingness of teachers to integrate AT
into the curriculum (Lahm, Bausch, Hasselbring, &
Blackhurst, 2001; Lesar, 1998; National Council for
Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1997), and potentially
have consequent long-term detrimental effects for students
with mental retardation.
To facilitate the process of AT decision-making,
educational professionals must have access to resources to
increase (a) awareness of potential technology solutions, and
(b) understanding of characteristics of potential technology
solutions to make appropriate matches to meet students’
needs. Both the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow Studies
(1991) and the Milken Family Foundation (Lemke &
Coughlin, 1998) reported that teachers must have core
knowledge of the functions and characteristics of technology
before effectively teaching others how to use it or integrate it
into students’ educational programs. Once teachers have an
understanding of AT characteristics and functions, they need
to match the technology to meet their students’ needs.
One effective approach is a feature match process
(Costello & Shane, 1994; Glennen 1997; Yorkston & Karlan,
1986) that requires teachers to (a) be knowledgeable about the
operational and learning requirements of possible AT
solutions (Beukleman & Mirenda, 1998); and (b) understand
the extent to which each potential AT solution places
cognitive, linguistic, physical and time demands upon the
user (King, 1999). Such understanding allows teachers to
Creating a Technology Toolkit for Students with Mental
Retardation: A Systematic Approach
PHIL PARETTE
BRIAN W. W OJCIK
Illinois State University
Assistive technology consideration and implementation is often limited by the technology
experience and knowledge of the education professionals involved in the process. The creation
of a toolkit containing highly useful technologies may assist education professionals in this
process. This article discusses a systematic method for creating a technology toolkit for use with
students having mental retardation. Implications and future directions are discussed.
24 Toolkits for Students With Mental Retardation
Journal of Special Education Technology
make practical decisions regarding AT that can be used to
assist a particular student.
The AT Toolkit Approach
One promising solution to assist educational professionals
in effective AT consideration and implementation that has
been reported by Edyburn and Gardner (1998) is the concept of
an AT toolkit. Edyburn (2000) has described an AT toolkit as a
collection of tools that (a) is targeted to meet the performance
demands of a given population, (b) focuses on appropriate tools
to enhance a user’s performance rather than on the cost of a
piece of technology, (c) effectively allows educational
professionals to make informed choices from a set of probable
tool solutions rather than an overwhelming set of products
available on the market, and (d) is portable and readily available
for the use in the classroom.
An AT toolkit is a proactive strategy to assist in meeting
the needs of students with disabilities by allowing the
technologies within the toolkit to be quickly placed in the
hands of both teachers and students fostering exploratory use
(Edyburn, 2000). Through exploration, assessment data can
be gathered relating to the technology’s effectiveness.
Edyburn and Gardner (1998) noted that potential outcomes
of an AT toolkit may include: (a) improved participation of
more students, (b) increased IEP team knowledge of potential
AT tools for a given population, (c) greater frequency of
considerations of AT tools as solutions for students with
disabilities, (d) heightened interest in new AT solutions that
may better meet the needs of a particular students, and (e)
additional information about how a student interacts with an
AT tool that may allow for a more specific device-feature
match. Edyburn (2004) noted:
The process of developing an assistive technology toolkit
could be an invaluable contribution to the profession and
could significantly enhance the educational performance
of students with mild disabilities…the assistive
technology toolkit would allow teachers to collect
performance data regarding the value of specific tools for
individual students. (p. 13)
While the AT toolkit approach may hold promise in the
consideration and implementation of AT for students with
disabilities, particularly students with mental retardation,
little has been done to develop a method for the systematic
construction of a toolkit for a specific population. Several
toolkits have been proposed in the literature based on
individual experience in working with students with
disabilities (Fenema-Jansen, 1998; Holt & Edyburn; 1998;
Kaplan & Edyburn, 1998). Similarly, numerous examples of
toolkits used by specific groups are presented on Web sites (cf,
Hampshire Educational Collaborative, 2002; University of
Kentucky Assistive Technology Project, 2003; Williamsville
Central School District, 2001).
Unfortunately, there is little available evidence of
background development activities that provide a sound
foundation for the creation of AT toolkits. Watts, et. al. (2003,
2004) proposed a method to systematically create an AT
toolkit and offered a preliminary toolkit targeted for students
with developmental disabilities. Basically, this approach
involved soliciting tool suggestions from teachers in the field
about useful technologies for particular groups of students
and then ranking the suggested list from most useful to least
useful. This process would culminate in a final sorted list that
provides a field-based, practitioner-supported foundation for
the creation of the toolkit.
The remainder of this article extends the work previously
reported by Watts, Thompson, and Wojcik (2003, 2004), but
focuses specifically on the creation of a toolkit designed for
use with students with mental retardation.
METHOD
A modified Q-sort methodology was used in the study,
employing a two-phase process to identify key AT devices for
inclusion in the toolkit. Basically, the process involved
developing statements from experts (a Q sample) that were
administered to other participants in the form of a Q sort
with subsequent rankings of cards containing specific
statements (Brown, 1991; McKeown & Thomas, 1988).
Phase 1 involved the collection of input from participants
identified as having substantive experience working with
students with mental retardation and use of effective
technologies used with students having mental retardation.
Phase 2 involved the sorting process that resulted in a
prioritized group of technologies that could be used with
students with these students.
PHASE ONE
Participants
Participants in Phase 1 included professionals drawn
from a pool of nominations (n=10) made by local special
education directors and teachers in a urban school district in
central Illinois. Persons nominated had to meet two criteria:
(a) substantive experience working with students with mental
retardation, and (b) expertise with both instructional and AT
within the school setting. The participants’ experiences
working with students with mental retardation ranged from 8
to 17 years. The participant pool included 7 teachers, 2
speech-language pathologists, and 1 occupational therapist.
Instrumentation
A survey instrument was used to collect data in Phase 1.
The survey contained a list of technology categories and
corresponding definitions for each category. Table 1 presents
the technology categories and definitions used in the survey.
The categories and definitions used in the survey were taken
Parette and Wojcik 25
Journal of Special Education Technology
from published technology taxonomies (Abledata, 2004;
Rehabtool; 2004). The survey instrument asked participants
to make suggestions regarding tools that they had found very
effective in working with students of mental retardation in
the school setting.
Procedure
After participants were identified, each was mailed a copy
of the survey instrument and asked to complete and return it.
Once the survey instruments were returned, tools identified
by the participants were aggregated by categories. A second
survey instrument containing the aggregated tools was then
sent back to the participants. The participants were asked to
(a) review the previously suggested tools and (b) add any other
suggestions pertaining to additional tools that might be
included in each category. After the second survey
instruments were returned, a list containing all of the
suggested tools was compiled. The final list contained 77
items that the participants felt were useful in working with
students with mental retardation.
PHASE TWO
Participants
Participants (n=43) were recruited from local school
systems within central Illinois and from Illinois State
University graduate classes. Participants identified
themselves as having experience working with students with
mental retardation. Y
ears of experience in working with
students with mental retardation ranged from 2 to 29 years.
Persons included in the participant pool included 41 special
education teachers, 1 school psychologist, and 1 speech-
language pathologist.
Instrumentation
The final compiled list of suggested tools from Phase 1
became the list of tools used in Phase 2. Cards were created
using this list of tools, with each card containing the name of
the tool, a brief description relating to the function of the tools,
a picture of the tool, and a code number (see Figure 1). In
addition to the cards, a record sheet was developed containing
a table with 11 columns and 77 cells distributed across the 11
columns. The label over the left-most column was Least Useful
and the label over the right-most column was Most Useful.
Procedure
Phase 2 was held in three sessions with each session
containing a different group of participants totaling 43
Table 1.
Assistive Technology Categories and Descriptions
Category Definition
Communication Products and equipment designed to help persons with speech, mental retardation, or writing difficulties to communicate. At its
simplest, augmentative communication can be a page with picture choices or alphabet letters that a person points to. It can also involve
highly sophisticated speaking computers with on-screen communication boards and auditory or visual scanning.
Computer Access Hardware and software products that enable persons with mental retardation to access, interact with, and use computers at home,
work, or school. Includes modified or alternate keyboards, switches activated by pressure, touch screens, special software, and voice to
text software.
Daily Living Self-help devices that assist persons with mental retardation in daily living activities such as dressing, personal hygiene, bathing, home
maintenance, cooking, and eating.
Mobility Products that help mobility impaired persons move within their environment and give them independence in personal transportation.
Recreation Products that help persons with mental retardation to participate in sports, social, cultural events.
Reading Products that help persons with mental retardation access and understand print.
Writing/Spelling Products that help persons with mental retardation communicate through writing in a way that they can be understood.
Math Products that assist persons with mental retardation to perform mathematical calculations.
Memory and Organization Products that assist individuals with mental retardation to perform activities that may include the organization of materials,
remembering sequences of steps, and operating within a schedule.
Figure 1. Sample tool card presented to participants in Phase 2.
Toolkits for Students With Mental Retardation26
Journal of Special Education Technology
participants. Each participant was given the stack of cards (as
described above) and a record sheet. The participants were
asked to review all of the cards in the stack. The participants
were then asked to sort the cards on a continuum from least
useful to most useful with regard to working with students with
mental retardation in the school setting. The participants were
asked to rank relative utility based on a spectrum of students
with mental retardation ranging from mild to severe, and from
3 through 21 years of age. Participants were also instructed to
ignore cost as a factor in sorting the cards. It was recommended
that the participants begin sorting the cards at the extremes of
the continuum and then work toward the midpoint. Once the
cards were sorted, the participants were asked to record their
sort by placing the code number of each card in the
corresponding position on the record form. The cards and
record forms were collected at the end of each session.
RESULTS
After the second phase of the study, the data from each
of the record forms was placed into a statistical program for
analysis. Each item was coded based on position on the
continuum and was assigned a value from one (least useful)
to eleven (most useful). Means were then calculated for
each of the 77 items and the means were placed in an
ascending list (Range = 2.52 -9.05). Value points were then
calculated to separate the list of tools that were placed into
quintiles. Low-utility tools (n=9) included such solutions
as sock aids, collapsible canes, scooter boards, and card
holders. Moderately low-utility tools (n=11) included such
solutions as key guards, battery adapters, lap trays, and
adapted can openers. Moderate-utility tools (n=25) included
such solutions as on-screen keyboards, computer switch
interfaces, Franklin Spellers, and tape recorders.
Moderately-high utility (n=22) included such solutions as
the Big Mack, Big Keys Keyboard, Touch window, and
Dynamite. High Utility tools (n=10) included such solutions
as books on tape, communication boards, visual schedules,
and Intellikeys keyboard. The specific results are
summarized in Table 2.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The results presented interesting findings regarding the
nature of the tools that participants ranked as most useful for
working with students with mental retardation in school
settings. The four categories of AT, deemed to be of greater
utility for these students, and were supported by research in
the field: (a) communication (Glidden & Abbeduto, 2003;
Iacono & Miller, Romski, Sevcik, & Adamson, 1999); (b)
computer access (Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer, 2001, 2002); (c)
access to print (receptive and expressive, Hoppenhaver &
Pierce, 1994; Parette, 2004); and (d) behavioral regulation
(Bambera & Ager, 1992; Keyes, 1994).
Other categories of AT viewed as having less utility
included tools for (a) mobility and positioning, (b) recreation,
and (c) aids for daily living. However, since the original pool of
tools was created by individuals who had substantial
experience working with students with mental retardation
and AT, all of the tools could be seen as both viable and
practical tools for these students in school settings.
The AT toolkit presented here can be used as a guide to
assist education professionals in making decisions about
assistive technology to assist students with mental
retardation. First, the toolkit allows educational professionals
to make decisions about the order in which AT may be
purchased subsequent to effective planning processes. Second,
once a toolkit is assembled, education professionals will have
ready access to the tools to allow them to develop skills and
knowledge about each of the tools through hands-on
experience. This assumes, however, that appropriate training
is available to familiarize teachers with best practice usage of
the tools in the school curriculum (Parette, VanBiervliet, &
Wojcik, 2004). With the growth of the field of AT in recent
years, coupled with the IDEA mandate that AT must be
considered when developing individual education programs
(IEPs), there has been increased need for use of
interdisciplinary teams to conduct AT evaluations and make
decisions about AT solutions. As noted by Edyburn (2004),
this mirrors special education processes (e.g.,
multidisciplinary team evaluation, extensive in-depth
evaluation, team meeting, recommendations) while
presenting challenges that include (a) commitments of staff
time, (b) intimidating environments for family members
asked to participate in meetings with professionals, (c)
commitments of resources to initial evaluation vs. on-going
follow-up or support, and (d) difficulties in scheduling
frequent or timely meetings. Teachers, particularly those in
general education settings, often see themselves as novice
users of AT and may see less purpose in including technology
in instructional processes, while those with more advanced
training are typically more positive toward AT integration
(Weber, Schoon, & Forgan, as cited in Anderson & Petch-
Hogan, 2001). Training teachers to increase literacy
proficiency using AT is particularly important given the
impetus of the No Child Left Behind Act (P.L. 107-110), that
(a) requires states to develop curriculum standards, (b)
requires development of assessment systems to measure
student performance in meeting the standards, (c)
emphasizes reading attainment by grade 3, and (d) sanctions
low-performing schools (Edyburn 2004). The need for
assisting teachers to utilize AT to develop literacy skills is also
reflected in the current national impetus toward outcomes
measurement as demonstrated through NIDRR funding of
two prominent national projects (Assistive Technology
Outcomes Measurement System, 2004; Consortium on
27Parette and Wojcik
Journal of Special Education Technology
Table 2.
Ranking of Relative Utility of Tools for Students with Mental Retardation
Rank Tools Vendor Website, if applicable
High Utility
Books on Tape
Communication Boards
Visual Schedules
Writing with Symbols 2000 www.mayer-johnson.com
Go Talk http://www.attainmentcompany.com/
Speaking Dynamically Pro www.mayer-johnson.com
Line Drawings/Symbols
Intellikeys Keyboard www.intellitools.com
Social Story
Speech Recognition
Moderately
Big Mack www.ablenet.com
High Utility
Big Keys Keyboard www.keyalt.com
Touch Window
Dynamyte www.dyanvoxsys.com
Time Timer www.timetimer.com
Intellitalk II www.intellitools.com
Write:Out Loud www.donjohnston.com
Specialized Calculators http://www.attainmentcompany.com/
Enlarged Print
Picture Recipes
Intellipics Studio www.intellitools.com
Visual Assistant www.ablelinktech.com
Clicker 4 www.cricksoft.com
Object Schedules
Talking Calculator
Raised Line Paper www.pfot.com
Track Ball
Talk Trac Plus www.ablenet.com
Picture Cue Cards
Kidspiration www.inspiration.com
Co:Writer www.donjohnston.com
Moderate
On Screen Keyboard
Utility
Computer Switch Interface
Intellimathics www.intellitools.com
Step By Step Communicator www.ablenet.com
Reading Ruler
Draft: Builder www.donjohnston.com
Slant Desk
Franklin Speller www.franklin.com
Operating System www.microsoft.com
Accessibility Options www.apple.com
Tape Recorder
Alphasmart www.alphasmart.com
Number Line
Counters
Dycem www.sammonspreston.com
Utensil with Universal Cuff www.sammonspreston.com
Rank Tools Vendor Website, if applicable
Moderate
Pencil Grips
Utility (cont.)
Time Pad www.attainmentinc.om
Velcro Shoe Laces
Highlighter
Step Pad http://www.attainmentcompany.com/
Adapted Seating
News-2-You www.news-2-you.com
Name Stamps
Motion Pad http://www.attainmentcompany.com/
Post It Notes www.postit.com
Moderately
KeyGuard www.infogrip.com
Low Utility
Power Link/Battery Adapter www.ablenet.com
Talking Picture Frame www.radioshack.com
Voyager Desk Top Suite www.ablelinktech.com
Lap Tray
Movin Sit www.sammonspreston.com
Uni Turner www.sammonspreston.com
Adapted Can Opener www.sammonspreston.com
Foam “Builders” for
Adapting Utensils, etc. www.sammonspreston.com
Large Foam Rubber Dice
Swivel Cushion www.sammonspreston.com
Low Utility Sock Aide www.sammonspreston.com
Collapsable Cane www.sammonspreston.com
Scooter Board
Reacher www.sammonspreston.com
Toothpaste Dispenser www.sammonspreston.com
Card Holders www.sammonspreston.com
Bowling Humps www.sammonspreston.com
Velcro Dart Set www.sammonspreston.com
Card Shuffler www.sammonspreston.com
28 Toolkits for Students With Mental Retardation
Journal of Special Education Technology
Assistive Technology Outcomes Research, 2004). The
experiences working with the tools may help education
professionals create more effective matches between students
and AT as a result of heightened understanding of the feature-
match process (Edyburn & Gardner, 1998). For example, King
(1999) suggested that professional involvement in 25-50 AT
evaluations may be necessary for professionals to develop the
requisite understanding of an informed, feature-match
process.
Finally, an assembled toolkit will allow students with
mental retardation immediate access to the curriculum
(Gardner & Edyburn, 2000; Okolo, 2000). For example,
numerous software programs identified by participants in this
study, including Writing with Symbols 2000 (Mayer-Johnson),
Go Talk (Attainment Company), and Speaking Dynamically
Pro (Mayer Johnson) provide students with mental retardation
with meaningful experiences in accessing the curriculum and
participating in classroom activities more effectively.
Of particular importance to many education
professionals is the opportunity afforded by AT toolkits to
complement the formative assessment process. Formative
assessments typically are used to track student progress and
provide the basis for informed teacher decision-making
(Center for Applied Special Technology, 2004). Since
formative assessments are generally instructionally based and
ongoing, student performance during an instructional activity
may be monitored so that education professionals can
implement needed AT interventions before students fail
(Edyburn, 2002; Parette, 2004).
This study is limited, however, in several ways. The tool
list developed in Phase 1 of the study was elicited from a
relatively small pool of individuals serving students with
mental retardation in central Illinois. Although participants
were selected who had substantial experience working with
students with mental retardation and AT, the technologies
identified by these individuals may have been bound by their
personal experiences. Such experiences may be limited due to
a number of factors, including geographic proximity to other
participants and/or similar professional development
opportunities in AT decision-making and implementation
processes. Also, given that the participants in both phases of
the study have been working in the field for a range of years,
the extent to which they were familiar with recent
developments that may assist students with mental
retardation is unknown. Consequently, recent technologies
introduced in the market may not have been included within
the contents of the final toolkit.
There are several implications for future research.
Replication is needed to establish the stability of the toolkit’s
contents (i.e., Do the contents of the kit meet the needs of
students with mental retardation across time and settings?).
Further investigation may also examine how new and recent
technologies may be incorporated into the toolkit approach,
and how these emerging technologies gain favor with
education professionals. More specifically, the use of AT
toolkits must be examined in the context of outcomes, both
for education professionals and for students. While there are
three significant groups currently focusing their efforts on
understanding AT outcomes that may be considered (Assistive
Technology Outcomes Measurement System, 2003,
Consortium on Assistive Technology Outcomes Research,
n.d.; National Assistive Technology Research Institute, 2003),
specific recommendations for educational professionals
regarding teacher and student AT outcomes have yet to be
clearly defined and implemented nationally (Parette, 2004).
