Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber officinale Essential Oil and Extracts

Abstract

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) has been traditionally employed in south East Asia as well as India and China for treatment of nausea, asthma, fever, vomiting, cough, constipation, pain, arthritis, inflammation, etc. This chapter discusses the phytochemical composition and pharmacological studies of ginger extracts, ginger essential oil (GEO), and active bioactive constituents. The essential oil of fresh and dry ginger was ranged between 0.2% - 2.62% and 0.72% - 4.17% respectively. The bioactive constituent zingiberene, β-sesquiphellandrene, curcumene, β-bisabolene, β-farnesene, camphene, and gingerol and shogal are the major constituents in ginger extracts. These compounds are chief bioactive substances responsible for pharmacological activities such antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticancer, anticoagulant, antiradiation, anti-inflammatory, gastrointestinal, antimicrobial, cardiovascular, anti-obesity, and weight loss effects. Future research needs to investigate the suitable duration, maximum dosage of ginger, concerns of overdosage, and its side effects in animal models and humans.

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Chapter 5
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2524-1.ch005
ABSTRACT
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) has been traditionally employed in south East Asia as well as India and China
for treatment of nausea, asthma, fever, vomiting, cough, constipation, pain, arthritis, inflammation, etc.
This chapter discusses the phytochemical composition and pharmacological studies of ginger extracts,
ginger essential oil (GEO), and active bioactive constituents. The essential oil of fresh and dry ginger
was ranged between 0.2% - 2.62% and 0.72% - 4.17% respectively. The bioactive constituent zingiberene,
β-sesquiphellandrene, curcumene, β-bisabolene, β-farnesene, camphene, and gingerol and shogal are
the major constituents in ginger extracts. These compounds are chief bioactive substances responsible
for pharmacological activities such antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticancer, anticoagulant, antiradiation,
anti-inflammatory, gastrointestinal, antimicrobial, cardiovascular, anti-obesity, and weight loss effects.
Future research needs to investigate the suitable duration, maximum dosage of ginger, concerns of over-
dosage, and its side effects in animal models and humans.
Traditional Uses,
Phytochemistry, and
Pharmacological Properties
of
Zingiber ofcinale
Essential Oil and Extracts
Kaliyaperumal Ashokkumar
Cardamom Research Station, Kerala Agricultural
University, India
Muthusamy Murugan
Cardamom Research Station, Kerala Agricultural
University, India
M. K. Dhanya
Cardamom Research Station, Kerala Agricultural
University, India
Thiravidamani Sathyan
Cardamom Research Station, Kerala Agricultural
University, India
Surya Raj
Cardamom Research Station, Kerala Agricultural
University, India
Nimisha Mathews
Cardamom Research Station, Kerala Agricultural
University, India