Possible student outcomes might include (a) increased
participation in the general education curriculum, (b) change
in academic performance, (c) student satisfaction with the AT
device, and (d) student quality of life measures (ATOMS,
2004). Potential teacher outcomes that might be examined
could potentially include the (a) occurrences of AT
consideration in student-centered planning, (b) integration of
AT into educational programs of students with mental
retardation, and (c) use of AT in measurement of students’
educational progress and in district and state assessments
(Wojcik, Peterson-Karlen, Watts, & Parette, 2004).
Additionally, as noted by Wojcik et al. (in press), case-study
based repeated measures of performance should also be
developed to measure progress of teachers using the toolkit
toward proficiency and application of AT knowledge and skills.
Measuring educational and social outcomes for K-12
students with mental retardation subsequent to toolkit usage
may include examination of (a) extent of AT integration into
academic, vocational or life skills instruction, (b) changes in
student performance, (c) extent and nature of participation
with typical peers, (d) participation and performance in state
and district assessments, (e) quality of life, and (f) the changes
in intensity of supports needed by the student to achieve
independent (Wojcik et al., in press). Interestingly, though
books on tape were noted as being of high utility, books on
CD played using MP3 players might be more socially
acceptable and preferred by students (Parette, 2004; Zabala,
personal communication, April 2, 2004). Many decisions
about AT for students with mental retardation are made
without a clear understanding of the influences of peers and
acculturation influences (Parette, 2004; Parette & Scherer,
2004; Parette, Huer, & Scherer, 2004).
T
oolkits, once developed and assembled using such a
systematic approach described in this article, may be
implemented by education professionals in classrooms
serving students with mental retardation. The inherent value
of developing and implementing AT toolkits is that education
professionals may monitor the usage of specific devices
contained in the kits and gain insights regarding student
29Parette and Wojcik
Journal of Special Education Technology
preferences for devices contained in the kits. Similarly, it
affords education professionals experience in matching device
features to particular students, as well as providing
opportunities to implement, integrate, and evaluate the
toolkit solutions available in the classroom.
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Phil Parette is the Kara Peters Endowed Chair in Assistive
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Technology (SEAT) Center in the Department of Special
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32
Journal of Special Education Technology
Journal of Special Education Technology. 19(4), Fall 2004 33
Journal of Special Education Technology
One principle of applied research is to design intervention
programs targeted to teach useful skills to the participants (Baer,
Wolf, & Risley, 1968), while structuring the program to promote
generalization of the skills to the natural environment (Stokes
& Baer, 1977). Proficiency in community skills (e.g.,
community navigation and shopping skills) allows a person
more opportunity to interact independently in his/her
environment. For students with significant disabilities,
community based instruction has become a curricular focal
point. The explicit rationale for community-based instruction is
that in vivo training is one of the best methods of teaching
functional skills (Cuvo & Katt, 1992). In vivo instruction allows
for inclusion of the full range of natural stimuli and distractions
that will be present when students need to perform the targeted
skills with diverse stimuli and distracters. Since instruction
occurs in the actual setting, the probability of generalization
across settings increases (McDonnell, Hardman, Hightower,
Keifer O’Donnell, & Drew, 1993; Nietupski, Hamre-Nietupski,
Clancy, & Veerhusen, 1986).
Frequent in vivo training opportunities may be difficult to
arrange because of factors like scheduling and funding for
community-based instruction (Wissick, Gardner & Langone,
1999). Teachers, therefore, may need to look for alternative
methods to teach functional skills. While, classroom
simulations are relatively inexpensive to establish and provide
daily opportunities for instruction and practice, they lack the
same stimuli and distracters found in the natural setting. Neef,
Lensbower, Hockersmith, DePalma, and Gray (1990) found
that generalization is more likely to occur when simulated
stimuli and activities are similar to the target setting. Even
though challenges may arise when trying to facilitate
generalization of skills learned in the classroom to the natural
environment, pairing in vivo instruction with simulation has
emerged as a promising possibility (Morrow & Bates 1999).
Computer software programs can incorporate animation,
photographs, and video to represent features of the natural
environment, while providing multiple exemplars, immediate
feedback, and consistency. For instance Ayres and Langone
(2002) used a multiple probe across participants to evaluate
effects of computer-based instruction (CAI) employing photos,
video, and animations in a simulation to teach students with
intellectual disabilities to pay for grocery items. The researchers
measured acquisition of the target skill on the computer and
then assessed generalization in community-based probes.
While they reported changes on the dependent measure on the
computer, they failed to see generalization to the community.
Computer Assisted Instruction to Teach Item
Selection in Grocery Stores: An Assessment
of Acquisition and Generalization
KAREN HUTCHERSON
JOHN LANGONE
KEVIN AYRES
TOM CLEES
The University of Georgia
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a computer-based program
designed to increase percentage of correct match to sample discrimination tasks and
generalization of the skills to a natural setting. Four students with moderate to severe
intellectual disabilities participated. The dependent variables were: (a) the percentage of correct
match to sample trials completed on the computer and (b) the percentage of items correctly
selected in the natural setting of a local grocery store. Pre and post generalization testing
included locating items presented and not presented during instruction. The independent
variable was a multimedia computer program entitled Project SHOP that provided instruction
through interactive practice activities incorporating a graduated response criterion. A multiple
probe design across behaviors and replicated across four participants was used to evaluate
experimental control. Results indicated that following intervention, the percentage of correct
response in the community increased.
34 CAI for Item Selection
Journal of Special Education Technology
However, they reported anecdotal changes in types of errors
students made in the community setting before and after
intervention: the errors after intervention, topographically,
looked more similar to what students had seen in the video.
Closely related to the current study, Wissick et al. (1992)
evaluated the effects of an interactive videodisc simulation to
teach three students with moderate intellectual disabilities
how to locate and purchase items in a grocery store. The
dependent variables included the number of extra actions to
locate an item, the amount assistance from the teacher
required, and the number of purchasing steps correctly
completed. The researchers reported a decrease in the amount
of teacher assistance and number of extra steps that students
took to complete the shopping tasks and after engaging in
intervention. These findings translate into increased
efficiency and independence for students. In a similar study,
Mechling, Gast, and Langone (2002) used computer-based
video instruction to teach strategies for locating items in a
grocery store to students with moderate intellectual
disabilities. Using video embedded in a computer program,
the researchers taught students to identify sight words from
aisle markers and match those to the items on their list. After
acquiring the skill on the computer, the students generalized
the strategy to grocery stores.
Mechling and Gast (2003) demonstrated the use of multi-
media instruction to teach students with moderate
intellectual disabilities to locate grocery items by reading aisle
sign words related to the items on the list (i.e., essentially
teaching concept classes of food (e.g., brownie mix is found on
the aisle with a sign reading cake mix). The CAI included
video modeling, text and photographs embedded in a
multimedia program and placed within the context of discrete
trial instruction with constant time delay. Students acquired
the target skills on the computers and successfully generalized
the skills to the community setting where they improved their
performance on locating items based on aisle markers.
Langone et al., (1999) used CAI to teach functional
discrimination skills to four students with moderate/severe
intellectual disabilities in middle school. Using photographs
embedded in a multimedia program, the researchers created a
simulation to teach identity sample matching of cereal boxes
on the computer. This was designed to simulate a student
using a picture grocery list to locate cereals. Students acquired
the skill on the computer and in an evaluation of
generalization, the researchers reported that in addition to
students accurately locating the cereals, the mean and median
durations for students’ time searching decreased.
Grocery shopping is a functional skill in which people will
participate for the rest of their lives (Morse Schuster, &
Sandknop, 1996). Considering that students with intellectual
disabilities will need specific instruction in learning the skills
required to shop independently or with as little assistance as
possible, researchers are encumbered with identifying the
most efficient, cost-effective ways for students to learn these
skills. Computer programs can provide simulated models of
what actually occurs in the natural setting (Stokes & Osnes,
1989). Computer assisted instruction (CAI) can assist
students with identifying the relevant stimuli for a situation
by making the critical stimuli more salient and delivering
instruction via computer allow an unlimited amount of
practice any time of the day (Langone et al., 1999). The ability
to control multiple exemplars sampling a variety of people,
behaviors, settings, and items shown on the videotapes or
pictures when using computer programs may assist with
generalization by allowing student to encounter a wider range
of stimuli than in other classroom simulations (Mechling &
Langone, 2000). Well designed CAI brings the student to the
center of instruction by requiring them to take active role
responding to the real-life scenarios is taking place on the
computer screen. Using computers for instruction is age-
appropriate for people of all ages (Wissick et al., 1992).
The use of technology may be the answer to providing an
effective and efficient strategy to teach students with disabilities
functional skills, such as grocery shopping, when extensive
community-based instruction is not available. The purpose of
this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a CAI program to
increase the percentage of correctly selected grocery store items
by the four participants with moderate to severe disabilities to
assess their ability to generalize to the natural setting. The
dependent variables measured included the percent of correctly
selected items, the duration to select each item, and
generalization from the CAI to the natural environment.
METHODS
Participants
Four students with moderate to severe intellectual
disabilities participated in this study (Table 1). All of the
participants received special education services in a self-
contained classroom in a public middle school. The students
had been receiving community-based instruction at least once
per week at a grocery store, drug store, or fast food restaurant.
None of the students had been engaged previously in
systematic instruction to teach item location. Students were
selected for this study based on age, disability, having grocery
shopping goals in their IEP, the desire of the parents to have
their child learn the target skill and provide informed consent,
and an average daily attendance greater than 90%. All
students had to demonstrate specific prerequisite skills before
beginning the study: (a) visual ability to see the computer
screen and recognize grocery items, (b) auditory ability within
normal range, (c) motor ability to make selections on the
computer screen using a mouse or touch screen and in a
grocery store, (d) ability to maintain attention to the task for
35 minutes (estimated session length in the grocery store), (e)
35Hutcherson
Journal of Special Education Technology
motor imitation for selecting an item, and (f) waiting 5 to 30
seconds for a prompt.
Abby enjoyed performing daily living skills such as taking
care of laundry, washing dishes, and cooking. She could
prepare 10 no-cook or microwavable snacks independently.
She filed papers according to letter and numbers. Also, she
assisted in the school office stapling, hole punching, and
copying. She could tell time up to the quarter hour and could
count to 50. In regard to computer skills, she could
manipulate the mouse to play games during her free time and
type her name, address, and phone number.
Kate could read 40 community sight words and identified
all letters of the alphabet. She could tell time up to the half-
hour and counted up to 50. On the computer she typed her
name, address, and telephone number with alternative
keyboard and played games during her free time. Kate was
diagnosed with a visual impairment and although she
occasionally wore glasses, Kate sat with her face approximately
3 centimeters from the computer screen to see text and icons.
With her visual impairment, Kate was able to adapt to her
environment and locate items on the top shelves at the grocery
store. The computer program was adapted with an enlarged
cursor to assist Kate with tracking items on the screen.
Sue was proficient in most self-care skills such as
brushing her teeth, bathing, and dressing herself. She enjoyed
doing laundry and could independently operate a washer and
dryer. She used a mouse to make selections on the computer
could type her name and phone number. Sue had difficulty
with short-term memory.
Brad read on a 2nd grade level and told time up to the
half-hour. He was an excellent speller and had neat
handwriting. Brad’s independent self-care skills included
brushing his teeth, bathing, and washing his glasses. He
manipulated the computer and Internet very well. He enjoyed
playing games on the computer and looking at calendars in
his spare time. Brad was the only participant who did not
attend general education physical education in addition to
adaptive physical education.
Settings and Arrangements
Community setting. Grocery store probe sessions were
conducted in a local grocery store within close proximity of
the school. These sessions took place during slow shopping
times of the day. The classroom teacher worked with the rest
of class on other instructional activities unrelated to the study
in other parts of the store. Each session consisted of 16 trials
where the participant was positioned within 3 meters of the
target stimuli by the researcher. The researcher stood
approximately 1 meter behind the participant and the
reliability data collector stood approximately 3 meter behind
the researcher.
Computer and classroom setting. The computer probe
(CP) and CAI sessions occurred in the student’s classroom at
a computer situated along the wall of the classroom.
Participants sat directly in front of the computer facing away
from the rest of class. The researcher sat to the right of the
participant to help maneuver through the computer program.
Each participant took turns working at the computer
individually with the researcher while the rest of the class
worked with the teacher and paraprofessional on functional
skills in other areas of the classroom.
Materials and Equipment
The CAI program, called Project SHOP, was developed in
an authoring program called Authorware 5.2 (Macromedia,
2000). The program worked on a PC computer running
Windows 95 or higher with a CD-ROM player. The program
contained all of the digital materials for the discrimination
tasks: photographs of 33 cereals, 22 canned soups, 21 frozen
pizzas and a shopping cart. The photographs appeared on a
background picture of shelves or a freezer with shelves. An
image of a shopping cart 2 centimeters by 4 centimeters was
Table 1.
Description of Participant
Age IQ Measures Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales Other
Abby 14:3 SS: 40 Composite SS: 58 • Proficient in many self help and vocational tasks.
•Skilled with mouse use and typing
Kate 15:2 SS: 36 Composite SS: 63 • Sight word reader, some ability to tell time
•Required computer adaptations because of visual impairment
Sue 14:7 SS: 43c Composite SS: 38 • Strong long term memory
• Skilled with mouse and typing
Brad 16:0 SS:54c Composite SS:58 • Some relative strengths in academic skills (writing)
•Diagnosed with autism and had a curriculum focused on social skills
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti, 1984)
Kaufmann Brief Intelligence Test
Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale Fourth Edition (Thorndike, Hagen, & Sattler, 1986)
36 CAI for Item Selection
Journal of Special Education Technology
located in the bottom left corner of the screen to simulate the
view one would see when shopping (See Figure 1). The
computer program included a cartoon tutor named Shopper
Bob. He acted as a narrator, gave task directions, provided
corrective feedback, and reinforced accurate responses. In the
grocery store 8 centimeter by 10 centimeter index cards with
photographs of the target stimuli were used as discriminative
stimuli and the students needed no other materials.
Response Definitions and Data Collection
Data were collected during grocery store probe sessions
while the computer program automatically collected data
during computer probe and instructional sessions. Accuracy
of response and duration data were recorded for each trial. In
the community probes, a correct response was defined as the
student selecting the target stimuli appearing on the shelf or
in the freezer independently within 30 seconds of the initial
task direction; similarly, in the computer based probes (CBP),
a correct response was defined as clicking the correct match
appearing on the screen within 30 seconds of the initial task
direction. An incorrect response in both probes was defined as
selecting an incorrect item in the allotted 30 seconds. A no
response was recorded if the participant did not make a
selection within 30 seconds of the task direction.
During CAI, participants were able to respond in one of
five different ways:
1. Unprompted Correct: a correct response given within
the time limit for the stimulus set (see Table 2 for list of
time limits)
2. Prompted Correct: a correct response following the
model prompt (model prompts were displayed if the
student did not respond within the initial time period.
3. Unprompted Incorrect: a response initiated of an
incorrect topography performed within in the time limit
4. Prompted Incorrect: an incorrect response occurring
after the model prompt
5. No Response: this was scored when the student did not
initiate a response within before or after the model prompt.
Experimental Design
A multiple probe across behaviors of items and replicated
across students (Tawney & Gast, 1984) was used to evaluate
the efficacy of the intervention. Participant behavior was
evaluated across three separate conditions and the conditions
were introduced in the following order: (a) grocery store probes
(GSP) which functioned to assess generalization, (b) CBP
which functioned to assess acquisition, and (c) CAI in which
the students were exposed to the independent variable.
General Procedures
Sessions occurred four to five days a week with one to
three sessions per day depending on the condition. The GSP
Figure 1. Screen Captures
37Hutcherson
Journal of Special Education Technology
sessions lasted approximately 35 minutes for each participant
while the computer probe and instructional sessions lasted
approximately 15 minutes. All students received initial GSP
and after data for the primary independent variable, locating
the items, stabilized or continued to decelerate, students
began CBP. Level stability for data was defined by requiring
that 80% of the data fell within 20% of the median. All
students received the CBP and for each student the same
stability requirements were applied. During CAI, the order of
introduction for the intervention was determined by stability
of data in probes and the ability to schedule sufficient GSP
prior to intervention.
The participants were reinforced with verbal praise for
following directions and attending to the task at the end of all
sessions. The CAI program had a variety of verbal praise
statements built into each trial if a correct response was given
before or after the prompt. The schedule of reinforcement was
a continuous reinforcement schedule. The CBP trials did not
contain any reinforcement except for a general praise
statement at the end of the session for working hard.
Grocery Store Probes
The purpose of generalization testing with the GSP was
to assess whether the skills taught by the CAI program
generalized to the natural setting. Evaluations were conducted
through pre and post testing in a grocery store not familiar to
the participants. The natural setting had many more
distracters, such as shoppers, additional products, and
advertisements on floors, freezer doors, and shelves that
potentially could have made the task of matching to sample
more difficult. Besides being in a different environment than
the classroom, participants had more items from which to
make a selection. Also, GSP included novel stimuli that were
not presented during CAI in addition to stimuli the
participants had seen in the CAI sessions.
Grocery store sessions occurred at least three times for all
participants before CAI began and after criteria was met for
pre and post testing. The specific schedule for the
presentation of the conditions was two generalization
sessions followed by three computer probe sessions and then
one generalization session. The CBP sessions were conducted
between the generalization sessions to make sure the probe
sessions did not effect generalization testing. There were 32
trials per session for all participants. The 32 trials included 12
cereals with 4 being novel (i.e., not presented during
computer probe or instructional sessions), 12 canned soups (4
novel), and 8 frozen pizzas (4 novel).
After the researcher positioned the participant 3 meters
from the target stimuli, she handed the picture of the item to
the participant and as an attention cue said “What cereal is
this?” After the participant’s response, the researcher said,
“Find same.” The participant had up to 60 seconds to locate
the item and make a selection by grasping, touching, or
pointing to the target item, although the response was scored
as correct, incorrect, or no response after 30 seconds. While
many items came in multiple sizes the participant was able to
select any size item as long as the brand of the product was
identical to the picture in order to score a correct response.
Correct responses resulted in the item being put in the
shopping cart while incorrect responses were put back on the
shelf or ignored. A correct response was locating and selecting
the target item within 30 seconds of the task direction. An
incorrect response was selecting the wrong item. A no
response was recorded when no selection was made after 30
seconds of the task direction. If the participant did not respond
within 60 seconds, the researcher said “Let’s try another one”
and started the next trial. There was a five-second interval
between items of the same class. The next trial began when
the participant was positioned in a new spot 3 meters from the
next target item. All of the cereals were tested before moving
to a different aisle with another class of products such as soups
or pizzas. The same procedures were followed for the other
products. A 60 second transitioning time was allowed to move
to a different aisle to test another class of products.
Computer Probe Procedures
The purpose of the CBP sessions was to assess the
Table 2.
Description of Stimuli
Number of items Time to respond
appearing on the screen correctly (in seconds)
Cereals
15
25
45
10 (1shelf) 10
20 (2 shelves) 20
27 (3 shelves) 30
Soups
15
25
3 5
4 (1 shelf) 10
8 (2 shelves) 20
12 (3 shelves) 30
Pizzas
15
25
3 (1 shelf) 5
6 (2 shelves) 15
9 (3 shelves) 30
38 CAI for Item Selection
Journal of Special Education Technology
participant’s ability to perform the skills on the computer
before beginning CAI and then after the instructional criteria
were met, to make sure the results maintained without the
reinforcement and instruction provided in CAI. Probe
sessions were conducted with one participant at a time. The
researcher sat next to the participant to help maneuver
through the computer program. Each probe session included
10 trials per class of item for a total of 30 trials per session. All
items appearing during CBP sessions were targeted during
CAI. Sessions lasted until three consecutive sessions of stable
or decelerating data were recorded. Stability was defined as
80% of the data falling within a 20% range. Once stability was
obtained, the CAI was implemented.
During computer probe sessions, the screen showed 3
shelves of cereals, soups, and frozen pizzas so the maximum
number of each item was shown. The number of items
appearing on the screen varied according to the size of the
photographs. A full screen for each of the different classes of
items included 27 cereals, 12 soups, and 12 pizzas. A
photograph of the item appeared in the top left corner of the
computer screen. Screenshots of the 3 different computer
probe displays are shown in Figure 1.
Sessions began with the task direction: “Click on the item
that matches the item in your flipbook.” The participant had
30 seconds to locate the target item and click on the item
using the mouse or touching the item if using a touch screen.
When the student made a correct selection, the item moved
into the shopping cart in the bottom left corner of the screen
and the next trial began. The student received no verbal praise
for correct responses during CBP. The computer ignored
incorrect and no response errors and immediately began the
next trial. Each session consisted of 10 trials from each of the
three stimulus sets.
Computer Based Instruction
During CAI sessions the computer displayed photographs
of grocery items on a shelf or in a freezer door display. Stimuli
appeared on the computer screen similar to how the items are
shelved in most grocery stores (e.g., cereals grouped on one
aisle, canned soups on another, and frozen pizzas in the frozen
foods section). The activity began with matching the target
item to the only item appearing on the screen for a one-to-one
correspondence. The instruction progressively became more
difficult as more items appeared on the shelves to act as
distracting stimuli. On the next level students had to match
the target item from a choice of two items. The remaining
levels for cereals included matching the target cereal to a field
of four cereals, one shelf of 10 cereals, two shelves with 20
cereals, and three shelves with 27 cereals. The levels for soups
were matching from a choice of one soup, two soups, three
soups, one shelf of four soups, two shelves of eight soups, and
three shelves of 12 soups. The levels for frozen pizza were
matching from a choice of one pizza, two pizzas, one shelf of
three pizzas, two shelves of six pizzas, and three shelves of
nine pizzas. Meeting the criterion of three consecutive
unprompted corrects or four out of five unprompted corrects
allowed the participant to move to the next level.
A graduated response criterion was incorporated in each
trial. The amount of time a participant had to respond varied
according to the number of stimuli appearing on the screen.
The computer displayed a model prompt was shown if the
participant did not respond within the given amount of time
or responded incorrectly. Following the model, the participant
was given another chance to answer correctly with the same
target item. For 1, 2, or 4 cereals on the screen, the response
criterion was 5 s. For 10 items, the response criterion was 10
s. For 20 items, the response criterion was 20 s and for 27
items, the response criterion was 30 s. For soups, the response
criterion was 5 s for 1, 2, and 3 soups, 10 s for 4 soups, 20 s
for 8 soups, and 30 s for 12 soups. For frozen pizzas, the
response criterion was 5 s for 1, 2, and 3 pizzas, 15 s for 6
pizzas, and 30s for 9 pizzas.
The program provided a model by explaining that the
item the student needed to find was in the corner and that
they should click the matching item on the shelves. It
modeled one trial for the participant; then provided the task
direction of “Click on the item that matches the item in your
flipbook.” If the participant made a correct selection, the item
automatically moved into the shopping cart at the bottom left
corner of the screen with a reinforcement prompt of “Good
job,” “Well done,” “That’s right,” or “Great job.” The next trial
then began. If the participant made an incorrect selection, the
program prompted, “That isn’t the item that is in your
flipbook. Let me show you” and then modeled how to scan left
to right and top to bottom until the target item was found. A
bright yellow box flashed around the correct match along with
the auditory prompt, “This was the correct item. Try it again.”
If the participant was correct the second time, the item moved
into the cart and the next trial began. If the participant made
an incorrect selection again, the response was ignored and the
next trial was presented. If the participant did not respond
within the specified amount of time after the task direction,
the computer modeled how to scan to find the same item. If
correct, the procedures for a correct response were followed. If
incorrect, the response was ignored and the next trial was
presented. Only the participant’s first response counted
toward criterion (90% or above unprompted corrects for three
consecutive sessions, but all responses were recorded to allow
for error analysis. After the 40 trials, the computer saved the
participant’s name, the current level on which he or she was
working, and all of the participant’s responses in a database.
Reliability
The classroom teacher, paraprofessional, or a special
39Hutcherson
Journal of Special Education Technology
education graduate student collected observer and procedural
reliability data during at least 26% of all sessions and at least
one time per condition for each student. Interobserver
reliability data was not collected during CBP and CAI sessions
because the computer collected the data for those trials. The
computer program was tested to make sure the data collected
were reliable and consistent with the response made by the
user. Interobserver reliability data were collected on accuracy
of student response. The researcher trained all reliability
collectors by explaining procedures and practicing the protocol
in a role-play. Interobserver reliability was calculated using the
point-by-point method of dividing the number of researcher
and observer agreements by the number of agreements plus
disagreements and multiplying by 100.
During GSP the independent observer determined if the
researcher (a) positioned the student at the correct distance
from the target item, (b) provide the task direction, (c) provide
the correct amount of time to complete the task, (d) respond
to the participant’s response in the correct manner, and (e)
allowed for an inter-trial interval of 5 seconds.
For CBP and CAI, the observer tracked whether the
researcher (a) maneuvered through the program to the correct
screen, and (b) provided verbal praise at the end for following
directions. For probe sessions, the observer also tracked
whether the researcher (a) told the participant on which icon to
click to begin, and (b) told the participant on which icon to click
to stop and pointed to it after 10 trials for each class of items.
This differed slightly for intervention sessions where the
observer tracked whether the researcher told the participant
which icon to click on to stop and pointed to it after 40 trials.
Procedural reliability for all conditions was calculated by
dividing the number of observed researcher behaviors by the
number of opportunities to emit the behavior and multiplying
by 100 (Billingsley, White, & Munson, 1980). The percentage
of agreement for each condition was computed.
RESULTS
Reliability
During GSP sessions, interobserver agreement and
procedural reliability were evaluated simultaneously. The
mean interobserver agreement was 80% across all participants
during GSP sessions with a range of (64-96). The mean
interobserver agreement for accuracy of student response was
96% with a range of 95 to100. The mean procedural reliability
across all participants and conditions was 100%.
Acquisition and Generalization
All students accurately located more items following
intervention than they did during baseline conditions. Table 3
shows a synopsis, by item, of mean student performance. T
o
summarize community probe performance, Abby correctly
located to 27.57% of target stimuli before intervention and
61.1% of stimuli following treatment. Kate’s improvement was
larger averaging 19.67% in pre-intervention and 71.53%
following intervention. Sue responded accurately on only 9.2%
of occasions prior to intervention compared 46.52% of occasions
following intervention. Brad, already responding correctly to
78.86% of stimuli during pre-intervention probes, improved and
accurately located 92.7% of the items following intervention.
Figures 2 and 3 depict a time-series data of the students’
performance across conditions. In the condition labeled GSP,
closed diamonds represent the percentage of trained stimuli
Table 3.
Summary Statistics
Pre-Intervention Community Probes Post Intervention Community Probes
Trained Untrained Trained Untrained
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Abby Cereal 45.83 19.09 25 25 77.08 14.91 52.08 16.71
Soups 10.42 12.29 29.17 24.58 30.56 18.87 50 27.95
Pizza 22.22 23.19 38.89 13.18 69.44 34.86 66.67 30.61
Kate Cereal 52.08 16.61 33.33 20.14 86.11 9.77 69.44 20.83
Soups 2.78 5.51 13.89 13.36 37.5 13.69 62.5 20.91
Pizza 20.833 23.44 12.5 13.06 100 0 91.67 14.43
Sue Cereal 13.89 9.77 5.56 11.02 59.72 15.02 41.67 17.68
Soups 3.41 8.08 9.09 16.86 22.92 20.03 41.67 20.41
Pizza 14.58 16.71 6.25 11.31 66.67 38.19 58.33 28.87
Brad Cereal 93.75 8.43 75 10.66 98.61 4.17 97.22 8.33
Soups 65.83 21.37 76.67 19.97 79.17 15.14 87.5 13.69
Pizza 79.17 19.65 88.89 15.39 100 0 91.67 14.43
40 CAI for Item Selection
Journal of Special Education Technology
(i.e. stimuli appearing in the computer instruction) that the
students accurately located in the community. The open
diamonds represent accurate responding to untrained stimuli.
In cases where only one diamond appears in a GSP condition,
this is the result of the two data points overlapping therefore
appearing as one diamond.
Abby’s performance in baseline GSP was relatively low.
During CBP she showed high levels of accuracy and she
quickly acquired correct responding during CAI.
Demonstrating generalization, the GSP data immediately
following intervention was higher when compared to the last
GSP prior to intervention. The results for locating soup were
mixed with some improvement over baseline performance
but then returned to near baseline levels until the 55th
session where her performance rose to 100% correct for the
trained stimuli. This corresponded with her performance
with pizza where she made improvements after intervention
but did not achieve 100% accuracy until the 55th session.
After acquiring item location via CAI on cereals, Sue’s
GSP data improved marginally over baseline levels for several
sessions ultimately reaching a high of 87.5% correct for
trained stimuli in session #64. Even with a low baseline level
for soups, Sue’s performance after intervention did not show
large immediate increases. Her performance increased to the
highest levels in the 60th session at 75% correct for novel
stimuli. With pizza, Sue also showed variable low levels of
accuracy but with a slight increase before intervention.
Following intervention her GSP data climbed to highs of 75%
and 100% for novel and trained stimuli respectively.
Kate demonstrated variable performance in baseline GSP
for cereal and took seven sessions to meet criterion during
CAI. Grocery store probe data directly following the last CAI
session showed performance that overlapped with baseline
performance for trained stimuli but was higher for untrained
stimuli. Following introduction of intervention for locating
soups, Kate’s performance on cereals increased. Her initial
data following CAI for soups showed increases for trained and
untrained stimuli with one data point overlapping with
Figure 2. Abbey and Kate Figure 2. Sue and Brad
41Hutcherson
Journal of Special Education Technology
baseline performance in each category. With pizzas Kate
showed an immediate and abrupt change in level for locating
the items above baseline performance.
Of the four participants, Brad exhibited the highest
baseline performance on GSP probes. He consistently located
100% of the cereals targeted for training in baseline GSP
probes. Following intervention he maintained the high levels
for cereals in training and his accuracy for locating the
untrained stimuli stabilized at 100%. Similarly, with soups
and pizzas, Brad demonstrated the ability to locate 100% of
the items in both the trained and untrained items prior to
intervention with no noticeable changes following
intervention.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the
effectiveness of a CAI program to increase the percentage of
correctly selected grocery store items and to see if a
discrimination skill generalized to the natural setting for the
four participants with moderate to severe disabilities.
Specifically, the study evaluated the number of correctly
selected items and generalization to the grocery store. The
percentage of correct responses increased in the grocery store
while anecdotal data revealed that the time to locate items
decreased after the CAI. This later finding, while requiring
more rigorous methodological inquiry, signals another
possible utility for CAI.
This study added support to the literature base
supporting the use of multimedia-based instruction to
improve social skills (e.g. Alcantara, 1994; Wissick, 1992;
Ayres & Langone, 2002). Comparison of pre-intervention to
post intervention means clearly show improvements in
performance. Whether or not one can attribute these
improvements to the CAI is disputable. Traditionally in
multiple probe designs, one looks for immediate changes in
performance following introduction of an intervention
(Tawney & Gast, 1984). While all of the students quickly
acquired the skills on the computer, most scored well on
computer baseline probes. In the case of Sue, performance on
CBP for soup and pizza increased as soon as she began
intervention for cereals, suggesting that she only needed more
practice with the computer program. In the case of the four
participants in this study, changes occurred in community
performance but the changes were not always immediately
after intervention. For Abby, Sue, and Kate, several additional
probe sessions (on the computer as well as in the community)
in addition to introduction of the intervention on the next set
of stimulus set took place. This suggests that probing may
have ultimately had a facilitative effect.
Limitations of the Study
One obstacle that makes the interpretation of these
findings difficult is that Brad, Abby, and Sue all had some skill
at locating items in the community prior to intervention.
Absolute level changes became more difficult to judge. Future
studies should focus more on customizing the software to
meet the specific needs of the participants thus allowing more
demonstrable effects.
In regard to the intervention, the instructional format of
the program lacked some components of teaching. For
example, when the computer gave the controlling prompt
after an incorrect or no response, no verbal direction followed
telling the student how to scan the shelves for an item. The
computer simply told the student that the item he or she
selected was incorrect. More explicit instruction might have
enhanced generalization. For example, the participant could
be told to scan left to right, side to side, and top to bottom,
which could then be enhanced with a video vignette of a real
shopper scanning shelves for a similar item.
Because of the constantly changing images on products
(e.g., some cereal boxes display many different athletes in a
single year), cereal photograph availability and sharpness of
the photograph after minimizing the images, half of the
cereals were a non-identity match. This programming
challenge could lead to difficulty for students already
challenged when having to make a conditional discrimination
if they do not know what aspects of an item label are critical
to making a match (e.g., boxes are always bright orange with
blue letters). Alternatively one could view these natural
variations as an advantage for generalization purposes.
Future Research
As suggested for future research by Mechling et al., (2003),
this computer program included direct selection of the items on
the screen to allow for active responding. Teaching the discrete
task of making a correct discrimination was basis of this study.
Future researchers could include more of a complete grocery
shopping experience instead of focusing on an isolated skill.
This could easily be made possible with the incorporation of
videos that help to set the context for the targeted skill.
The results from this study provided an alternative way
for teachers to teach students with disabilities how to perform
skills that are used in the community without visiting the
community environment. Students could work on the
computer multiple times a day and independently unlike
community-based instruction or classroom simulations.
Software could extend the community experience allowing
repeatable, recyclable teaching opportunities in the classroom.
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on purchasing skills of children with autism. Exceptional
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Francisco: Macromedia.
42 CAI for Item Selection
Journal of Special Education Technology
Ayres, K. M., & Langone, J. (2002). Acquisition and
generalization of purchasing skills using a video enhanced
computer instructional program. Journal of Special
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Baer, D., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T. (1968). Some current
dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied
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Billingsley, F. F., White, O. R., & Munson, R. (1980). Procedural
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Assessment, 2, 229-241.
Cuvo, A. J., & Katt, K. P. (1992). Effects of community-based,
videotape, and flash card instruction of community-
referenced sight words on students with mental retardation.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 499-512.
Langone, J., Shade, J., Clees, T.C., & Day, T. (1999). Effects of
multimedia instruction on teaching functional
discrimination skills to students with moderate/severe
intellectual disabilities. International Journal of Disability,
Development and Education, 46 (4) 493-513.
McDonnell, J., Hardman, M. L., Hightower, J., Keifer O’Donnell,
& Drew, C. (1993). Impact of community-based instruction
on the development of adaptive behavior of secondary level
students with mental retardation. American Journal on
Mental Retardation, 97, 575-584.
McDonnell, J. J., Horner, R. H., & Williams, J. A. (1984).
Comparison of three strategies for teaching generalized
grocery purchasing to high school students with severe
handicaps. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe
Handicaps, 9, 123-133.
Mechling, L., & Gast, D. (2003). Multi-media instruction to
teach grocery word associations and store location: A study
of generalization. Education and Training in Mental
Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 38, 62-76.
Mechling, L., Gast, D., & Langone, J. (2002). Computer-based
video instruction to teach persons with moderate intellectual
disabilities to read grocery aisle signs and locate items.
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Mechling, L., & Langone, J. (2000). The effects of a computer
based instructionalprogram with video anchors on the use of
photographs for prompting augmentative communication.
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Morrow, S. A., & Bates, P. E., (1999). The effectiveness of three
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training on the acquisition and generalization of community
laundry skills by students with severe handicaps. Research
in Developmental Disabilities, 8, 113-136.
Morse, T. E., Schuster, J. W., & Sandknop, P. A. (1996). Grocery
shopping skills for persons with moderate to profound
intellectual disabilities: A review of the literature. Education
and Treatment of Children, 19, 487-517.
Neef, N. A., Lensbower, J., Hockersmith, I., DePalma, V., & Gray
K. (1990). In vivo versus simulation training: An interactional
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Nietupski, J., Hamre-Nietupski, S., Clancy, P., & Veerhusen, K.
(1986). Guidelines for making simulation an effective
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Wissick, C.A., Gardner, J.E., & Langone, J. (1999). Video-based
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Karen Hutcherson is a teacher in the Greene County (GA)
Schools. John Langone is Professor and Head of the
Department of Special Education at the University of Georgia.
Kevin Ayres is a lecturer in the College of Education,
University of Georgia. Tom Clees is Associate Professor in the
College of Education, University of Georgia. Correspondence
concerning this article should be sent to John Langone,
Department of Special Education, 573 Aderhold Hall,
University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602-7153. Email to:
jlangone@uga.edu.
43
Journal of Special Education Technology
Assessment has always been an integral component of
the educational process, but the importance to students of
performing effectively on district and statewide tests has
increased the visibility of testing and assessment for students
with and without disabilities. There are several factors that
limit the reliability of common testing formats for students
with intellectual disabilities, including limitations in literacy
and problems with fine-motor and eye-hand coordination.
Even when students with intellectual disabilities can read test
or survey items, they may focus on an irrelevant aspect of the
question. Finally, there are often difficulties with determining
the best response format for students in this population.
Individuals with intellectual disabilities are more likely to
respond in an acquiescent manner, and there is concern that
yes/no test formats may be unreliable due to this acquiescence
bias. On the other hand, students have difficulty
understanding gradations between options in a Likert-format
scale (Sigelman, Budd, Spanhel, & Schoenrock, 1981;
Wehmeyer, 1994).
For these reasons, educators working with students with
intellectual disabilities tend to minimize or eliminate the use
of standard testing or survey formats, choosing instead to
employ a variety of assessment methods to determine student
progress and knowledge or skills, including ecological
inventories, task analytic assessment, curriculum –based
assessment, portfolio assessment, and so forth (Browder,
2001; Macfarlane, 1998). There are, however, situations in
which information derived from more traditional test, self-
report questionnaires, or survey formats would be useful for
educational purposes.
There is increased emphasis in special education
practices on the importance of universal design for learning
(UDL) and for universally-designed materials if students with
disabilities are to access the general curriculum (Rose &
Meyer, 2002), including students with more severe disabilities
(Wehmeyer, Lance, & Bashinski, 2002). Issues of universal
design and students with intellectual disabilities were
discussed in the introductory article to this special issue
(Wehmeyer, Smith, Palmer, & Davies, this issue) and JSET
readers are well aware of the application of UDL principles
through the JSET Universal Design for Learning columns. As
such, we will simply note that the application of principles of
UDL to assessment formats has the same potential to ensure
access for students with cognitive impairments that the
application of these principles to curricular presentation and
content has. While it is likely the case that the educational
assessment of students with intellectual disabilities will best
be accomplished through multiple means, there is potential
value to examining how typical testing or survey formats can
be modified so as to be useful with this population.