63
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
INTRODUCTION
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) belongs to the family Zingiberaceae and it was used in traditional
medicine to treat illness almost 5000 years ago (Bode and Dong, 2004). The word ginger originated
from the English word gingivere, while in Tamil it is known as Ingii, in Hindi, adarakah, in Chinese,
jiang and in Arabic, zanjabli. Ginger is widely grown in the tropics with foremost exporting countries
such as India, Nigeria, Australia, China and Jamaica. In India, ginger is cultivated in the states of Kerala,
Karnataka, Orissa, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim and Madhya Pradesh. Kerala is the largest
ginger producing state, which accounts for 30-40% of total production in India. Indian ginger has two
popular varieties in the global market, namely Cochin Ginger and Calicut Ginger (Kubra and Rao, 2012).
Dry ginger is mostly used for export purposes and fresh ginger as a vegetable.
The ginger rhizomes have a potent aroma and are extensively used as a spice and as medicine. Ginger
and its extract are extensively used in beverage, food, and confectionery industries for manufacturing
products such as ginger beer, ginger wine, pickles, Jam and biscuits (Wohlmuth et al., 2005). Ginger es-
sential oil(GEO) and oleoresins are also used in several food products, especially in soft beverages and
likewise various sorts of pharmaceutical formulations. It has various potential pharmacological effects
in modern medicine such as anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and anticancer activities (Khan et al., 2010).
In traditional medicine, ginger has been used for curing several diseases which includes cough, cold,
asthma, nausea, travel sickness, morning sickness arthritis and gastrointestinal complaints (Grontved et
al., 1988; Bone et al., 1990; But and Sultan, 2011; Khaki and Fathiazad, 2012).
The world health organization (WHO) has projected that nearly 80% of the global population depended
on plant-based preparations as medicines to cure their health problems (WHO, 1991).
Plant-based food products are storehouses of various bioactive components like phenolics, flavonoids,
carotenoids (Ashokkumar et al., 2013; Muthukrishnan et al., 2014; Ashokkumar et al., 2014; Ashok-
kumar et al., 2015; Ashokkumar & Shunmugam, 2016; Ashokkumar et al., 2018a; Ashokkumar et al.,
2008b), folates (Jha et al., 2015; Ashokkumar et al., 2018c), terpenes (Ashokkumar et al., 2019b). These
constituents have been evaluated for their potential biological effects. However, the dried ginger rhizomes
contain 5 - 8% of oleoresin, and 1.5 - 3% essential oil depends upon the variety, country of origin, and
quality (Zarate and Yeoman, 1996; Kayaardi et al., 2005). Also, the ginger rhizome possess significant
concentration of essential nutrients, minerals and bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, terpenoids,
carotenoids, essential oils, gingerols, zingiberene,zingerone, shogaolsand paradols(But and Sultan,
2011; Baliga et al., 2011; Ashokkumat et al., 2019). The pungency of ginger rhizome is mainly due to
the presences of gingerols and shogaol, are key bioactive constituents of fresh ginger and it has various
pharmacological effects including anticancer activity (Wohlmuth et al., 2005).However, zingiberene
(10.5-16.6%), e-citrol (7.4 - 12.0%), ar-curcumene (2.9-9.8%),β-farnesene (5.1 - 8.4%), camphene (4.9 -
7.6%), β-sesquiphellandrene(5.8 - 7.2%) and citrol (5.3 - 7%) arethe major essential oil compoundsin dry
ginger (Raina et al.,2005). The concentration of these compounds differs significantly depending upon
the storage, country of origin, maturity stage of rhizome and preparation of ginger extract/product. The
aim of this chapter is to highlight the key phytochemicals and pharmacological applications of ginger
extracts and ginger essential oil (GEO) on human health.

64
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF GINGER
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. The basic chromosome number
x=11 and somatic chromosome number is 2n=22, it is sterile diploid in nature. The botanical classifica-
tion of ginger has been shown in Table 1. Ginger is a perennial, herbaceous, rhizomatous plant and has
an erect stem, grown up to 1 meter in height. It has a fibrous root and aerial shoots. Leaves are simple,
alternate, linear-lanceolate, and sheathing at the base. Shoots are originated from multiple bases and
wrap around one another. Moreover, the leaf type of ginger is narrowed lanceolate to linear-lanceolate,
and leaves die each year (Toader, 2014). The inflorescence is spiked; irregular and bisexual flowers are
densely arranged and subtended by a persistent bract. Flowers have three yellowish-orange petals with
a lip-like structure (Ravindran et al., 2005). Calyx is tubular 3 lobed, bilabiate corolla; 3 stamens in one
whorl; tricarpel ovary,syncarpous; inferior; axile placentation; filiform style, subglobose type stigma. The
rhizome is brown, thick lobed, branched with scaly structures. The morphological differences between
the fresh and dried rhizome of ginger were shown in Figure 1.
Table 1. Botanical classification of ginger
Kingdom Plantae
Sub-kingdom : Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Division : Angiosperms (Seeded plants)
Class : Monocotyledons
Sub class : Zingiberidae
Order : Zingiberales
Family : Zingiberaceae (Ginger family)
Genus : Zingiber
Species : officinale
Figure 1. The fresh and dried rhizomes of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)

65
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
Traditional Uses of Ginger
In India, the ginger rhizome has been used for folk medicine from the Vedic period (Vasala, 2004).
Ginger is an essential part of the preparation of various medicinal formulations in Ayurveda medicine.
The rhizome of ginger and its extracts plays a key role in Ayurvedic, Chinese, African and Arabic folk
medicines to cure headaches, cough, colds, flu, nausea, rheumatism, arthritis, muscular discomfort and
inflammation (Baliga et al., 2011; Dehghani et al., 2011; Khaki and Fathiazad, 2012; Semwal et al., 2015).
Several traditional medicines reported that ginger is a potential agent for antiinflammatory, carminative,
antispasmodic, diaphoretic, appetite and peripheral circulatory stimulant (Vasala, 2004; Ali et al., 2008).
In Burma, peoples used to cure the flu by consumption of a mixture of ginger and palm tree juice.
Ginger beer has been used to settle stomach upsets. However, in Colombia, ginger mixed with hot
panela was used for the treatment of colds and flu (Semwal et al., 2015). In China, powdered ginger
with scrambled eggs is taken as a home remedy to relieve a cough. Mango juice added with ginger is
considered a panacea (medicine to cure all) in Congo. External application of ginger paste to cure head-
aches and oral administration to reduce colds in India and Nepal (Khaki and Fathiazad, 2012). Ginger
is believed to reduce fatigue and increase digestion in Indonesia. Philippians had taken ginger to sooth
asore throat, while the Japanese used ginger to improve blood circulation. In India, the southern states
of Tamil Nadu and Kerala crushed ginger rhizomes and boiled it with tea and water to impart a pleasant
aroma to tea, which is locally called “Ingi tea(ginger tea)” and which has been used to relieve tiredness
and depression. The powdered ginger rhizome mixed with pulverized cloves, cardamom and caraway
has been used for digestive ailments (Ashokkumar et al., 2020).
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Proximate and Mineral Composition
The proximate composition of fresh and dry ginger rhizome was summarized in Table 2. It includes
moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, vitamin C, ascorbic acid and carbohydrates. The
crude protein content of fresh and dried ginger rhizome was ranged between 3.1 - 12.3% and 7.9 - 34.1%,
respectively (Agu et al., 2016;Sultan et al., 2005;Shahid and Hussain, 2012; Latona et al., 2012). Fresh
ginger has significant level of crude fat and fibre with 2.1-11.7% and 1.4 -15% correspondingly (Ajayi
et al., 2013;Sultan et al., 2005;Onimawo et al., 2019). Dry ginger has 1.04 -3.75%, in vitamin-C and
68.2 - 72.8% (Latona et al., 2012; Shahid and Hussain, 2012).
The serving of 100g dried ginger rhizome contains substantial levels of calcium (34.5- 280 mg),
phosphorus (26.7 mg), Sodium (39 mg), manganese (18.9 mg) and other micronutrients with traces
amount (Latona et al., 2012; Ogbuewu et al., 2014; Adel and Prakash, 2010; Onimawo et al., 2019),
(Table 2). These are essential mineral elements for normal day-to-day physiological activities of humans.
Ashokkumar et al. (2019) reported nutritionally important metabolites including flavonoids (catechin
and myricetin,) and carotenoids (lutein and β-carotene) in rhizomes of fresh ginger (Table 2).

66
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
Ginger Essential Oil (GEO) and its Composition
The yield of GEO varied from 0.2% - 2.62% and 0.72% - 4.17% on a wet and dry basis, respectively,
depending on the variety and extraction methods summarized in Table 3. Recent studies claim that
the yield of dry ginger essential oil (GEO) was greater when using a hydro-distillation method (1.10%
- 4.17%) compared to steam distillation (2.1%) and Ionic liquid based microwave assisted extraction
(0.72%) methods (Pinoet al. 2004; Kiran et al., 2013; Stoyanova et al., 2006; Stoyanova, et al., 2006;
Table 2. Proximate, mineral and metabolite content of fresh and dry rhizome of ginger
Fresh Dry Reference
Proximate composition (%)
Moisture 70.1 - 89 6.4 - 13.7 Aguet al. (2016); Sultan et al. (2005); Otunola et al. (2010); Latona et
al. (2012)
Ash 0.81 - 2.54 1.74 - 7.64 Onimawo et al. (2019); Odebunmi et al. (2010); Shahid and Hussain
(2012); Latona et al. (2012)
Crude protein 3.1 – 12.3 8.6 – 34.1 Aguet al. (2016); Sultan et al. (2005); Shammari (2018);Latona et al.
(2012)
Crude fat 2.1 – 11.7 4 – 6.4 Ajayi et al. (2013); Onimawo et al. (2019); Latona et al. (2012);
Shammari (2018)
Crude fibre 1.4 - 15 0.9 - 3.2 Onimawo et al. (2019); Sultan et al. (2005);Otunola et al. (2010)
Vitamin- C - 1 – 3.8 Latona et al. (2012); Shahid and Hussain (2012)
Carbohydrates 2 – 16.7 68.2 – 72.8 Onimawo et al. (2019); Ajayi et al. (2013); Otunola et al. (2010);
Shammari (2018)
Minerals (mg/100g)
Calcium 88.4 -182.7 34.5 - 280 Latona et al. (2012); Ogbuewu et al. (2014); Adel and Prakash (2010);
Onimawo et al. (2019)
Phosphorus 174 26.7 Adel and Prakash (2010);Ogbuewu et al. (2014)
Sodium 7.3 39 Onimawo et al. (2019); Ogbuewu et al. (2014)
Iron 8 – 9.7 1.59 Adel and Prakash (2010); Onimawo et al. (2019); Ogbuewu et al. (2014)
Copper 0.55 0.86 Ogbuewu et al. (2014); Adel and Prakash (2010)
Manganese 9.1 18.9 Ogbuewu et al. (2014); Adel and Prakash (2010)
Zinc 5 4.2 Ogbuewu et al. (2014); Adel and Prakash (2010)
Metabolites (µg/g)
Flavonoids
Catechin 757.9 - Ashokkumar et al. (2019)
Myricetin 35.5 - Ashokkumar et al. (2019)
Total flavonoids 793.4 - Ashokkumar et al. (2019)
Carotenoids
Lutein 0.2 - Ashokkumar et al. (2019)
β-carotene 0.5 - Ashokkumar et al. (2019)
Total carotenoids 0.7 - Ashokkumar et al. (2019)