Internet-Based Multimedia Tests and Surveys
for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities
STEVEN E. STOCK
DANIEL K. DAVIES
AbleLink Technologies, Inc.
MICHAEL L. WEHMEYER
University of Kansas
Students and adults with intellectual disabilities face multiple obstacles when taking tests,
assessments, evaluations, questionnaires, and surveys. Significant impairments in literacy can
make common formats for soliciting objective and subjective feedback—such as written
questions and answers—inaccessible to many people with intellectual disabilities. This brief
report provides results of a pilot test of an Internet-based multimedia testing and assessment
system employing audio, video, and picture supports to enable individuals with intellectual
disabilities to more independently complete online tests and assessments. Twenty-two
adolescents and adults participated in the study. Participants needed an average of 7.5 prompts
to complete a traditional written test, while those same individuals required only 2.2 prompts
to complete the online version of the test. These results suggest the feasibility of utilizing a self-
directed, multimedia software approach for creating an independent and potentially integrated
test-taking format for individuals with intellectual disabilities or literacy challenges.
Journal of Special Education Technology. 19(4), Fall 2004
44 Independent Test Taking
Journal of Special Education Technology
The objective of this pilot study was to determine the
technical merit, feasibility of use, and required functional
features of an Internet-based multimedia software approach
for creating independently accessible and self-directed tests
and assessments for individuals with intellectual disabilities.
The goals of this project follow:
1.To define the interface, functional and technical
requirements for a prototype software system designed to
enable individuals with intellectual disabilities to respond
to test, assessment or other evaluation questions in an
independent and self-paced manner.
2.To implement these requirements in a fully
functioning, Internet-based software prototype.
3.To conduct a pilot study to measure the effectiveness of
the prototype against existing tools and systems for
administering assessments or tests in the areas of self-
direction, independent use, accuracy of results and
efficiency of process.
These objectives were accomplished by designing,
building and field testing an Internet based software
prototype, called QuestNet, utilizing support from both a
public school transition program and local adult service
provider agencies. The specific project task steps included (a)
preliminary requirements development, (b) initial design and
prototype development, and (c) evaluation of the QuestNet
prototype.
METHOD
Participants
Study participants were 22 adolescents and adults with
intellectual disabilities recruited from a public school 18-21
transition program and from an agency in the same
community providing supports to adults with developmental
disabilities. Thirteen participants were male and nine were
female. The mean IQ score for study participants was 55.93,
(SD = 8.38 , range = 45-69), and the average age was 28.3
(SD = 11.32 , range = 18-49). Key persons in each agency
were initially contacted concerning interest in participating
in the study, and then all students and adults served by the
programs were invited to participate. The final sample
consisted of those participants who returned informed
consent. All participants received compensation for their
participation.
System Design
The software authoring tools in ASP.NET were used to
develop and integrate the software modules and databases for
the prototype system. FlashMX was the core development tool
used to encapsulate audio, video, and digital image media
used to create the online multimedia test format. An opening
screen was developed to allow researchers to easily initiate a
session by clicking the link for the appropriate test (A or B), as
described subsequently. Study participants were not required
to use this screen.
After the researcher, an employee of AbleLink
Technologies, chose the appropriate test form, the first
question was presented to the participant. For all question
types, questions and potential answers were automatically
presented on screen in text format, along with an audio
recording of the question and a prompt for making an
appropriate response. For example, the first question in Test
A was presented both in text and as an automated audio
recording: “Are you satisfied with the staff that provide your
services and supports? Please click in the box next to your
answer.” If the participant used a mouse, placing the cursor
over a potential answer played a recorded message stating that
answer option (e.g., “Yes”, “No”, “Sometimes”).
If a touch screen interface was used, the same recorded
audio answers played when the user tapped the box next to
each answer. In other words, if the user tapped the box next
to “Yes,” the answer was read aloud by the computer to
confirm the selection, and a red check mark was entered in
the box. The check boxes were created as a toggle switch, in
that if it was clicked or tapped once the check would appear;
a second consecutive click would remove the check from the
box. Users could change answers at any time by selecting the
box next to a different answer.
Upon selecting an answer, a large button with a blue
arrow on it was displayed along the right vertical edge of the
screen. This button was used to move to the next question.
As an example of error minimization techniques used in the
prototype software, the button to move to the next question
was only available on screen when an answer had been
selected. If the user selected an answer and then de-selected
it, the arrow button was removed from the screen. This error
minimization feature prevented participants from
accidentally moving to the next question without providing
an answer for the previous one. The final element of the user
interface involved a button with an image of an ear that was
available in the upper right corner of each screen. Users could
select this ear button at any time to replay a question.
After the user successfully answered Question 1 and clicked
the blue arrow button, Question 2 was cued and the sequence
repeated. The audio for Question 2 on T
est Form A stated “Do
you get to go out in the community for activities as often as you
would like? Be sure to check the box next to your answer.” After
responding, Question 3 was cued, and so on until the final
question. After completing the last question, a closing screen
was displayed with an audio message stating “The survey is now
complete. Thank you very much for your time.”
Test Forms
The project team selected questions based on items from
existing test instruments in use by the participating school or
45Stock
Journal of Special Education Technology
agency. Items were selected and generated to ensure that
participants responded to several question and answer
formats across several multimedia formats. Two test forms,
labeled A and B, were developed for use in the study. Each
form included eight questions identical in format and
sequence but differing slightly in content. Both tests included
(a) two questions using a “yes/no/sometimes” response, (b)
two multiple choice questions using hand drawn pictures, (c)
two multiple choice questions using digital pictures, and (d)
two true/false questions.
As described in the session procedure section,
participants completed an online version (e.g., QuestNet) of
either Form A or B, and the written version of the other form.
The minor differences in content were considered
inconsequential to the study, as there was no attempt to
determine the accuracy of answers. Table 1 illustrates the
differences between test forms.
Research Design
A two-group, within-subjects design was utilized for the
pilot study. Participants underwent testing using both the
traditional written test and QuestNet. Both the order of
presentation and the test form used in each condition were
randomized to control for ordering effects. Each participant
received training prior to engaging in each testing condition.
A sample test was developed that included one of each type of
questions listed above. This sample test was implemented in
both the written format and in the software prototype.
Participants were trained on each version of the sample test
(written and online) until they mastered the ability to provide
an answer to each question type, regardless of whether the
answer was right or wrong. Three individuals were unable to
meet this criteria for the sample test, and therefore received
their participation fee and were excused from the study. No
data from these individuals were included in the results.
Test Procedures
Each test session involved the following sequence of
activities.
1. The order in which test format (written or online)
would be presented was randomly determined.
2. The test form (A or B) that would be taken in the
written or online format was randomly determined.
3. Training on the written version of the sample test was
provided.
4. If participant showed mastery of test completion using
sample test, written version of form A or B was
completed in written format.
5. Training on software version of sample test was
provided.
6. If participant showed mastery of test completion using
sample test, online version of form A or B was completed.
Data Collection
A form was developed along with detailed instructions for
collecting data on participant performance during the pilot
study. Researchers observed pilot study sessions and
documented prompts and errors in accordance with the
detailed written procedures for administering the assessment.
Of the 22 test sessions conducted, 16 included more than one
Table 1
Comparison of Two Tests Developed for Pilot Study
Test A Test B
Question Answer Set Question Answer Set
1. Are you satisfied with the staff that provide your 1. Do you feel that your teachers or staff listen to you
services and supports? Yes/No/Sometimes when you have a problem? Yes/No/ Not Sure
2. Do you get to go out in the community for activities 2. If you are not happy about something, do you
as often as you would like? Yes/No/Sometimes know who to talk to about it? Yes/No/ Not Sure
3. Check the box for the picture below that shows Chose between 3. Check the box for the picture below that shows Chose between
someone slicing. two hand drawings someone grating lemons. two hand drawings
4. Check the box for the picture below Chose between 4. Check the box for the picture below that shows Chose between two
that shows someone sifting. two hand drawings someone basting a turkey. hand drawings
5. Check the box for the picture of the job that Chose between 5. Check the box for the picture that shows someone Chose between two
shows someone operating a machine: two digital pictures doing a job making beds: digital pictures
6. Check the box for the picture of the job that Chose between 6. Check the box for the picture for the job you Chose between two
you think is noisier.two digital pictures think is noisier. digital pictures
7. Smoke from a fire is thinner near the ceiling. True/False 7. For minor cuts and scrapes, wash the wound
with soap and water.True/False
8. Sharp knives can safely be washed with the silverware. True/False 8. It is okay to buy a bulging food can if it is on sale. True/False
46 Independent Test Taking
Journal of Special Education Technology
data coder. Coders were trained using a data collection script
that was developed for the study. The training script was
developed initially by anticipating potential actions of
participants, and was refined by observing a series of practice
trials of the procedure using both project team members and
local volunteers with intellectual disabilities. Coders then
used the training script to record data on a series of practice
trials. For example, if a participant needed direction on where
to click next in the online system, or if he or she asked that a
question or word be read to them, a prompt was recorded.
However, if a participant asked a question unrelated to
independent test-taking such as “Should I answer yes?,” no
prompt was recorded and the participant was told to simply
provide the best answer they could.
Data Analysis
Data from the pilot study was analyzed with SPSS PC+
for Windows to determine if the results were statistically
relevant. The study utilized a standard within-subjects paired
samples research design to compare the degree of
independence and frequency of error between the two
conditions. The analysis conducted was a t-test for paired
samples. Significance was tested at the p = .05 level. Inter-
rater reliability was determined by dividing the number of
possible agreements by the number of actual agreements,
multiplied by 100.
RESULTS
Inter-rater reliability for observations of prompts was .95,
while for observations of errors it was .97. Table 2 provides a
summary of results of comparisons between written and
online versions of the tests. There were significant differences
(p = .001) for the number of prompts required to complete the
test as a function of the test format. Using the QuestNet
prototype, participants required an average of 2.16 (SD =
2.72) prompts to complete the test as compared to an average
of 7.48 (SD = 4.04) instances of assistance required to
complete the traditional testing format. There were no
significant differences in the mean number of errors made in
completing the test.
DISCUSSION
The results of this pilot study provided preliminary
evidence that youth and adults with intellectual disabilities
could independently complete a test using a self-directed
multimedia software approach more reliably then when using
a traditional written format. Sample size and the pilot nature
of the study limited the generalizability of the findings,
certainly, but there were several benefits to online testing tools
that emerged as a result of the study. Perhaps the most
evident reason was the capacity of the QuestNet to provide
literacy supports enabling participants to have the question
read to them. Error rates on both testing approaches were
surprisingly low. Although more total errors were made when
engaging in traditional test taking than when taking the test
using the online multimedia version, the difference was not
statistically significant. However, all but three of the errors
made during the QuestNet sessions were due to the test
subject forgetting to first run the video clips on questions
using that format, an issue that can be corrected through a
redesign of the QuestNet interface.
Three basic question and answer formats were
implemented in the multimedia online prototype. The first
format, questions with variations of the yes/no responses,
appeared to be the most familiar and easiest to respond to by
participants. There was, however, the potential, as noted
previously, of a tendency toward acquiescent responses, and it
is important to conduct more research to examine whether
multimedia formats can reduce such acquiescent responding.
The next most accessible response format used in the study
was multiple choice, single response (that is, only one answer
was chosen). Within the four multiple choice questions, two
involved choosing between responses represented by line
drawings, and two questions had answer sets represented by
digital images. Although the study did not specifically analyze
differences between line-drawn images and digital
photographs, observation notes indicated that some subjects
had greater difficulty with the more abstract line drawings
than with the digital pictures. This was also a candidate for
further evaluation. The third question and answer format
evaluated in this project was true/false. Although this is a
common format for testing, it appeared to be the most
difficult for participants to comprehend. Participants
frequently exhibited long hesitations at answering these
questions, or made statements such as “I don’t get it” or “I
need help with this one.”
For most adolescents or adults who participated in the
study, using the specialized online testing system provided
clear advantages. Participants—even those who demonstrated
Table 2.
QuestNet Pilot Study Results (n = 22)
Condition QuestNet Traditional One-tailed
Significance
Average Incidence of
Assistance/Prompts
Required to Mean = 2.16 Mean = 7.48
Complete Test SD = 2.72 SD = 4.04 p < .001
Average Incidence
of Errors Made in Mean = .32 Mean = .46
Completing test SD = .699 SD = .800 p = .195
Average Percent
Correct 64% 64% —
47Stock
Journal of Special Education Technology
functional literacy skills—uniformly preferred the online
system to paper and pencil testing. Participants made
comments related to enjoying the control and self-pacing
provided by the system as well as the multimedia features,
including: “It’s easier.” “I like it better because I’m good at it.”
“I like the computer because its easier than paper.” “I wish I
had one of these at home.” and “I never did a test by myself
before!”
In general, users seemed to appreciate the opportunity to
independently take a test with minimal assistance of another
person. The empowerment of more independent test taking,
along with the self-esteem of successful computer use,
appeared to be primary factors in their preference for
QuestNet. Additional factors may include the relative novelty
of viewing video clips on a computer, use of a touch screen
interface (this was made optionally available to test subjects),
and the sense of being in control of their environment.
REFERENCES
Browder, D. (2001). Curriculum and assessment for students
with moderate and severe disabilities. New York: Guilford.
Macfarlane, C.A. (1998). Assessment: The key to appropriate
curriculum and instruction. In A. Hilton & R. Ringlaben
(Eds.), Best and promising practices in developmental
disabilities (pp. 35-60). Austin, TX: ProEd.
Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching Every Student in the Digital
Age: Universal Design for Learning. Arlington, VA: ASCD.
Sigelman, C.K., Budd, E.C., Spanhel, C.L., & Schoenrock, D.J.
(1981). Asking questions of retarded persons: A comparison
of yes-no and either-or formats. Applied Research in Mental
Retardation, 7, 347-357.
Wehmeyer, M.L. (1994). Reliability and acquiescence in the
measurement of locus of control with adolescents and adults
with mental retardation. Psychological Reports, 75, 527-537.
Wehmeyer, M. L., Lance, G. D., & Bashinski, S. (2002).
Achieving access to the general curriculum for students with
mental retardation: A curriculum decision-making model.
Education and Training in Mental Retardation and
Developmental Disabilities, 37, 223 – 234.
Steven Stock is vice president of AbleLink Technologies. Dan
Davies is president of AbleLink Technologies. Michael
Wehmeyer is Associate Professor in the Bureau of Child
Research at the University of Kansas. Correspondence
concerning this article should be addressed to Steven Stock,
528 N. Tejon St., Suite 100, Colorado Springs, CO, 80903.
Email to: steve@ablelinktech.com.
The authors would like to thank those individuals who
volunteered to participate in the QuestNet pilot study and
other activities conducted in this project. Additionally, our
appreciation goes out to the staff at Cheyenne Village, Inc.,
Martin Luther Homes, and Colorado Springs School District
11 who provided opinions, feedback, and otherwise facilitated
various tasks in the project.
48
Journal of Special Education Technology
49
Journal of Special Education Technology
Cognitive disability entails a substantial limitation in
one’s capacity to think, including conceptualizing, planning,
and sequencing thoughts and actions, remembering,
interpreting subtle social cues, and understanding numbers
and symbols. Cognitive disabilities include intellectual
disabilities and can also stem from brain injury, Alzheimer’s
Disease and other dementias, severe and persistent mental
illness, and, in some cases, stroke (see Figure 1). More than
20 million persons in the United States have a cognitive
disability -- and the number of individuals with cognitive
disabilities such as Alzheimer’s disease is expected to increase
rapidly as the nation’s population ages (Braddock, 2001).
Utilization of Technology
Many persons with cognitive disabilities utilize assistive
technologies to enhance functioning in activities of daily
living, control of the environment, positioning and seating,
vision, hearing, recreation, mobility, reading, learning and
studying, math, motor aspects of writing, composition of
written material, communication, and computer access.
Technologies used range from low-tech devices, such as
pictorial communication boards or adapted eating utensils, to
high-tech devices including adapted software and voice output
devices with speech synthesis (Technology and Media
Division, 2003).
An assistive technology device is defined in the
Technology Related Assistance for Individuals with
Disabilities Act of 1988 (Pub. L. 100-407) and the Assistive
Emerging Technologies and Cognitive Disability
DAVID BRADDOCK
University of Colorado System and Coleman Institute for Cognitive Disabilities
MARY C. RIZZOLO
University of Illinois at Chicago
MICAH THOMPSON
Coleman Institute for Cognitive Disabilities
RODNEY BELL
ASSET Consulting
Despite the potential of emerging technologies to assist persons with cognitive disabilities,
significant practical impediments remain to be overcome in commercialization, consumer
abandonment, and in the design and development of useful products.
Barriers also exist in terms of the financial and organizational feasibility of specific envisioned
products, and their limited potential to reach the consumer market. Innovative engineering
approaches, effective needs analysis, user-centered design, and rapid evolutionary development
are essential to ensure that technically feasible products meet the real needs of persons with
cognitive disabilities.
Efforts must be made by advocates, designers and manufacturers to promote better
integration of future software and hardware systems so that forthcoming iterations of personal
support technologies and assisted care systems technologies do not quickly become obsolete.
They will need to operate seamlessly across multiple real-world environments in the home,
school, community, and workplace.
Journal of Special Education Technology. 19(4), Fall 2004
Figure 1. Cognitive Disability in the United States
50 Emerging Technologies
Journal of Special Education Technology
Technology Act of 1998 (Pub. L. 105-394), as “any item, piece
of equipment, or product system, whether acquired
commercially, modified or customized, that is used to
increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of
individuals with disabilities” (Title 29, Chapter 31, §
3002(a)(3)). The term assistive technology service is defined
in the Technology Related Assistance for Individuals with
Disabilities Act of 1988 (Pub. L. 100-407) and the Assistive
Technology Act of 1998 (Pub. L. 105-394), as “any service
that directly assists an individual with a disability in the
selection, acquisition, or use, of an assistive technology
device” (Title 29, Chapter 31, § 3002(a)(4)).
To date, much of the research on assistive technologies
for persons with cognitive disabilities has focused on the
benefits of augmentative and alternative communication
(AAC) aids. "In the broadest sense, the goal of AAC
interventions is to assist individuals with severe
communication disorders to become communicatively
competent today in order to meet their current
communication needs and to prepare them to be
communicatively competent tomorrow in order to meet their
future communication needs" (Mirenda, 2001, p. 142). AAC
research has helped disprove the previously widely held belief
that persons with significant levels of cognitive disabilities
could not benefit enough from communication devices to
justify the cost (Light, Roberts, Dimarco, & Greiner, 1998;
McNaughton, Light, & Arnold, 2002; Romski & Sevcik,
1997; Turner, 1986, cited in Romski & Sevcik, 2000). Speech
recognition and output technology, in particular, has been
shown to greatly enhance the participation of individuals with
disabilities in educational and other daily activities (Cavalier
& Brown, 1998; Lancioni, O'Reilly, & Basili, 2001; Mechling,
Gast, & Langone, 2002; Romski, Sevcik, & Adamson, 1999).
Confluence of Advances in Technology
Until recently, when the term technology was used in
conjunction with cognitive disability, it most likely referred to
an assistive technology device, such as one for augmentative
and alternative communication or a switch to control the
environment. State-of-the-art technological advances in
computer science, engineering, communications,
rehabilitative science, and microelectronics have rarely been
adapted for people with cognitive disabilities. However, the
number of people with cognitive disabilities is expected to
increase rapidly in future years, and as a result there is
increased interest in developing and marketing new
technologies for people with cognitive disabilities. Cognitive
technologies have the potential to help persons with cognitive
disabilities, and those with age-related cognitive decline, to
achieve greater independence, productivity, and quality of life
(Bowles, 2003; Eisenberg, 2002; Hammel, 2000; Hammel,
Lai, & Heller, 2002; Merritt 2003).
Product engineering is evolving from stand-alone devices
and applications to distributed, connected, integrated, and
multi-technology systems (Kurzweil, 1990, 1999, 2002).
Electronic products are becoming smart and software systems
are becoming adaptive and personalized. The movement
toward smaller, easier to use, micro-technologies, with larger-
scale integration, increased performance, and reduced price
not only benefits the general population, but also has the
potential to benefit those with cognitive disabilities. Three
arenas of technology advancement in cognitive disability are
described below: personal support technologies, assisted care
systems technologies, and virtual technologies.
PERSONAL SUPPORT TECHNOLOGIES
Personal Digital Assistants
Personal support technologies (PST), such as personal
digital assistants (PDAs), have the ability to greatly enhance
the independence, productivity, and quality of life of persons
with cognitive disabilities (Bergman, 2002; Grealy, Johnson,
& Rushton, 1999; Hart, Hawkey, & Whyte, 2002). For
example, parents or caregivers can pre-program a PDA or
desktop software with educational, vocational, or daily living
tasks to prompt individuals with cognitive disabilities to
perform a wide variety of well-defined vocational and
independent living tasks (Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer,
2002a). Specialized PDA software is currently available for
enabling individuals with developmental and other cognitive
disabilities to manage personal schedules with much greater
independence (Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer, 2002b), for
helping direct individuals during their work tasks (Davies,
Stock, & Wehmeyer, 2002a; Furniss et al., 2001; Furniss &
Ward, 1999), and for assisting with activities of daily living
(Lancioni, O'Reilly, Seedhouse, Furniss, & Cunha, 2000;
Lancioni, O'Reilly, Van den Hof, Seedhouse, & Rocha, 1999).
PDAs can also interface with wireless communication
protocols to track and monitor an individual's daily activities,
and provide prompts to the individual as needed to complete
educational or work tasks (Furniss et al., 2001; Kautz et al.,
2001; O'Hara, Seagriff-Curtin, Davies, & Stock, 2002 ). PDA
technology has also benefitted individuals with traumatic
brain injury (Cole, 1999) and communication disorders
(McDonough, 2002).
Computer Assisted Learning and Communication
Other personal support technologies include specialized
computer training programs (Davies, Stock, Wehmeyer, 2003,
2004), voice interfaces (Barker, 2002), picture-based email
programs, and adapted Web browsers such as WebTrek
(Davies, Stock, Wehmeyer, 2001). Wearable computers can
also assist students with cognitive disabilities. For example, a
wearable data glove has been developed by an engineering
student at the University of Colorado that translates
51
Journal of Special Education Technology
American Sign Language and transmits this information
wirelessly to an electronic display (Patterson, 2002).
Access to personal support technologies can benefit
individuals in the classroom to remain on task, remind them
of pending assignments, and provide access to information on
the computer or the Internet. The effectiveness of computer-
based learning techniques for students with cognitive
disabilities has been well documented (Alcade, Navarro,
Marchena, & Ruiz, 1998; Bernard-Opitz, Sriram, &
Nakhoda-Sapuan, 2001; Blischak & Schlosser, 2003; Scruggs
& Mastropieri, 1997). [See Wehmeyer et al. this issue for a
comprehensive review of the research conducted on
technology use by students with intellectual disabilities].
Despite the benefits to be gained, however, studies
indicate access to computers and the Internet for persons with
cognitive disabilities in the classroom and at home lags behind
access for persons without disabilities (Abbott & Cribb, 2001;
Aspinall & Hegarty, 2001; Johnson & Hegarty, 2003; Kaye,
2000). Almost 60% of persons with disabilities have never
used a computer, compared to less than 25% of persons
without disabilities (Abramson, 2000). Less than 10% of
persons with disabilities have access to the Internet, compared
to 38% of persons without disabilities. A discrepancy also
exists in computer ownership. Less than 24% of people with
disabilities own a computer, compared to over 50% of persons
without disabilities (Kaye, 2000). The rates of access for
persons with cognitive disabilities are undoubtedly even lower
than the above-cited statistics, which apply generally to
persons with disabilities. Some researchers, however, posit
that with advances in computer power and declining costs,
increasing numbers of students with disabilities will have
appropriate access to necessary technologies (Hasselbring,
2001). However, as noted by Tinker (2001), education tends to
follow well behind other sectors of society in terms of
technology utilization. In addition, this problem can be
exacerbated in special education because it comprises a small
market relative to general education.
Universal Design
Universal design principles are necessary to ensure that
persons with cognitive disabilities are able to utilize common
technologies available to the general public. Universal design
intends that products -- especially software and computers --
provide an interface that is suitable for all potential users,
including persons with disabilities. Web standards, such as
User Agent Accessibility Guidelines (Festa, 2002), federal
regulations - such as Section 508, and public/private
initiatives, such as the World Wide Web Accessibility
Initiative (WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),
promote access to software and the internet for people with
disabilities. But how does one define accessibility? Elbert
Johns, Director of TheArcLink, (as cited in Rizzolo, Bell,
Braddock, Hewitt, & Brown, in press) has suggested the
importance of clearly defining the principal components of
accessibility as this term pertains to people with intellectual
and developmental disabilities and their use of information
technology. Specifically, he notes that for information to be
accessible to a person with an intellectual disability, it must
(a) decrease the dependence on rote memory as a tool for
recalling information, (b) use as many complementary
formats as possible [visual, audio, multi-graphic], (c) reduce
the need for the recipient to utilize complex organizational
skills for comprehension, and (d) be presented in a vocabulary
or reading level that approximates the level of the recipient.
More intuitive, user-centered, computing interfaces are
necessary to increase accessibility and empower persons with
cognitive disabilities to use common technologies such as the
Internet and personal computers.
ASSISTED CARE SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY
Another area of emerging technology for persons with
cognitive disabilities is assisted care systems technology.
These technologies are designed to assist caregivers of
individuals with cognitive disabilities, and can range from
simple monitoring devices to complex assisted care systems
(ACS) integrated into the infrastructure of a building. These
emerging technologies can assist in promoting the
independence and health of persons with disabilities —
including persons with cognitive disabilities — while
maintaining safety.
Smart Houses
One example of an assisted care system is the smart
home. Smart homes and rooms (Pentland, 1996) combine
tracking technology and environmental control to provide
robust prompting, including environmental cues such as
adjusted lights (Lancioni & Oliva, 1999), and simplified
operation of household systems. Many companies, such as
Microsoft, Honeywell, and Intel, and universities such as
MIT and Georgia Tech, are researching smart home
technology as beneficial examples of ubiquitous computing.
One company is already developing and using smart home
technology to help care for residents with early-stage
Alzheimer’s disease in assisted living facilities (Elite Care,
2001). Research at the University of Colorado at Boulder is
also underway to apply similar smart supports technology to
community and family-based settings for persons with
developmental disabilities (Taylor, 2003).
Residential assisted care systems integrate
indoor/outdoor tracking systems, bio-sensors, building
automation, databases, computer networks, and eventually,
learning algorithms. Assisted care systems could provide
numerous benefits for persons with cognitive disabilities,
their families, and caregivers. For example, tracking systems
Braddock
52 Emerging Technologies
Journal of Special Education Technology
can provide feedback to direct support employees and
relatives on daily living activities (Elite Care, 2002). Pattern-
recognition and learning software can be used to alert direct
support employees of impending risks or adverse events,
including social isolation and abnormal behavior (Elite Care,
2002). Building automation can simplify or control operation
of household systems, including disabling an appliance or
unlocking a door when a resident reaches their room. Though
the research to date has focused on how these systems can
promote independence in residential settings, much of the
technology has the potential to be applied to other
environments including the work site and the classroom.
Smart Transportation/Tracking Technology
Another example of smart technology is the smart
transportation system. This system can assist persons with
cognitive disabilities with mass transportation by utilizing
wireless technologies and personal digital assistance devices
such as the global positioning system (GPS) (Fischer & Sullivan,
2002). Travelers can be alerted when their GPS-equipped bus is
arriving, and caregivers can be notified if the traveler has boarded
the wrong bus. Problems with transportation have been cited as
one of the most pressing barriers to the full integration of
persons with disabilities into community life (New Freedom
Initiative, 2001). The availability of reliable and safe
transportation options can be an essential precursor to the
successful transition from school to work.
Tracking technology is also a potentially useful ACS
strategy to address wandering. Over 50% of respondents in a
survey by the National Down Syndrome Society (2001)
identified wandering as a significant problem. Many of the
respondents indicated that wandering behavior occurred at
night. Companies have developed both personal devices and
home-based systems to address this need (Digital Angel,
2002). Utilizing GPS or local tracking data, monitoring
devices can also alert caregivers in the event of a fall or
unusual activity, or help locate persons who wander.
Assisted care systems can also be used to monitor the
health of persons with cognitive disabilities. For example,
ACS can integrate data from devices that passively monitor
biomedical signs (e.g., smart bed sheets or more conventional
vital signs monitors). With novel algorithms to estimate
health states (Pavel, 2002), ACS can provide an unobtrusive,
continuous picture of an individual’s health. Research is also
being conducted involving more focused, personal health
advisory systems for the home (Fauchet, 2002). In the
classroom, these systems could assist educational staff to
monitor the health status of individuals with complex
disabilities in an unobtrusive way during school hours.
Personal Robots
Robots have also emerged as a novel way to supplement
the role of caregivers (Dario, Guglielmelli, Laschi, & Teti,
1999; Excell, 2004). Researchers at Carnegie Mellon and the
University of Pittsburgh have developed a nurse robot
(Nursebot) to assist elders with activities of daily living
including prompts to perform certain tasks and medication
administration (Rotstein, 2004; Stresing, 2003). The role of
robots in the provision of care to the elderly and persons with
cognitive disabilities will increase as the general population
ages, the need for long-term care increases, and the pool of
potential caregivers declines. Analysis of data from the
National Long Term Care Survey showed that utilization of
assistive technologies was associated with fewer hours of
personal assistance (Hoenig, Taylor, & Sloan, 2003). Future
research should investigate the role these technological
assistants can play in the school environment.
VIRTUAL TECHNOLOGIES
A third emerging arena of technologies for persons with
cognitive disabilities is virtual technologies. Virtual
technologies attempt to create an experience that simulates
an actual experience, and have the potential to promote the
participation of persons with disabilities in educational and
community activities. Virtual environments (VEs) range from
desktop VEs operating on a personal computer to full-
immersion, three-dimensional situations.
Studies have documented the benefits of providing
instruction to students with cognitive disabilities using
virtual technologies and computer-based simulations
(Akhutina et al., 2003; Lannen, Brown, & Powell, 2002;
Cromby, Standen, & Brown, 1996). For example, researchers
at the University of Colorado have created "full-bodied three-
dimensional animated characters" capable of engaging in
"natural face-to-face conversational interaction with
users"(Ma, Yan, & Cole, 2004, p. 1) . The animated character
software program assists children with speech and reading
difficulties to interact with animated characters to improve
speech and language skills, and is currently available in
English, Spanish, and other languages (Ma et al., 2004).
The use of virtual reality for educating persons with
cognitive disabilities can overcome barriers of real-world
training situations such as cost, safety and accessibility
(Cromby et al., 1996). Researchers have utilized virtual
technologies to provide instruction in community-based
activities such as shopping, social interactions, and safety
(Brown & Standen, 1999; Langone, Clees, Rieber, & Matzko,
2003). Use of virtual technologies in the classroom can be
extremely motivating to students, can make abstract learning
concepts more concrete, allow students to progress through
an experience at their own pace, and encourage active
participation rather than passive observation (Pantelidis,
1995). Furthermore, skills learned in virtual environments
have been shown to successfully transfer to real world
53Braddock
Journal of Special Education Technology
situations (Standen, Brown, & Cromby, 2001; Standen,
Cromby, & Brown, 1997). Virtual environments have also
been used to mentor adults with cognitive disabilities and the
elderly (Brown & Standen, 1999).
Virtual technologies are also being used to promote the
health and well being of individuals with disabilities.
Researchers at the University of Colorado and the University
of Illinois at Chicago are developing engaging and motivating
exercise opportunities for persons with disabilities in their
own homes through virtual exercise environments. This
study investigated whether virtual environments could
increase distributed exercise participation by addressing
frequently reported transportation barriers (Bennett, Bodine,
Mulligan, and Lightner, 2002). This project has the potential
to assist individuals with cognitive disabilities living in
dispersed living environments to achieve improved health
outcomes (Rimmer, Braddock, & Pitetti, 1996). Future
research and development in this area should investigate the
feasibility of incorporating this technology into the school
system to provide virtual exercise opportunities to persons
with disabilities that adapt to the abilities of each individual.
Virtual technology could track exercise goals for each student
and allow opportunities for students to participate in virtual
competitions with others with similar competencies.
CONCLUSION
Due to continuing advances in microprocessor speed and
processing capacity, computing power is progressing at an
exponential rate. It literally doubles every 12-18 months
(Kurzweil, 1999). The rapid rate of progress in computing
power suggests that personal support, assisted care, and
virtual technologies will progress rapidly over the next decade,
becoming substantially more personalized. There are also
positive signs that the assistive technology industry is
growing. According to a U.S. Department of Commerce
survey (2003), 359 companies manufacturing assistive
technologies reported sales of $2.87 billion in 1999, up 21.8%
from 1997 sales. Market projections suggest that emerging
neuroscience technologies, like brain-machine interfaces
permitting brain control of robot arms or computers, will be
a $3.6 billion industry by 2008 (Cavuoto, 2004). Advances in
cognitive neuroprostheses (Horch, & Dhillon, 2004), stem
cell transplantation (http://stemcells.nih.gov/index.asp), and
therapeutic cloning in South Korea (Hwang et al., 2004), hold
exceptional promise to benefit persons with cognitive
disabilities, and with time, may significantly improve
function in disorders such as Alzheimer’s, Down syndrome,
and Parkinson’s disease.
Despite the potential of emerging technologies to assist
persons with cognitive disabilities, there are significant
practical impediments to be overcome in commercialization,
consumer abandonment, and in the design and development
of useful products. For example, existing barriers to
widespread commercialization of emerging technologies
include regulatory burdens imposed by the FDA and the
economically disadvantaged status of many persons with
cognitive disabilities — combined with limited private
insurance and Medicaid/Medicare coverage and payment
policies (US Department of Commerce, 2003).
Barriers also exist in terms of the financial and
organizational feasibility of specific envisioned products, and
their limited potential to reach the consumer market.
Innovative engineering approaches, effective needs analysis,
user-centered design, and rapid evolutionary development are
essential to ensure that technically feasible products meet the
real needs of persons with cognitive disabilities. The
obsolescence of most technological devices after only a few
years presents a significant barrier to persons with cognitive
disabilities. Efforts must be made by advocates, designers and
manufacturers to promote better integration of future
software and hardware systems so that forthcoming iterations
of personal support technologies and assisted care systems
technologies do not quickly become obsolete. They will need
to operate seamlessly across multiple real-world
environments in the home, school, community, and
workplace.
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David Braddock is Associate Vice President of the University
of Colorado System and Professor and Executive Director of
the Coleman Institute for Cognitive Disabilities. Mary Kay
Rizzolo is Associate Director of the Center for Excellence in
Developmental Disabilities at the University of Illinois at
Chicago. Micah Thompson is Senior Professional Research
Assistant at the Coleman Institute for Cognitive Disabilities.
Rodney Bell is Principal at ASSET Consulting.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to David Braddock, Coleman Institute, 4001 Discovery Drive,
Suite 210, 586 SYS, Boulder, CO, 80309-0568. Email to:
braddock@cu.edu.
57
Journal of Special Education Technology
This review marks the fifth consecutive year in which I
have used the comprehensive one-year research synthesis
methodology to analyze the special education technology
literature (Edyburn 2003, 2002, 2001, 2000). This work has
been motivated by a desire to address the challenges
associated with too much information (Swanson, 1998;
Wurman, 1989), inadequate tools for managing information
overload (Bush, 1945), and too little time to synthesize new
knowledge into existing practices or engage in substantive
change (Swanson, 1998; Willinsky, 1999; Wurman, 1989).
This past year, a new problem has emerged as a result of
the restructuring of the ERIC system (http://www.eric.ed.gov).
Established in the 1960s as the first large scale database for
educators, the ERIC system has developed into the core
resource for scholars and parishioners interested in accessing
the professional knowledge base. While ERIC had its flaws,
most notably the historical reliance on microfiche and the
omission of key assistive technology journals, it is widely
recognized as an essential tool for students, researchers, and
educational leaders and served as the model for other
professional databases such as MEDLINE. However, as of
December 19, 2003, the ERIC system would be restructured.
Essentially this meant that new documents would not be added
to the system while a new contractor was identified. In essence,
ERIC has been unplugged. When the new contractor takes over
in 2005, it will be responsible for indexing only 1,000 journals,
rather than the 4,400 journals indexed by ERIC.
The Traditional Tools of Scholarship
The recent restructuring of the ERIC system will
significantly impact the work of scholars and practitioners
interested in special education technology (SET). While the
SET literature was only partially covered in the ERIC system,
there are few assurances that the new system will adequately
index the SET literature. As a result, the SET profession must
raise some serious questions about the tools it needs to
manage, access, and utilize the extant knowledge base.
One distinguishing characteristic of a scholar is the
intimate knowledge and understanding of the published
literature in one’s discipline. This knowledge has been
traditionally acquired through reading and studying
professional journals. In support of scholarship in special
2003 in Review:
A Synthesis of the Special Education Technology Literature
DAVE L. EDYBURN
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
The professional literature continues to be an essential resource for scholars and practioners for
filtering and highlighting new advances in research and practice. However, the ongoing
challenges associated with too much information, inadequate tools for managing information
overload, and too little time for professional development demand that new approaches to
literature analysis and synthesis be explored. The purpose of this study was to examine recent
additions to the extant knowledge base in special education technology using a methodology
known as the comprehensive one-year research synthesis. Two questions guided the inquiry:
How widely scattered is the literature on special education technology? and What have we
learned lately? The table of contents from each issue of 31 journals in special education
technology (n=5), special education (n=17), and educational technology (n=9) published in
2003 were studied. The procedures yielded a corpus of 814 articles of which 224 articles (28%)
were judged relevant for this review as contributing to the emerging knowledge base on special
education technology research and practice. Analysis of the literature scatter revealed relevant
literature could be found in 30 journals but that a core set of 11 journals contributed 70% of the
relevant articles. Content analysis of the relevant articles revealed a number of dominant
themes in the literature during 2003: assistive technology, implementation issues, instructional
design, instructional strategies, outcomes of technology, professional development, reading and
technology, and technology integration. The limitations of the comprehensive one-year research
synthesis methodology are discussed along with the new importance this tool may have in
filling the void created by the recent restructuring of the ERIC system.