67
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
Guo et al., 2017). Among the hydro-distillation extraction, dry ginger yielded higher oil content than
fresh ginger (Table 3).
Table 3. Yield of essential oil from ginger rhizomes by various extraction methods
Technique or method Rhizome Oil yield (%) References
Ionic liquid-based microwave assisted
extraction Dry 0.72 Guo et al. (2017)
Steam distillation Dry 2.1 Stoyanova et al. (2006)
Super critical fluid extraction Fresh 0.24 - 2.62 Mesomoet al (2013)
Hydro-distillation Dry 1.10- 4.17 Raina et al. (2005); Pino et al (2004); Kiran et al.
(2013); Stoyanova et al. (2006)
Hydro-distillation Fresh 0.20- 1.79 Gurib-Fakim et al. (2002); Mesomo et al. (2013);
Héritier et al. (2018)
Figure 2. Molecular structures of major bioactive molecules isolated from ginger essential oil and extracts

68
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
Table 4. Major essential oil constituents of ginger from various origins
Origin Rhizome Constituents Yield (%) Authors
Nigeria Dry Zingiberene 29.54 Onyenekwe & Hashimoto (1999)
β-Sesquiphellandrene 18.42
Farnesene 6.46
China Fresh Zingiberene 22.76 An et al. (2016)
β-phellandrene 12.40
Geranial 14.50
b-Sesquiphellandrene 7.01
β-Bisabolene 3.25
Mauritius Fresh Geranial 16.3 Gurib-Fakim et al. (2002)
Neral 10.3
Zingiberene 9.5
p-sesquiphellandrene 6.3
ar-Curcumene 5.1
India, North East Dry Zingiberene 20.98 Kiran et al. (2013)
Geranial 12.36
Camphene 8.49
β-sesquiphellandrene 7.96
Neral 4.95
India Fresh Zingiberene 46.71 Sharma et al. (2016)
Citronellyl n-butyrate 19.34
Valencene 7.61
β-phellandrene 3.70
Cuba Dry ar-Curcumene 22.1 Pino et al. (2004)
Cadina-1,4-diene 12.5
Zingiberene 11.7
β-bisabolene 11.2
India, North Semi dry Zingiberene 10.5-16.6 Raina et al. (2005)
e-Citral 7.4- 12.0
ar-Curcumene 2.9-9.8
β-Farnesene 5.1 - 8.4
Camphene 4.9- 7.6
β-Sesquiphellandrene 5.8 - 7.2
z-Citral 5.3- 7.0
Vietnam Dry ar-Curcumene 12.6 Stoyanova et al. (2006)
α-Zingiberene 10.3
β-Bisabolene 8.1
β-Sesquiphellandrene 7.4