Journal of Special Education Technology. 19(4), Fall 2004
58 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
education, various facets of professional journals have been
studied to gain insight about publishing opportunities (Joyce
& Joyce, 1990), characteristics of the literature (Black, 1974;
Summers, 1986; Torgeson & Dice, 1980; Vockell & Asher,
1972), rankings of professional journals (Garrett &
McLoughlin, 1995, Swanson & Alford, 1987), quality of
published works (Garrett & McLoughlin, 1995), and the
impact of published works as represented through citation
analysis (Swanson & Alford, 1987; Vockel & Jacobson, 1983).
Surprisingly, while some attention has been devoted to the
scholarly use of the Web (Henry, 2002; Nachmias, & Gilad,
2002; Spinellis, 2003), generally little is known about how
scholars and practitioners rely on the Web as a source of
information for current awareness and professional decision-
making.
Cooper and Hedges (1994) have noted that one tool, the
literature review, is especially prized by scholars and
practitioners because it serves a strategic function in managing
information overload and facilitating access to the extant
knowledge base. Naturally, this strategy has been utilized
within the field of special education technology and has
resulted in a number of useful works: comprehensive reviews
of the literature (Edyburn 2003, 2002, 2001, 2000, 1995; Jeffs,
Morrison, Messenheimer, Rizza, & Banister, 2003; Okolo,
Bahr, & Rieth, 1993; Woodward & Rieth, 1997), and a
comprehensive bibliographic index (Haus & Rieth, 1989).
While the value of integrative literature reviews is
unquestioned, the fundamental approach is based on an in-
depth review of a specific topic across time. Indeed, a
taxonomy of approaches to research synthesis reflect this
principle (Cooper & Hedges, 1994, p. 4). However, given the
relative youth of the field of special education technology,
methods that involve multi-year historical analysis fail to
serve the information needs of a profession during the
formative period when the literature base is being built.
Reflecting on the lack of tools for accessing the special
education technology knowledge base, I wondered why
research synthesis methodology could not be utilized in a
different way. That is, why not conduct a synthesis of the
literature across a one-year time period? The results of a
comprehensive one-year review and synthesis would yield a
response to the question, “What have we learned lately?” and
provide researchers, scholars, and educational leaders with a
new tool for accessing the emerging knowledge base. Such an
approach appears to meet the basic definition of a literature
review constructed by Cooper and Hedges (1994, p. 4):
Common to all definitions of literature reviews is the
notion that they are “not based primarily on new facts
and findings, but on publications containing such
primary information, whereby the latter is digested,
sifted, classified, simplified, and synthesized” (Manten,
1973, p. 75).
Thus, the major attribute of the comprehensive one-year
research synthesis approach is that it simultaneously
addresses the problem of information overload and provides a
new tool for accessing the extant knowledge base.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The purpose of this study was to investigate two research
questions regarding the extant knowledge base: How widely
scattered is the literature on special education technology?
and What have we learned lately?
Literature Scatter
As a result of the proliferation of professional
publications, questions have been raised concerning how
widely one must read in order to maintain command of the
key developments in a discipline. The field of library and
information science refer to this issue as the problem of
“literature scatter”(Lancaster, 1988). Bibliometric studies of
the literature in a discipline provide evidence regarding the
concentration or scatter of relevant information. A study
examining the scatter of literature on learning disabilities
found that while articles about learning disabilities could be
found in 248 journals, a core of nine journals accounted for
67% of the articles (Summers, 1986). Previous studies on the
special education technology literature found that 70% of the
relevant literature published in a one-year period could be
found in 6-11 journals (Edyburn, 2003, 2002, 2001, 2000).
What Have We Learned Lately?
The pace of change in the technology marketplace
challenges scholars and practitioners to maintain their
currency in the discipline of special education technology.
Indeed, the question: What have we learned lately? is a
difficult one to answer using the traditional tools of
scholarship because of the delay between print publication
and the availability of computerized indexes (typically, a nine-
month delay in journals indexed in ERIC). Additionally,
reviews of the literature and research synthesis articles
generally do not appear in the literature until many years after
a sufficient number of studies have been produced. These two
factors combine to make it extremely difficult for a young
discipline like special education technology to have a
collective understanding of what is known. Thus, the
importance of utilizing the existing knowledge base in a
discipline during its formative period makes it imperative that
new techniques be developed to help minimize information
anxiety (Wurman, 1989) and help manage the information
explosion.
An innovative strategy to address the current awareness
needs of the discipline is to apply the function of research
synthesis across a discipline by focusing on a single year.
Rather than producing an exhaustive review of a single topic,
59Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
this approach yields a comprehensive review that addresses
the question, “What have we learned lately?” The results of
this synthesis work contributes to the current awareness of
both SET researchers and practitioners and facilitates access
to the emerging knowledge base months before literature
indexes are published or years before traditional literature
reviews will be available. Given the recent restructuring of the
ERIC system, this synthesis may serve to fill a critical
knowledge utilization void.
Method
The purpose of the investigation was to conduct a
comprehensive review of the scholarly literature published in
2003 in order to (a) summarize recent additions to the special
education technology knowledge base informing research and
practice in the field and to (b) examine the concentration, or
scatter, of the literature as it is contained in professional
journals. The methodology known as the comprehensive one-
year research synthesis approach (Edyburn, 2000) was
utilized.
Procedures
Search procedures. Three studies provided a basis for
defining the search procedures. Summers (1985) conducted
an early investigation into the bibliometric properties of a
journal literature (i.e., microcomputers in education) using a
mainframe computer to analyze ERIC bibliographic records.
The present study replicates the methodology advanced by
Edyburn (2000) for creating a one-year literature synthesis of
the special education technology literature as a tool for
maintaining current awareness in a discipline with an
emerging knowledge base. Finally, an analysis for authors
interested in locating journals that publish manuscripts on
educational technology topics, Price & Maushak (2000)
suggested that the boundaries of the discipline of educational
technology may be represented in the context of 16 different
journals.
The author reviewed a list of journals indexed by the
ERIC system and the holdings of three local research libraries
and discerned three groups of journals that could potentially
publish articles relevant to special education technology:
special education technology journals, special education
journals, and educational technology journals. Whereas there
are clearly many topics with overlapping interest within the
three groups (i.e., distance education, Web-based instruction),
each literature has a strong appeal to distinct groups of
readers.
Special education technology journals were considered to
be those that would be frequently subscribed to by
professionals who consider themselves to be special education
technology specialists. Five journals were identified in this
category.
Seventeen special education journals were identified from
among the over 50 journals referenced in the ERIC system as
representing a core knowledge base in special education.
While some journals have a general focus, others have a
disability specific focus. For the most part, these journals are
among the largest and most prestigious journals in the
profession and are targeted for special education teachers,
administrators, and researchers.
Educational technology journals were considered to be
those that would be read by professionals who consider
themselves to be educational technology specialists. Nine
journals were identified in this category reflecting a subset of
the work of Price & Maushak (2000) as they describe the
editorial focus of 16 educational technology journal.
To locate articles that contribute to an emerging
understanding of the field of special education technology,
manual reviews of the table of contents of each issue of the 31
journals published in 2003 were conducted March through
July 2003. Computer searches were not conducted for several
reasons. First, there is a six-to-nine month time lag between
when the print publication appears and when the citation is
entered into the ERIC system, and the subsequent
dissemination of the ERIC database update (three-to-six
additional month). Second some of the core publications for
the field of special education technology (i.e., Closing the Gap,
Special Education Technology Practice), are not reviewed nor
indexed by the ERIC system and therefore would not be found
in computer searches. Finally, some journals are only
selectively reviewed, that is, some rather than all contents are
included in the ERIC indexing process.
The 31 journals reviewed in this study are listed in Table
1 along with each issue that was reviewed. Based on previous
research findings (Edyburn, 2003, 2002, 2001, 2000), it was
hypothesized that the highest concentration of relevant
literature would be found in special education technology
journals, followed by special education journals. It was
anticipated that the lowest ratio of special education
technology articles would be found in the educational
technology literature.
Selection procedures. The author reviewed each journal
issue by browsing the table of contents to identify article titles
potentially of interest to researchers and practitioners in the
field of special education technology. As necessary, individual
articles were scanned to ascertain their relevance.
Announcements, editorials, and product reviews were not
counted nor were articles that focused primarily on medical or
rehabilitation applications of technology.
Relevance. An article was judged to be relevant if it
expressly mentioned technology (assistive, instructional, or
educational) and individuals with disabilities in contexts
associated with schooling or learning. This could include
articles addressing student or teacher use of technology in
60 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
Table 1
2003 Journals Reviewed (n=31)
Special Education Journals (n=5)
Title Issues reviewed
Assistive Technology 15(1), 15(2)
Closing the Gap 21(6), 22(1), 22(2), 22(3), 22(4), 22(5)
Journal of Special Education Technology 18(1), 18(2), 18(3), 18(4)
Special Education Technology Practice 5(1), 5(2), 5(3), 5(4), 5(5)
Technology and Disability 15(1)
Special Education Journals (n=17)
Title Issues reviewed
Behavioral Disorders 28(2), 28(3), 28(4), 29(1)
Career Development for Exceptional Individuals 26(1), 26(2)
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities** 38(1), 38(2), 38(3), 38(4)
Exceptional Children 69(2), 69(3), 69(4), 70(1)
Focus on Exceptional Children 35(5), 35(6), 35(7), 35(8), 35(9), 36(1),36(2), 36(3) [*see notes]
Gifted Child Quarterly 47(1), 47(2), 47(3), 47(4)
Intervention in School and Clinic 38(3), 38(4), 38(5), 39(1), 39(2)
Journal of Early Intervention 26(1), 26(2), 26(3), 26(4)
Journal of Learning Disabilities 36(1), 36(2), 36(3), 36(4), 36(5), 36(6)
Journal of Special Education 37(1), 37(2), 37(3), 37(4)
Learning Disabilities Quarterly 26(1), 26(2), 26(3), 26(4)
Learning Disabilities Research and Practice 18(1), 18(2), 18(3), 18(4)
Mental Retardation 41(1), 41(2), 41(3), 41(4), 41(5), 41(6)
Remedial and Special Education 24(1), 24(2), 24(3), 24(4), 24(5), 24(6)
Teacher Education and Special Education 26(1), 26(2), 26(3), 26(4)
Teaching Exceptional Children 35(3), 35(4), 35(5), 35(6), 36(1), 36(2)
Young Exceptional Children 6(2), 6(3), 6(4), 7(1)
Educational Technology Journals (n=9)
Title Issues reviewed
Computers in the Schools 20(1/2), 20(3), 20(4)
Educational Technology 43(1), 43(2), 43(3), 43(4), 43(5), 43(6)
Educational Technology Research & Development 52(1), 52(2), 52(3), 52(4)
Journal of Computing in Teacher Education 20(1), 20(2)
Journal of Educational Computing Research*** 28(1), 28(2), 28(3), 28(4), 29(1), 29(2), 29(3), 29(4)
Journal of Research on Technology in Education 35(3), 35(4), 36(1), 36(2)
Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 11(1), 11(2), 11(3), 11(4)
Learning and Leading with Technology 30(5), 30(6), 30(7), 30(8), 31(1), 31(2),31(3), 31(4)
Technology and Learning 23(6), 23(7), 23(8), 23(9), 23(10), 23(11), 24(1), 24(2), 24(3), 24(4), 24(5)
Notes:
*Journal is behind in publication schedule.
**Name changed from: Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities
***JECR publishes two volumes each calendar year, four issues per volume (eight total annually).
61Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
special education, assistive technology, instructional
technology, how-to articles, resources guides, policy or legal
issues. Articles were also considered relevant if, despite not
explicitly addressing individuals with disabilities, they served
to inform the design, acquisition, implementation, or
evaluation of educational technologies, media, materials, or
methods. Again, announcements, editorials, and product
reviews were not counted nor were articles that focused
primarily on medical or rehabilitation applications of
technology. Obviously, there is an element of judgment in this
decision-making. However, given the function of the
synthesis to serve as an early-alert system, an effort was made
to err on the side of including all articles of potential interest
to professionals working within the discipline.
Coding procedures. To ascertain the relative size of the
periodic literature knowledge base for this study, as
represented in the 31 journals during the year 2003, the
number of total articles contained in each journal issue was
recorded. Then, following the selection procedures outlined
above, the number of relevant articles in each issue was
recorded. Each relevant article was copied for subsequent
content analysis.
Analysis procedures. Two types of procedures were used
to analyze the data. To address the research question
concerning the scatter of the literature, the journal titles were
sorted by the number of relevant articles they contained. To
address the research question concerning what was learned in
2003, the results of the search were assembled into a master
bibliography and then sorted alphabetically by author’s last
name. Content analysis procedures were used to code of each
article according to its type (i.e., development, essay, policy,
practice, research, theory). One descriptor was used to
describe its disability focus, if a specific disability was
addressed in the article. If appropriate, one descriptor was
assigned for grade/age level, and one descriptor for curriculum
area. Finally, one-to-three topic descriptors were assigned to
describe the focus of the work.
RESULTS
The process of reviewing the table of contents for each
issue of 31 journals published in 2003 defined a body of
knowledge contained in 814 articles. After titles and articles
were scanned to assess their relevance to special education
technology, 28% of the total (n=224 articles), were judged to
be relevant for this review. This figure is consistent (27%) with
the most recent review (Edyburn, 2003).
Literature Scatter
Tables 2, 3, and 4 provide an alphabetical listing of the
three groups of journals (i.e., special education technology
journals, special education journals, and educational
technology journals), the number of total articles, and the
number of relevant articles found in each journal. While the
highest concentration of relevant articles were found in the
special education technology journals (82%), educational
technology journals (28%) contributed more relevant articles
to the knowledge base in 2003 than did special education
journals (17%). As a result, the hypothesis that relevance
would be distributed in concentric circles from special
education technology, to special education, to educational
technology journals was not supported.
One problem associated with the challenge of trying to
stay current focuses on the scatter of the literature. That is,
how widely does one need to read to stay current? In Table 5,
the journal titles are ordered by their contribution to the
knowledge base in descending order. Analysis of the literature
scatter revealed that a core set of 11 journals contained 70%
of the relevant articles and that 100% of the relevant literature
could be found scatter among 30 different journals. While the
relative ranking of a particular journal may change from year
to year and may be significant influenced by special topical
issues, the top two journals have remained consistent over the
five years these studies have been conducted: Journal of
Special Education Technology, and Closing the Gap.
Insight about the concentration/scatter characteristics of
the journal literature can be gained through the application of
Bradford’s Law (1934). Summers (1985) describes the
calculation and the interpretive framework this law affords in
understanding the magnitude of a discipline's journal
literature:
Bradford’s Law suggests that if the set of articles is divided
into three approximately equal zones they will be
Table 2.
Special Education Technology Journals
Journal Title # of issues in 2003 total # of articles # of articles deemed relevant % relevant
Assistive Technology 2 16 4 25
Closing the Gap 6 23 23 100
Journal of Special Education Technology 4 25 25 100
Special Education Technology Practice 5 10 10 100
Technology and Disability 1 5 3 60
Total 16 79 65 82
62 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
distributed across the journals proportionately such
that the ratio 1: n. n2...n10 will hold where 1 is the
number of journals in the first zone and n is a
proportional multiplier. Thus, there is always a small
nucleus of journals which contains a large number of
articles—usually about one-third of the total. A second
larger group accounts for another third of the total, and
the last very large group of journals contributes the
final third. (p. 7)
To apply Bradsford’s Law to the data listed in Table 5,
lines could be drawn dividing the listing into three
approximately equal groups (33%, 66%, 100%). Visual
inspection reveals that three journals contribute 32% of the
literature, seven additional journals add articles that
contribute to a cumulative total of 66% of the relevant
literature, and 22 journals contribute the remaining 34% of
the literature. In this study, a multiplier cannot be found to
explain the relationship among the three groups (3:7:22).
The significance of this anomaly may be understood
through the work of Brookes (1968) who observed that
deviations in the first zone are most likely to occur among
the most productive journals within the inner nucleus;
thereby suggesting a core effect. Thus, while researchers
and practitioners may perceive the literature on special
education technology to be widely scattered, in reality, it is
scattered less than can be predicted using bibliographic
models. Indeed, the finding of a high concentration of
relevant articles in a small number of journals, 32% in
three journals and 70% in 11 journals, offers strong
evidence concerning a core literature within the discipline.
Table 3.
Special Education Technology Journals
Journal Title # of issues in 2003 total # of articles # of articles deemed relevant % relevant
Behavioral Disorders 4 25 1 4
Career Development for Exceptional Individuals 2 14 1 7
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities 4 38 9 24
Exceptional Children 4 27 6 22
Focus on Exceptional Children 7 7 2 29
Gifted Child Quarterly 4 22 0 0
Intervention in School and Clinic 5 23 3 13
Journal of Early Intervention 3 13 4 31
Journal of Learning Disabilities 6 45 6 13
Journal of Special Education 4 22 2 9
Learning Disability Quarterly 4 19 5 26
Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 4 25 5 20
Mental Retardation 6 33 5 15
Remedial and Special Education 6 30 13 43
Teacher Education and Special Education 422 418
Teaching Exceptional Children 6 53 4 8
Young Exceptional Children 4 12 5 42
Total 77 430 75 17
Table 4.
Educational Technology Journals
Journal Title # of issues in 2003 total # of articles # of articles deemed relevant % relevant
Computers in the Schools 4 28 9 32
Educational Technology 6 58 12 21
Educational Technology Research & Development 4 18 2 11
Journal of Computing in Teacher Education 2 9 1 11
Journal of Educational Computing Research 8 44 11 25
Journal of Research on Technology in Education 4 22 9 41
Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 4 24 4 17
Learning and Leading with Technology 870 24 34
Technology and Learning 11 32 12 38
Total 51 305 84 28
63Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
What Did We Learn in 2003?
The review process yielded a corpus of 224 articles
contributing to the 2003 knowledge base of research on
special education technology. Appendix A provides a list of
each article included in this synthesis of the literature. The
articles are listed in alphabetical order along with an
identification code which will be used in the following
sections as a short-hand reference for each work.
The fundamental question of what we learned in the past
year may be viewed from multiple perspectives, possible
answers could focus on ways of knowing (i.e., research,
practice, essay, etc.), disability specific applications, classroom
applications (i.e., age/grade, subject areas), as well as through
the lens of technology topics. Each view provides a number of
access points to the literature and will be described in the
subsequent sections.
Each article was classified as to its type (i.e., essay,
research, practice, etc.). As illustrated in T
able 6, the most
common type of article found in the literature focused on
practice. However, when all the categories involving inquiry
are combined, the number of research articles (n=85) and the
number of practice articles (n=79) are roughly equivalent.
Overall, the special education technology literature is
characterized by an emphasis on practical issues rather than
research efficacy. A significant finding in 2003 is a dramatic
increase in the number of articles with a historical or
retrospective perspective (n=11) due to a number of journals
celebrating publishing milestones (e.g., 20 years).