69
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
The chemical composition of major ginger essential oils across the countries and regions is presented
in Table 4. The EO of fresh ginger from India predominantly exhibited zingiberene (46.71%), citronellyl
n-butyrate (19.34%), valencene (7.61%) and β-phellandrene (3.70%), (Sharma et al., 2016). Kiran et al.
(2013) indicated that rhizomes of dry ginger collected from across the ginger growing region of north east
India chiefly contain zingiberene, geranial, camphene, β-sesquiphellandrene and neral with percentages of
20.98, 12.36, 8.49, 7.96, and 4.95, respectively (Table 4). Profiling of EO of fresh ginger rhizomes from
China showed zingiberene (22.76%), β-phellandrene (12.40%), geranial (14.50%) and sesquiphellandrene
(7%) as principal compounds (An et al., 2016). The molecular structure of major bioactive constituents
isolated from gingeressential oil and extracts is shown in Figure 2. The yield of minor constituents of
GEO from fresh ginger includes, 1,8-cineole (5.08%), camphor (0.16%), δ-3-carene (0.03%), citronelly
lacetate (0.58%), copanene (0.21%), α-elemene (0.12%), β-elemene (0.30%), 2-farnesene (0.13%),
myrcene (1.75%), sabinene (0.17%), terpinolene (0.29%)and 2-undecanone (0.40%),(Qin and Xu, 2008).
Biological Activities
The GEO and ginger extracts have various biological effects including antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-
cancer insecticidal and other miscellaneous activities that are summarized in Table 5. The schematic
representation of biological activities of ginger rhizome extract, GEO and active constitutes were pre-
sented in Figure 3.
Antioxidant Activity
Oxidative stress is one of the major health problems in humans, for which several therapies are utilized
and where medicinal plants offer a favorable alternative. The rhizome of ginger possesses a rich source
of antioxidants that are used to scavenge free radicals and associated health problems. Gingerols is the
major bioactive metabolite, which has potent antioxidant activity determined by various antioxidant
Figure 3. Schema depiction of biological activities of ginger rhizome extract, essential oil, gingerol and
Shogaol

70
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
Table 5. Biological activities of ginger rhizome extract, essential oil and bioactive compounds
Pharmacological
activities Studyextract/ GEO In vitro/
In vivo Target/ Model IC 50/
Dosage Control Reference
Antimicrobial activity GEO In vitro Bacillus subtilis MIC:10.0µl/ml
Positive: Tetracycline
Negative:
DMSO
Sharma et al. (2016);
Sasidharan, & Menon
(2010)
Antimicrobial activity GEO In vitro Staphylococcus aureus MIC: 8.7 mg/ml - Bellik, (2014)
Antimicrobial activity Aqueous extract In vitro Helicobacter pylori MIC: 300µg/ml Positive:
Lansoprazole
Nanjundaiah et al.
(2011)
Antimicrobial activity Ethanol extract In vitro E. col MIC: 75.6 μg/ml Positive:
Ciprofloxacin
Karuppiah, and
Rajaram (2012)
Ethanol extract In vitro Klebsiella sp.Enterobacter sp. MIC: 185.6μg/ml Positive:
Ciprofloxacin
Ethanol extract In vitro
S. aureus
Bacillus sp.
Proteus sp.
MIC: 68.4 μg/ml
MIC: 74.5 μg/ml
MIC: 70.2μg/ml
Positive:
Ciprofloxacin
Antimicrobial activity Oleoresin In vitro S. aureus MIC: 50 mg/ml - Bellik, (2014)
Antimicrobial activity GEO In vitro
Vibrio vulnificus
V. parahaemolyticus
Pseudomonas aeruginosa &
Yersinia enterocolitica
MIC: 31.2 µl/ml
MBC:31.3µl/ml
MIC: 31.3µl/ml
MBC:125 µl/ml
MIC: 31.3 µl/ml
MBC: 62.5 µl/ml
Positive: Ampicillin
Negative:
DMSO
Debbarma et al.
(2013)
GEO In vitro
Salmonella typhimurium
S. paratyphi
E. coli
MIC: 62.5µl/ml
Positive: Ampicillin
Negative:
DMSO
Antimicrobial activity GEO In vitro Candida albicans MIC:10.0µl/ml
Positive: Fluconazole
Negative:
DMSO
Sharma et al. (2016)
Antimicrobial activity Ethanol In vitro C. albicans MIC: 6.3 mg/ml
MBC: 25 mg/ml
Negative: Sterile
water Lucky et al. (2017)
Aqueous extract In vitro C. albicans MIC: 6.3 mg/ml
MBC: 25 mg/ml
Negative: Sterile
water Lucky et al. (2017)
Antimicrobial activity Oleoresin In vitro Penicilliumspp. MIC: 2mg/ml - Bellik (2014)
Antimicrobial activity GEO In vitro Fusarium verticillioides MIC: 2500μl/ml - Yamamoto-Ribeiro et
al. (2013)
Antimicrobial activity GEO In vitro
Botrytis cinerea
Alternaria panax
F. oxysporum
MIC: 0.3% - Hussein, & Joo
(2018)
Antimicrobial activity Methanol extract In vitro
E. coli
S. aureus
E. faecalis
C. albicans
M. smegmatis
S. mutans
MIC:125 mg/ml
MIC:62.5mg/ml
MIC: 250 mg/ml
- Agrawal et al. (2018)
Chloroform extract In vitro
E. faecalis
S. mutans
C. albicans
M. smegmatis
E. coli
S. aureus
MIC:125 mg/ml
MIC: 62.5mg/ml
MIC: 250 mg/ml
-
Ethyl acetate extract In vitro
S. aureus
S. mutans
E. faecalis
C. albicans
E. coli
M. smegmatis
MIC:125 mg/ml
MIC: 250 mg/ml
MIC: 62.5 mg/ml
-
Petroleum ether
extract In vitro
S. aureus
C. albicans
S. mutans
E. coli
E. faecalis
MIC:250 mg/ml
MIC:125 mg/ml -
continued on following page

71
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
Pharmacological
activities Studyextract/ GEO In vitro/
In vivo Target/ Model IC 50/
Dosage Control Reference
Antimicrobial activity Aqueous extract In vitro
K. pneumoniae
Proteus vulgaris
P. mirabilis
B. subtilis
C. albicans
E. coli
MIC:156.3 µg/ml
MIC:39.1 µg/ml
Positive:
Amracin (for
bacteria)
Nystatin (for yeast)
Švarc-Gajić et al.
(2017)
Subcritical extract In vitro
K. pneumoniae
Proteus vulgaris
P. mirabilis
B. subtilis
C. albicans
E. coli
MIC:78.1 µg/ml
MIC:19.5 µg/ml
Positive:
Amracin (for
bacteria)
Nystatin (for yeast)
Švarc-Gajić et al.
(2017)
Antimicrobial activity Methanol extract In vitro
B. subtilis
K. pneumoniae
P. mirabilis
S. aureus
P. aeruginosa
E. coli
MIC: 8.17μg/ml
MBC:30.0 µg/ml
MIC: 16.4μg/ml
MBC:61.8μg/ml
MIC: 20.5 μg/ml
MBC:74.3μg/ml
MIC: 18.2μg/ml
MBC:64.5μg/ml
MIC: 16.3μg/ml
MBC:44.9μg/ml
MIC: 26.3μg/ml
MBC:86.5μg/ml
-Chakraborty et al.
(2014)
Antimicrobial activity Ethanol extract In vitro
B. subtilis
K. pneumoniae
P. mirabilis
S. aureus
P. aeruginosa
E. coli
MIC: 10.6μg/ml
MBC:36.8µg/ml
MIC: 17.6μg/ml
MBC:66.4μg/ml
MIC: 23.5μg/ml
MBC:83.2μg/ml
MIC: 20.3μg/ml
MBC:67.5μg/ml
MIC: 18.9μg/ml
MBC:52.8μg/ml
MIC: 34.0μg/ml
MBC:84.3μg/ml
-Chakraborty et al.
(2014)
Acetone extract In vitro
B. subtilis
K. pneumoniae
P. mirabilis
S. aureus
P. aeruginosa
E. coli
MIC: 10.5μg/ml
MBC:40.8µg/ml
MIC: 21.5μg/ml
MBC:77.8μg/ml
MIC: 27.9μg/ml
MBC:94.2μg/ml
MIC: 28.2μg/ml
MBC:75.9μg/ml
MIC: 11.5μg/ml
MBC:40.2μg/ml
MIC: 13.3μg/ml
MBC:50.5μg/ml
-Chakraborty et al.
(2014)
Aqueous extract In vitro
B. subtilis
K. pneumoniae
P. mirabilis
S. aureus
P. aeruginosa
E. coli
MIC: 11.5μg/ml
MBC:45.6µg/ml
MIC: 15.8μg/ml
MBC:42.7μg/ml
MIC: 19.3μg/ml
MBC:65.7μg/ml
MIC: 13.1μg/ml
MBC:45.7μg/ml
MIC: 21.3μg/ml
MBC:55.9μg/ml
MIC: 20.2μg/ml
MBC:78.2μg/ml
-Chakraborty et al.
(2014)
Antimicrobial activity Ethanol extract In vitro P. aeruginosa
B. subtilis
MIC:12.5 mg/ml
MBC: 50mg/ml
MIC: 6.3 mg/ml
MBC: 25 mg/ml
Negative: Sterile
water Lucky et al. (2017)
Antifungal activity GEO In vitro Fusarium verticillioides MIC: 5000mg/ml - Yamamoto-Ribeiro et
al. (2013)
Antifungal activity GEO In vitro
Aspergillus niger
M. hemalis
F. oxysporum
MIC: 70μg/ml
MIC: 75μg/ml -El-Baroty et al.
(2010)
Table 5. Continued
continued on following page