A second perspective for understanding what we have
learned lately involves an examination of the specific
disability focus in the literature. T
able 7 summarizes the
specific disabilities referenced in the articles in this review.
Table 5.
Journals ranked by the number of articles contributed to the 2003 special education technology knowledge base
Title # of relevant Articles cumulative journals total percent
Journal of Special Education Technology 25 1 25 11
Learning and Leading with Technology 24 2 49 22
Closing the Gap 23 3 72 32
Remedial and Special Education 13 4 85 38
Educational Technology 12 5 97 43
Technology and Learning 12 6 109 49
Journal of Educational Computing Research 11 7 120 54
Special Education Technology Practice 10 8 130 58
Computers in the Schools 9 9 139 62
Education & Training in Developmental Disabilities 9 10 148 66
Journal of Research on Technology in Education 9 11 157 70
Exceptional Children 6 12 163 73
Journal of Learning Disabilities 6 13 169 75
Learning Disability Quarterly 5 14 174 78
Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 515 179 80
Mental Retardation 5 16 184 82
Young Exceptional Children 5 17 189 84
Assistive Technology 4 18 193 86
Journal of Early Intervention 419 197 88
Teacher Education and Special Education 4 20 201 90
Teaching Exceptional Children 4 21 205 92
Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 4 22 209 93
Technology and Disability 3 23 212 95
Intervention in School and Clinic 3 24 215 96
Educational Technology Research & Development 2 25 217 97
Focus on Exceptional Children 2 26 219 98
Journal of Special Education 227 221 99
Behavioral Disorders 1 28 222 99
Career Development for Exceptional Individuals 1 29 223 99
Journal of Computing in Teacher Education 1 30 224 100
Gifted Child Quarterly 031
64 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
The three most common disability groups in the special
education technology literature are communication disorders,
learning disabilities, and mental retardation; all high
incidence disabilities. It is interesting to note that only 23% of
the articles (n=52) explicitly reference the application of the
work to a specific disability. This may be due to the increasing
emphasis on generic applications (i.e., universal design, Web
searching) that are useful for learners of all ages and abilities.
In other cases, when a specific disability is not mentioned in
the article, the reader is expected to provide the bridge
between understand the application of the technology to the
students s/he works with.
As one might expect, many articles in the special
education technology literature focus on classroom applications
of technology for students with disabilities. As noted in Table 8,
articles can be found at all levels of education. However, the
majority of the articles (50%, 29/58 articles) focus on PreK –
Grade 8 applications. A disproportionate number of post-
secondary applications can also be noted (22%, 13/58 articles).
The specific curriculum focus of the articles, if applicable, is
listed in T
able 9. The three most common curriculum
applications of special education technology were found in
reading, writing, and math.
A final lens for understanding what we have learned
lately involves examining the topics within each article. For
this purpose, each article was assigned one-to-three
descriptors. Table 10 provides an alphabetized list of topics
found in the 2003 journal literature. Content analysis of the
relevant articles revealed a number of dominant themes in the
literature during 2003: assistive technology, implementation
issues, instructional design, instructional strategies,
outcomes of technology, professional development, reading
and technology, and technology integration. As might be
expected, a number of other topics are well represented in the
literature: augmentative and alternative communication
(AAC), accessibility, assessment, evidence-based practice,
inclusion and technology, universal design, Web resources,
and Web-based instruction.
Of particular interest to the special education technology
community are new developments in access to the
curriculum (#1, #18, #48, #144, #183, #212, #213); test
accommodations (#186, #211) the value and use of blogs for
writing (#24, 103, #104); insights about intellectual property,
copyright laws, and the ever-changing boundaries of fair use
(#12, #128); and federal policy initiatives in the form of No
Child Left Behind (#19, #88, #92, #140, #180, #190), the
Table 6.
Articles Classified by Type
Type Article Number
essay 12, 25, 32, 46, 57, 71, 83, 158, 159, 179, 184, 187, 188, 195, 197, 201, 205, 209
historical 2, 23, 86, 99, 131, 174, 214, 216, 217, 219, 220
literature review 19, 21, 35, 36, 41, 44, 47, 51, 87, 95, 124, 149, 151, 154
meta analysis 113, 156
policy 5, 43, 128, 186, 192, 212
practice 1, 3, 4, 8, 13, 18, 20, 22, 24, 29, 31, 38, 48, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 81, 84, 89, 90, 92,
93, 94, 98, 100, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 114, 116, 117, 120, 122, 136, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 155, 157, 165, 166, 167, 170, 175,
178,180, 181, 182, 183, 190, 196, 198, 202, 207, 208, 211, 218, 221, 222, 223
research
accessibility 161
action 26, 194
case study 111, 129
measurement 203
development 27, 30, 63, 85, 102, 112, 132, 133, 162
economic valuation 76
group comparison 14, 17, 62, 101, 106, 115, 127, 130, 134,138,153,163, 171, 176, 177, 206
instrument validation 86, 135, 168
program evaluation 7, 10, 15, 16, 34, 39, 40, 45, 68, 109, 110, 137, 143,145, 150, 152, 169, 172, 189, 200, 210, 224
qualitative 33, 60, 118, 213
research agenda 173
research synthesis 123, 185
research utilization 6, 37, 97, 125, 199
single subject 28, 61, 82, 126, 148
survey 9, 42, 59, 80, 91, 146, 147, 160, 164, 193, 215
theory 11, 49, 50, 52, 88, 119, 121, 191, 204
65Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
National File Format (#192), and the National Education
Technology Plan (#173). At an indiscernible level it is
interesting to perceive a pattern of concerns about functions
associated with choice making (#136), independence, (#29,
#40, #204), and quality of life (204). A developmental sign
the discipline may be maturing can be seen in articles
addressing important professional issues such as assessing
the prestige of technology journals (#91), the impact of
technology work in promotion and tenure decisions (#71,
#91, #215), and pending shortage of doctoral level leadership
personnel (#164). Finally, for professionals interested in
issues of diversity and technology, it continues to be
disconcerting to observe the limited effort that has been
devoted to issues of cultural sensitivity (#8, #70, #162),
equity (#216), gender differences (#130, #176, #177).
DISCUSSION
As a strategy to simultaneously address the problem of
information overload and to provide scholars and
practitioners with new tools for accessing the extant
knowledge base, this study utilized an innovative research
synthesis methodology to create a comprehensive one-year
review of the literature exploring two questions: How widely
scattered is the literature on special education technology?
and What did we learn in 2003?
Literature Scatter
The problem of literature scatter is one that confronts all
researchers and practitioners as they face the daunting task of
trying to stay current in their discipline. The interdisciplinary
nature of the field of special education technology may also
reinforce a perception that the literature is widely scattered
among many journals. However, the findings of this study
reveal it is not scattered as widely as would be predicted by
bibliographic models (Bradsford, 1934). In fact, the results
offer strong evidence concerning the presence of a core
literature within the discipline given that 70% of the relevant
literature can be found within 11 journals.
For the past two years, the hypothesis that the literature
would be organized in concentric circles with the most relevant
articles being found in a core of special education technology
journals, followed by special education journals, and finally
educational technology journals was not supported. It appears
that this may be due in part to the inclusion of a greater number
of articles from educational technology journals which have
grown at a greater rate (2003, 28%; 2002, 24%, 2001, 14%)
Table 7.
Articles by Disability Focus
Disability Article Number
autism 75
communication disorders 7, 84, 85, 89, 126, 158, 159, 178, 179,
195, 208
deaf 157
dyslexia 101
emotional/behavioral disabilities 151
high incidence disabilities 68
HIV/AIDS 105
homebound 16
learning disabilities 6, 21, 28, 44, 80, 97, 123, 154, 199, 205
mental retardation 39, 40, 61, 62, 82, 212, 213
mental retardation/
developmental disabilities 41
mild disabilities 15, 134, 188
moderate, severe disabilities 119, 143
physical and learning disabilities 200
physical impairments 100, 135, 219
print disabilities 90
severe disabilities 18
significant disabilities 19, 29, 203
stroke 34
visual impairments 122
Table 8.
Articles by Grade Level
Grade Level Article Number
preschool-K 7, 67, 106, 126, 136, 144, 169, 185
preschool-1 115
preschool-8th grade 135
preschool-12th grade 54, 58
kindergarten 47
K-5th grade 3
K-8th grade 113
elementary
grades 1-3 206
grades 1-6 31
grades 2-3 153
grades 3-6 130
grade 4 86
grades 4-5 148
grades 5-7 127
grades 6-12 28, 82, 143
grades 6-9 213
grade 8 176, 177
grades 8-10 61
secondary
grade 9 171
grade 9-adult 152
grade 10 33
grades 9-12 6, 15, 44, 95, 129, 134, 194, 199
post secondary 4, 10, 25, 80, 118, 123, 154, 163, 184,
189, 193, 218, 224
adult 16, 34, 39, 40, 62
66 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
than the articles included from special education journals
(2003, 17%; 2002, 17%, 2001, 15%).
The impact of the literature scatter findings (see Table 5)
can be assessed in several ways. For the practitioner, the
results help answer questions like, “How much do I need to
read to stay current?” and “How widely do I need to read?”
The list helps an individual set priorities for reading and offers
a confidence measure of how much coverage of the literature
they are encountering. For librarians and resource
organization, the results contribute to efforts related to
collection development. That is, which journals should be
included when building a special education technology
collection? And, what is the cost of maintaining annual
subscriptions to a comprehensive collection of journals
covering the discipline of special education technology?
Similarly, individuals may wonder, “If I can only afford a few
journals, are there some that are more relevant than others?”
Researchers can utilize the information on literature scatter
when planning manual or computer-based literature searches.
Authors might use the findings to inform decisions about
where to publish a specific manuscript on special education
technology. Finally, editors might use the findings to study the
relative rankings of their journal from year to year to assess
whether or not technology coverage is above average, average,
or below average compared with other journals.
What Did We Learn in 2003?
The second research question addressed by this study
sought to address the question, What have we learned lately?
(and more specifically: What did we learn in 2003?). While
the results are necessarily limited due to the one-year sample,
a number of insights are possible. First, more information
about issues of practice in special education technology are
published than research. Largely, this may be a function of the
publication cycles of the practice-oriented journals (e.g.,
Closing the Gap, six times annually; Special Education
Technology Practice, five times annually; Learning and
Leading with Technology, eight times annually) versus
research journals which are typically published quarterly.
Second, more articles are published which have application
across disabilities rather than are published for any specific
disability. Third, more articles are published which have
PreK – grade 8 applications than are published for any specific
age/grade level. Interestingly, there appears to be an over-
abundance of articles on technology use in post-secondary
education, which may suggest a reliance on convenience
samples (i.e., World Wide Web applications and preservice
teachers). Fourth, most articles with a curriculum emphasis
focus on reading, writing, math. Given the emphasis on
reading achievement in No Child Left Behind, perhaps it is
not surprising to find a 229% increase in the number of
articles devoted to reading and technology in 2003 (n=16)
versus 2002 (n=7). Finally, content analysis of the relevant
articles revealed a number of dominant themes in the
literature during 2003: assistive technology, implementation
issues, instructional design, instructional strategies,
outcomes of technology, professional development, reading
and technology, and technology integration (see Table 10).
Limitations of the Study
Several limitations of the current work should be noted.
Whereas this study only reviewed literature published during
a one-year period, the results may vary during other time
periods given the significant impact a special topical issue has
on the rankings. Second, development of additional
classification indices would standardize the topical descriptors
and increase the number of access points for locating specific
articles of interest. Finally, it must be noted that the selection
process is inherently subjective. To the extent that the process
works, it reflects the author’s knowledge of the discipline and
critical issues. At the same time, bias (intentional or
unintentional) is likely to impact the inclusion and exclusion
of works that other reviewers may find relevant.
Implications for Future Research
While portions of the methodology in this study have
been utilized by other researchers (Mason, Thormann,
O’Connell, & Behrmann, 2004), additional research is
Table 9.
Curriculum Focus (if applicable)
Curriculum Focus Article Number
career exploration 152
fine arts 167
functional curriculum 119, 126, 143
history 44
homework 58
hypermedia 33
language arts 171
literacy 12, 103
math 14, 28, 30, 52, 95, 113, 115
money 39, 40
play 7, 185
positive behavior supports 82
problem solving, writing 127
reading 46, 48, 54, 78, 79, 98, 101, 106, 114,
122, 138, 141,153, 156, 169, 206
reading, math 203
science 22, 31
social behavior 61
social skills 67
social studies 3, 134, 137
vocabulary 21
writing 24, 47, 50, 65, 66, 68, 97, 104, 123, 135,
149, 200, 207
writing, math 148
67Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
Table 10.
Articles by topic (1-3 descriptors per article)
Topic Article Number
21st century skills 120, 180, 181
AAC 7, 82, 84, 85, 89, 126, 178, 208
academic performance 80, 148, 151, 194, 203, 204, 213
academic supports 25, 193
access control panels 108
access to the general curriculum 1, 18, 48, 144, 183, 212, 213
accessibility 12, 93, 108, 160, 161, 192, 201
accommodations 80
acquisition of technology 118
adapted books 122
administrative training 42, 92, 141
agents 10
alternative assessment 18, 19, 203
animation 10, 169
assessment 41, 137, 139, 149, 165, 169, 186, 205, 211
assistive listening devices 157
assistive technology 4, 43, 45, 50, 51, 57, 60, 76, 80, 88, 96,
100, 105,116, 123, 147, 154, 157, 193,
194, 200, 218
assistive technology consideration 43, 57, 84, 154
assistive technology focus groups 162
assistive technology for learning 3
assistive technology services 59, 221
assistive technology use 59
ATM computer simulation 39
audio texts 15
authoring 30
automated essay scoring 149
balanced literacy 46, 79
blogs 24, 103, 104
Braille 75
Bobby 93, 161
CDROM 15, 152
choice making 136
clinical psychology 41
cochlear implants 157
cognitive simulations 102
collaboration 201
competencies 116
computer access 16, 135
computer assisted instruction (CAI) 21, 30, 101, 106, 113, 115
conceptual models 121
copyright 12, 128
cost 5, 76
creative software 167
cultural sensitivity 8, 70, 162
Dana 65, 66
databases 198, 207
data mining 139, 140
decision making 32
decision support systems 109
diffusion of innovation 60
digital audio 90
digital divide 216
digital text 12, 13, 75, 98
digital video 132
distance education 71, 114, 124, 145, 181, 197, 222
doctoral faculty shortage 164
DraftBuilder 68
early intervention services 5
electronic portfolio 81
email 16
email mentoring 224
evidence-based practice 7, 84, 85, 198
environmental control 155
equity 216
expert systems 102
facilitated communication 158, 159, 179, 195
families 8, 162
functional behavior assessment 163
functional communication behavior 20
gender gap 130, 176, 177
graphic organizers 95
home computer use 130
home-school communication 58
hypermedia 191
HyperStudio 167
hypertext 138
implementation issues 36, 63, 65, 66, 73, 74, 81, 110, 170, 175,
178, 190,196, 223
inclusion and technology 105, 126, 142, 144, 171, 183
independence 29, 40, 204
individualized education
programs (IEPs) 186
information retrieval 77, 177
instructional design 4, 10, 17, 22, 32, 33, 39, 40,94, 102, 112,
117, 119,130, 138, 143, 152, 182, 184, 191
instructional effectiveness 83
instructional modifications 148
instructional strategies 6, 15, 22, 31, 47, 97, 199
instructional technology 51, 217
intellectual property 128
international technology use 111
interactive video 222
interactive whiteboard 142
job accommodations 129
JumpStart 115
KidPix 167
knowledge management 27
laptop computers 127
latent semantic analysis 149
68 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
Table 10.
continued
learning environments 94, 182, 185, 191
learning from text 54, 134
legal issues 43, 128
manipulatives 28
measurement 172, 210
Microsoft Word’s track changes 223
Millie’s Math House 115
model computer classroom 94
monitoring student progress 170
mounting 89
multimedia 44, 143
National Education Technology Plan 173
National File Format (NFF) 192
National Technology Standards 9
navigational strategies 135, 176
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) 19, 88, 92, 140, 180, 190
notetaking 134
offline web page use 38
online community 16
online survey tools 202
online video conferencing 187
online publishing 104
open source 23
Open Video Project 132
outcomes of technology 3, 36, 37, 49, 50, 52, 68, 76, 121, 123, 126,
160,172, 198, 210
PDAs 1, 175
performance of personal stories 208
powered wheelchairs 219
PowerPoint 67, 107
predictive word processor 200
preservice teacher education 81, 147, 163, 167, 189, 218
project-based learning 33
project management 74
prestige of technology journals 91
promotion and tenure decisions 71, 91, 215
professional development 26, 29, 35, 42, 45, 51, 56, 79, 83, 99, 110,
114, 124,125, 146, 147, 150, 174, 181,
221, 222, 224
professional productivity 27, 41, 71, 109, 215
quality of life 204
readability tools 78
Reading First 141
reading and technology 54, 78, 90, 98, 101, 106, 138, 153, 156,
169, 206
return on investment (ROI) 210
remediation vs. compensation 48, 54
research methods 36, 37, 47, 124, 145,151, 152, 162, 173, 179
response to intervention (RTI) 205
robot-mediated therapy 34
scaling up 110
scientifically based interventions 125
scholarly publishing 13, 91
scoring guides 165
single switches 100
software 40, 99
sources of information about AT 59
speech recognition 153
speech-to-text 60
standards 120, 180, 194
streaming audio 90
student performance data 140
student research 53, 77
supply and demand 164
tactile experience books 122
technology acquisition 139, 166, 175
technology adoption 21, 23, 96, 131, 209, 214, 217, 220
technology enhanced performance 11, 57
technology integration 4, 9, 42, 64, 69, 79, 111, 127, 150, 160,
168, 173,178, 179
technology leadership 72, 73, 74, 190
technology planning 64, 112, 166
technology-rich student projects 117
test accommodations 186, 211
text modifications 48, 54
thematic units 69
transition 25, 129, 154, 193
universal design 25, 31, 93, 183, 184
video clips 62
video feedback 61
video self modeling 87
video-based instruction 171
video-based problem solving 14
videodiscs 14
Virtual Assistant 1
vision 72
visual supports 17, 67, 107
vocational rehabilitation counselor 118
voice recognition 155
web resources 53, 58, 69, 92, 98, 117
web accessibility guidelines 161
web searching 53, 77, 86, 176, 177
web-based certification courses 197
web-based computer games 137
web site classification system 133
web site development 63
web-based instruction 32, 35, 38, 112, 163, 188, 207
web page authoring 38, 78
wireless computing 196
WYNN 68
69Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
needed in two areas. First, the value of the comprehensive one-
year research synthesis needs to be established from a user’s
perspective. That is, does the synthesis provide access to the
extant knowledge base in ways that are perceived useful by
scholars and practitioners? Does it save time? Does it direct
users to resources that are highly relevant for their needs?
Second, given the five year data set produced from through the
annual reviews, is it possible to discern what we need to know?
That is, are there critical omissions that could be highlighted
to suggest individual or collective research agendas?