72
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
studies (Kikusaki and Nakatani, 1993; Dugasani et al., 2010). Increasing antioxidant activity of the hu-
man body will undoubtedly protect against the oxidative stress (Shukla and Singh, 2007). Bellik, (2014)
reported that ginger oleoresin has greater antioxidant activity (IC50 =1.82mg/ml) compared to essential
oil (IC50 =110.14 mg/ml). The bioactive molecule [6]-Gingerol is the major pungent constituent that
has considerable antioxidant activity. [6]-Gingerol have greater scavenging activity compared to ethanol
extract of ginger against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radi-
cal at lower concentrations (<100 µg/ml). However, both the ginger extract and [6]-gingerol displayed
same antioxidant potential at higher doses (100–1000 µg/ml) (Harliyansyah et al. 2007). Ginger extracts
also protect the DNA from lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidation damage in rats (Tchombé et al., 2012).
Ginger oil can act as a scavenger of oxygen radical and could be used as antioxidant (Yadav et al., 2016).
The alcoholic extracts of ginger have shown effective antioxidant effects and can prevent lipid peroxida-
tion (Shobana and Naidu, 2000).
Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity
Ginger extracts have significant antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia
coli,Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Candida albicansandB. subtilis
(Thongson et al., 2005; Natta et al., 2008; Singh et al. 2008; Bellik, 2014) and antifungal activity against
Fusariumsp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aspergillus Niger (Sa-Nguanpuag et al., 2011;Auta et al.
2011; Bellik, 2014; Riaz et al., 2015).The active biomolecule [6]-gingerol and [12]-gingerol revealed
potential antibacterial effects against gram negative bacteria, Porphyromonas gingivalis,P. endodontalis
and Prevotella intermedia. However, another bioactive molecule, [10]-gingerol showed antibacterial
Pharmacological
activities Studyextract/ GEO In vitro/
In vivo Target/ Model IC 50/
Dosage Control Reference
Antifungal activity GEO In vitro Aspergillus flavus
Penicillium expansum MIC: 500μg/ml - Sharma et al. (2013)
Antioxidant activity Aqueous extract In vitro Rats IC50: 6.8 μg/ml - Nanjundaiah et al.
(2011)
Gastro protective activity Aqueous extract In vivo Ulcer induced rats by ethanol/
swim stress 200 mg/kg body weight Positive:
Lansoprazole
Nanjundaiah et al.
(2011)
Gastro protective activity Zingerone In vivo Ethanol-induced gastric ulcers
in rats 200 mg/kg body weight Positive: Ranitidine Karampour et al.
(2019)
Antidiabetic activity Aqueous Extract In vivo Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced
type I diabetic rats
4 ml/ kg, p.o. daily for
6 weeks
Negative: Sterile
water Akhani et al. (2004)
Antidiabetic activity Ethanolic Extract In vivo STZ-induced diabetic rats 200 mg/kg p.o daily for
20 days Positive: Gliclazide Bhandari et al. (2005)
Cytotoxic activity Subcritical water
extracts In vitro
Hep2c cells
RD cells
L2OBcells
IC50: 9.82 µg/ml
IC50: 13.81 µg/ml
IC50: 6.88 µg/ml
-Švarc-Gajić et al.
(2017)
Cardioprotective activity Ethanol extract In vivo Wistar rats 400 mg/kg body weight - Amran et al. (2015)
Antiproliferative activity Aqueous extract In vitro A549 cells
HeLa cells
IC50: 239.4µg/ml
IC50: 253.4µg/ml Control: Untreated Choudhur y et al.
(2010)
Insecticidal activity GEO In vivo Culex theileri 1 ml -
Madreseh-
Ghahfarokhi et al.
(2018)
Note: GEO, Ginger essential oil, MIC, Minimum inhibition concentration; MBC, Minimum bactericide concentration; LC50,
Lethalconcentration; IC50, Inhibitory concentration
Table 5. Continued