Implications for Development
Development of additional tools in conjunction with the
vision outlined by Willinksy (1999) seems appropriate to
consider as scholars and practitioners struggle to exploit
knowledge within the extant database. Certainly the current
context of No Child Left Behind demands increased research
and development efforts associated with knowledge
utilization. The recent restructuring of the ERIC system has
created a void at the very time demands for scientifically-
based interventions have escalated the need for tools to access
and utilize the professional knowledge base.
For example, consider the possibility of a Web-based
system where scholars or practitioners sign-on and complete
a brief profile of their interests and preferences for document
delivery. Using simple algorithms or sophisticated software or
Web-based agents, the bibliography generated in this study
could be used to identify appropriate reading materials for the
user. A document delivery system could then forward the
information in the medium (i.e., print, PDF, html, text-to-
speech) at the specified time (i.e., Friday afternoons). Such a
system could also be linked with a competency framework to
deliver readings that lead to specified professional
development knowledge and skills, linked to an electronic
quiz system to test one’s understanding of each reading, and
provide a digital diary to document the time engaged in
professional development activities in order to subsequently
issue credit or continuing education units (CEUs). Clearly, the
field of special education technology needs to explore the
development of these types of visions and scenarios.
Implications for Practice
The scope of this review synthesizes information in
journals beyond what the average professional probably has
time to read on a regular basis. The finding of over 220
relevant articles suggests the need to learn more about the
professional development habits of special education
technology professionals as it relates to reading and using new
knowledge. To stay current in the year 2003, this study
suggests the need to set aside time each workday to read one
article. However, how often is this done? Can electronic
document delivery services help assist in the process of
staying current by providing relevant new readings on a
regular basis?
The results also provide a basis for generating an
economic analysis of the cost (i.e., subscriptions to each
journal) to build and maintain a scholarly library supporting
the discipline of special education technology. This type of
work is common in bibliometric analysis and will yield
practical information for individuals maintaining a personal
library, university libraries trying to maintain a research-
quality journal collection, as well as resource agencies that
need to balance priorities and budget.
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Dave Edyburn is associate professor in the Department of
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Milwaukee, WI, 53201. Email to edyburn@csd.uwm.edu.
71Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
APPENDIX A
[1] Abell, M., Bauder, D., Simmons,T., & Sharon, D. (2003). Using personal digital assistants (PDA) to connect students with special needs to the general
curriculum.
Closing the Gap, 22
(1), 20, 38.
[2] Allen, D.W. (2003).The effects of technology on educational theory and practice: A 20-year perspective.
Computers in the Schools, 20
(1/2), 49-57.
[3] Armstrong, K. (2003). Location of specific places on a map: Assistive technology for learning.
Special Education Technology Practice, 5
(4), 24-27.
[4] Asuncion, J.V., & Fischten, C.S. (2003).Are you considering all students, including those with disabilities, when planning for technology integration?
Educational Technology, 43
(5), 49-52.
[5] Atkinson,T., Neal, J., & Grechus, M. (2003). Microsoft Windows XP accessibility features.
Intervention in School and Clinic, 38
(3), 177-180.
[6] Baker, S., Gersten, R., & Graham, S. (2003). Teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities: Research-based applications and
examples.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36
(2), 109-123.
[7] Banajee, M., Baker, B.,Anderson, A. (2003). Quantitative data on yound child language use: Implications for AAC.
Closing the Gap, 22
(3), 1, 10-13, 28.
[8] Banks,R.A., Santos,R.M., & Roof, V. (2003). Discovering family concerns, priorities, and resources: Sensitive family information gathering.
Young
Exceptional Children, 6
(2), 11-19.
[9] Barron, A.E., Kemker, K., Harmes, C., & Kalaydjian, F. (2003). Large-scale research study on technology in K-12 schools: Technology integration as it
relates to the National Technology Standards.
Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35
(4), 489-507.
[10] Baylor,A.K., & Ryu, J. (2003). The effects of image and animation in enhancing pedagogical agent persona.
Journal of Educational Computing
Research, 28
(4), 373-394.
[11] Bernardez, M. (2003). From e-training to e-performance: Putting online learning to work.
Educational Technology, 43
(1), 6-11.
[12] Boone, R., & Higgins, K. (2003). Reading, writing, and publishing digital text.
Remedial and Special Education, 24
(3), 132-140.
[13] Boone, R., Higgins, K., & Edyburn, D. (2003). Digital LDQ.
Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 26
(1), 2-4.
[14] Bottge, B.A., Heinrichs, M., Chan, S., Mehta, Z.D.,Watson, E. (2003). Effects of video-based and applied problems on the procedural math skills of
average- and low-achieving adolescents.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 18
(2), 5-22.
[15] Boyle,E.A., Rosenberg, M.S., Connelly, V.J.,Washburn, S.G., Brinckerhoff, L.C., & Banerjee, M. (2003). Effects of audio texts on the acquisition of
secondary-level content by students with mild disabilities.
Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 26
(3), 203-214.
[16] Bradley, N., & Poppen,W. (2003).Assistive technology, computers and Internet may decrease sense of isolation for homebound elderly and
disabled persons.
Technology and Disability, 15
(1), 19-25.
[17] Bradshaw, A.C., & Johari, A. (2003). Effects of an online visual procedure on task completion, time, and attitude.
Journal of Educational Computing
Research, 29
(4), 401-417.
[18] Browder,D.M., Fallin, K., Davis, S., & Karvonen, M. (2003). Consideration of what may influence student outcomes on alternative assessment.
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38
(3), 255-270.
[19] Browder, D.M., Spooner, F., Algozzine, R., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Flowers, C., & Karvonen, M. (2003).What we know and need to know about
alternative assessments.
Exceptional Children, 70
(1), 45-61.
[20] Bruns, D.A., & Gallagher, E.A. (2003). Having their piece of the PIIE: Promoting the communicative behaviors of yound children with Autism/PDD.
Young Exceptional Children, 6
(2), 20-27.
[21] Bryant, D.P., Goodwin, M., Bryant, B.R., & Higgins, K. (2003). Vocabulary instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review of the research.
Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 26
(2), 117-128.
[22] Buckley, D. (2003). Science and technology: A workshop.
Technology and Learning, 24
(2), 27-42.
[23] Bull, G., Bell, R., & Kajder, S. (2003).The role of “computers in the schools” revisited.
Computers in the Schools, 20
(1/2), 59-76.
[24] Bull, G., Bull, G., & Kajder, S. (2003). Writing with weblogs.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 31
(1), 32-35.
72 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
[25] Burgstahler, S. (2003).The role of technology in preparing youth with disabilities for postsecondary education and employment.
Journal of Special
Education Technology, 18
(4), 7-19.
[26] Buysee,V., Sparkman, K.L., & Wesley, P.W. (2003). Communities of practice: Connecting what we know with what we do.
Exceptional Children,
69
(3), 263-277.
[27] Caroll, J.M., Choo, C.W., Dunlap, D.R., Isenhour, P.L., Kerr, S.T., MacLean, A., & Rosson, M.B. (2003). Knowledge management support for teachers.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 51
(4), 42-64.
[28] Cass, M., Cates, D., Smith, M., & Jackson, C. (2003). Effects of manipulative instruction on solving area and perimeter problems by students with
learning disabilities.
Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 18
(2), 112-120.
[29] Cavanagh, C. (2003). “Get your hands off me – I can do it myself.”
Closing the Gap, 22
(4), 30.
[30] Cawley, J.F., Foley,T.E., & Doan, T. (2003). Giving students with disabilities a voice in the selection of arithmetic content.
Teaching Exceptional
Children, 36
(1), 8-16.
[31] Cawley,J.F., Foley,T.E., & Miller, J. (2003). Science and students with mild disabilities: Principles of universal design.
Intervention in School and
Clinic, 38
(3), 160-171.
[32] Chen, D., Wong, A.F., Hsu, J.J. (2003). Internet-based instructional activities: Not everything should be on the Internet.
Journal of Research on
Technology in Education, 36
(1), 50-59.
[33] Chen, P., & McGrath, D. (2003). Moments of joy: Student engagement and conceptual learning in the design of hypermedia documents.
Journal of
Research on Technology in Education, 35
(3), 402-422.
[34] Coote, S., & Stokes, E.K. (2003). Robot mediated therapy:Attitudes of patients and therapists towards the first prototype of the GENTLE/s system.
Technology and Disability, 15
(1), 27-24.
[35] Cradler, J. (2003). Research on e-learning.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 30
(5), 54-57.
[36] Cradler, J. (2003).Technology’s impact on teaching and learning.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 30
(7), 54-57.
[37] Cradler, J., Cradler, R., & Clarke, R. (2003).What does research mean to you?
Learning and Leading with Technology, 30
(8), 50-53, 59.
[38] Culatta, R. (2003). The Internet unplugged.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 31
(3), 6-12.
[39] Davies, D.K., Stock, S.E., & Wehmeyer, M.L. (2003).Application of computer simulation to teach ATM access to individuals with intellectual
disabilities.
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38
(4), 451-456.
[40] Davies, D.K., Stock, S.E., & Wehmeyer, M.L. (2003). Utilization of computer technology to facilitate money management by individuals with mental
retardation.
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38
(1), 106-112.
[41] Davis,S., & Hastings, R.P. (2003). Computer technology in clinical psychology services for people with mental retardation: A review.
Education and
Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38
(3), 341-352.
[42] Dawson, C., & Rakes, G.C. (2003). The influence of principals’ technology training on the integration of technology into schools.
Journal of
Research on Technology in Education, 36
(1), 29-49.
[43] Day, J.N., & Huefner, D.S. (2003). Assistive technology: Legal issues for students with disabilities and their schools.
Journal of Special Education
Technology, 18
(2), 23-34.
[44] De La Paz, S., & MacArthur, C. (2003). Knowing the how and why of history expectations for students with and without learning disabilities.
Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 26
(2), 142-154.
[45] Dissinger,F
.K. (2003). Core curriculum in assistive technology: In-service for special educators and therapists.
Journal of Special Education
Technology, 18
(2), 35-45.
[46] Dix, D. (2003). Balanced literacy for emergent readers:The fifth component to the four block model.
Closing the Gap, 21
(6), 1, 26.
[47] Edwards,L. (2003). Writing instruction in kindergarten: Examining an emerging area of research for children with writing and reading difficulties.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36
(2), 136-148.
73Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
[48] Edyburn, D.L. (2003). Reading difficulties in the general education classroom:A taxonomy of text modification strategies.
Closing the Gap, 21
(6),
1, 10-13, 31.
[49] Edyburn, D.L. (2003). Measuring assistive technology outcomes: Key concepts.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 18
(1), 53-55.
[50] Edyburn, D.L. (2003). Measuring assistive technology outcomes in writing.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 18
(2), 60-64.
[51] Edyburn, D.L. (2003). 2002 in review:A synthesis of the special education technology literature.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 18
(3), 5-28.
[52] Edyburn, D.L. (2003). Measuring assistive technology outcomes in mathematics.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 18
(4), 76-79.
[53] Edyburn, D. (2003). Tools and strategies for facilitating student research.
Special Education Technology Practice, 5
(1), 16-21.
[54] Edyburn, D.L. (2003). Learning from text.
Special Education Technology Practice, 5
(2), 16-27.
[55] Edyburn, D. (2003). Summertime:A chance to learn about assistive technology.
Special Education Technology Practice, 5
(3), 16-20.
[56] Edyburn, D.L. (2003). A good book for the beach or backyard hammock.
Special Education Technology Practice, 5
(3), 21-25.
[57] Edyburn, D.L. (2003). Rethinking assistive technology.
Special Education Technology Practice, 5
(4), 16-22.
[58] Edyburn, D.L. (2003). Technology and home-school communication.
Special Education Technology Practice, 5
(5), 22-25.
[59] Ehrlich, N.J., Carlson, D., & Bailey, N. (2003). Sources of information about how to obtain assistive technology: Findings from a national survey of
persons with disabilities.
Assistive Technology, 15
(1), 28-38.
[60] Elliot, L.B., Foster, S., Stinson, M. (2003). A qualitative study of teachers’ acceptance of a speech-to-text transcription system in high school and
college classrooms.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 18
(3), 45-59.
[61] Embregts, P.J. (2003). Using self-management, video feedback, and graphic feedback to improve social behavior of youth with mild mental
retardation.
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38
(3), 283-295.
[62] Ericson, K., & Isaacs, B. (2003). Eyewitness identification accuracy: A comparison of adults with and those without intellectual disabilities.
Mental Retardation, 41
(3), 161-173.
[63] Fish, T. (2003). Building a web site from the inside.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 30
(5), 46-49, 58.
[64] Fishman, B.J., Zhang, B. (2003). Planning for technology: The link between intentions and use.
Educational Technology, 43
(4), 14-18.
[65] Friedlander, B.S.(2003). Portable computing: A whole new ball game!
Closing the Gap, 21
(6), 1, 14-15, 28.
[66] Friedlander, B.S. (2003). Part II: Portable computing.
Closing the Gap, 22
(1), 1, 26-27.
[67] Furick, P.K. (2003). Teaching mind-reading: Making sense of social behavior.
Closing the Gap, 22
(3), 1, 18.
[68] Garber,S.(2003). Good tools plus good training equal good results for students.
Closing the Gap, 22
(4), 21, 35-36.
[69] Gardner, J.E., Wissick, C.A., Scweder, W., & Canter, L.S. (2003). Enhancing interdisciplinary instruction in general and special education:
Thematic units and technology.
Remedial and Special Education, 24
(3), 161-172.
[70] Garrett, M.T., Bellon-Harn, M.L., Torres-Rivera, E., Farrett, J.T., & Roberts, L.C. (2003). Open hands, open hearts: Working with native youth in the
schools.
Intervention in School and Clinic, 38
(4), 225-235.
[71] Hackmann, D.G. (2003).The promotion/tenure dilemma: Maintaining a research agenda while developing distance learning teaching excellence.
Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 11
(2), 307-319.
[72] Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, Part 1: Managing the vision.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 31
(1), 46-50.
[73] Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, Part 2: Managing the performance.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 31
(2), 36-39.
[74] Hall, D. (2003). Power strategy tool kit, Part 3: Managing the operations.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 31
(3), 50-53.
[75] Halliday, J. (2003).A fresh look at Braille.
Closing the Gap, 22
(5), 1, 18.
[76] Harris,F., & Sprigle, S. (2003). Cost analyses in assistive technology research.
Assistive Technology, 15
(1), 16-27.
74 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
[77] Harris, J. (2003). Seek strategically, find answers appropriately.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 30
(5), 50-53.
[78] Harris, J., White, P., & Fisher, B. (2003). Helping dependent readers use the web.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 31
(3), 40-45.
[79] Hatley, M., Minnick, S., & Marfilius, S. (2003). Technology integration: A model for success.
Closing the Gap, 22
(1), 1, 19.
[80] Heiman, T., & Prevel, K. (2003). Students with learning disabilities in higher education: Academic strategies profile.
Journal of Learning Disabilities,
36
(3), 248-258.
[81] Herner, L.M., Karayan, S., McKean, G., & Love, D. (2003). Special education teacher preparation and the electronic portfolio.
Journal of Special
Education Technology, 18
(1), 44-49.
[82] Hetzroni, O.E., & Roth,T. (2003). Effects of a positive support approach to enhance communicative behaviors of children with mental retardation
who have challenging behaviors.
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38
(1), 95-105.
[83] Heward, W.L. (2003). Ten faulty notions about teaching and learning that hinder the effectiveness of special education.
Journal of Special
Education, 37
(4), 186-205.
[84] Hill, K. (2003). Evidence-based education, assistive technology, and the IEP team process.
Closing the Gap, 22
(1), 1, 13-15, 38.
[85] Hill, K. (2003). AAC assessment: Applying evidence-based practice.
Closing the Gap, 22
(4), 1, 12-13, 15.
[86] Hinson, J., DiStefano, C., & Daniel, C. (2003).The Internet Self-Perception Scale: Measuring elementary students’ levels of self-efficacy regarding
Internet use.
Journal of Educational Computing Research, 29
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[87] Hitchcock, C.H., Dowrick, P.W., & Prater, M.A. (2003). Video self-modeling intervention in school-based settings: A review.
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[88] Hitchcock, C., Stahl, S. (2003). Assistive technology, universal design, universal design for learning: Improved learning opportunities.
Journal of
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[89] Hitchcock, E. (2003). Mounting 101.
Closing the Gap, 22
(5), 1, 14-15.
[90] Hogan, B.J., & Dooley, P. (2003). Design and deployment of a computerized audio library with Internet streaming for students with print
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Journal of Special Education Technology, 18
(4), 73-75.
[91] Holcomb, T.L., Bray,K.E., & dorr, D.L. (2003). Publications in educational/instructional technology: Perceived values of ed tech professionals.
Educational Technology, 43
(5), 53-57.
[92] Holzberg, C.S.(2003). A must-know web guide for administrators.
Technology and Learning, 23
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[93] Holzberg, C.S.(2003). Web site accessibility (universal design).
Technology and Learning, 24
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[94] Huffman, H.B., Jernstedt, C.G., Reed,V.A., Reber, E.S., Burns, M.B., Oostenink, R.J., & Williams, M.T. (2003). Optimizing the design of computer
classrooms: The physical environment.
Educational Technology, 43
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[95] Ives, B., & Hoy, C. (2003). Graphic organizers applied to higher-lvel secondary mathematics.
Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 18
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[96] Jeffs,T., Morrison, W.F., Messenheimer, T., Rizza, M.G., & Banister, S. (2003). A retrospective analysis of technological advances in special education.
Computers in the Schools, 20
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[97] Jimenez, J. Ortiz, M.R., Rodrigo, M., Hernandez-Valle, I., Ramierez, G., Estevez, A., O’Shanahan, I., & de la Luz Trabaue, M. (2003). Do the effects of
computer-assisted practice differ for children with reading disabilities with and without IQ-achievement discrepancy?
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[98] Johnson, D. (2003). Choosing the right books for struggling readers.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 31
(1), 22-27.
[99] Johnson, J.M. (2003). From lofty beginnings to the age of accountability: A look at the past 30 years of educational software.
Learning and
Leading with Technology, 30
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[100] Johnston, S.S. (2003). Making the most of single switch technology:A primer.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 18
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[101] Johnston, S.S., McDonnell, A.P., & Nelson, C. (2003). Teaching functional communication skills using augmentative and alternative
communication in inclusive settings.
Journal of Early Intervention, 25
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75Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
[102] Jonassen, D.H., & Wang, S. (2003). Using expert systems to build cognitive simulations.
Journal of Educational Computing Research, 28
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[103] Kajder, S., & Bull, G. (2003). Scaffolding for struggling students: Reading and writing with blogs.
Learning and Leading with Technology, 31
(2), 32-35.
[104] Kennedy, K. (2003). Writing with web logs.
Technology and Learning, 23
(7), 11-14.
[105] Khanna, N.m & Feist-Price, S. (2003). Assistive technology for children with HIV/AIDS.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 18
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[106] Kim, A., Vaughn, S., Elbaum, B., Hughes, M.T., Sloan, C.V., & Sridhar, D. (2003). Effects of toys or group composition for children with disabilities:
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Journal of Early Intervention, 25
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76 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
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77Edyburn
Journal of Special Education Technology
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78 Synthesis
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79Edyburn
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80 Synthesis
Journal of Special Education Technology
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