73
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
activity against Mycobacterium avium and M. tuberculosis (Hiserodt et al., 1998). Furthermore, several
antimicrobial studies were summarized in Table 5.
Anticancer Activity
Worldwide, researchers are interested in identifying plant derived bioactive constituents that have the
capacity to interfere with carcinogenic processes. Several spices and medicinal plants are known to
possess an array of pharmacological properties including anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic activities.
Tumor induction is strictly linked to oxidative stress, a constituent that exhibits antioxidant properties
might be act as antitumorogenic agent. Masuda et al. (2004) isolated more than 50 antioxidants from the
rhizomes of ginger. Among them topical application of [6]-gingerol to DMBA initiated skin cancer in
SENCAR mice contributed a substantial protection against skin canceras reported by Katiyar et al. (1996).
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most lethal, destructive and malignant astrocytoma of primary
brain tumors in adults. Lee et al., 2008 reported the [6]-Gingerol induced tumor necrosis factor-related
apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) mediated apoptosis of glioblastoma. The previous study reports
noticed that the bioactive molecule [6]-gingerol had been induced apoptosis of gastric cancer cells by
increasing caspase-3/7 activation (Prasad and Tyagi, 2015). The other bioactive constituent gingerdione
has been demonstrated as a potential antitumor agent in human leukemia cells(Hsu et al., 2005).
In another study, the methanolic extract of ginger inhibited the growth of 19 Helicobacter pylori (HP)
strains with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) range of 6.25-50µg/ml (Mahady et al., 2003).
Yusof et al. (2009) demonstrated that oleoresin of ginger has chemopreventive activity against liver cancer
in rats. The ginger extract also remarked that suppression of cell cycle progression and prompted the
death of human pancreatic cancer cell lines (Akimoto et al. 2015). Tahir et al. (2015) observed that fresh
ginger extract contains a high level of gingerols, and it is used to induce cell death of colon cancer cells.
Anti-inflammatory Activity
The anti-inflammatory activity of ginger has been well known for centuries. However, the scientific
evidence confirmed it mostly in animal models more than humans, Wei et al. (2005). Anti-inflammatory
potential of gingerols was evidenced by the inhibitory effects of prostaglandins and leukotrienes syn-
thesis in Rat Basophilic Leukemia -1 (RBL-1) cells (Kiuchi et al., 1982). The ginger rhizome contains
bioactive constituents such as [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol which has been reported to have durable anti-
inflammatory effects and suppress the production of TNF α in TPA- treated female ICR mice (Surh et
al., 1999).Ramadan et al. (2011) reported that oral administration of ginger (200 mg/kg) suppressed the
incidence and severity of adjuvant-induced arthritis by increasing the production of anti-inflammatories
and decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokines in rat.

74
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
OTHER ACTIVITIES
Anti-nausea Activity
The consumption of ginger may be a safe and effective option for the treatment of nausea and vomiting
in the pregnancy period (Borrelli et al., 2005). Maitre et al. (2011) evaluated four randomized controlled
trials (RCTs) on the use of ginger for pregnancy-induced nausea, and vomiting (PINV) which were
sourced from MEDLINE, TRIP CINAHL, and the Cochrane library. All the trials noticed that orally
administered ginger was significantly more effective for reducing vomiting and nausea. Additionally, in
the U.K, the National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence, has included a list of ginger acceptable
therapies to cure nausea and vomiting during early pregnancy.
Anti-respiratory Diseases Activity
Ginger rhizome has been used for centuries in treating respiratory diseases. Gingerols remarkably re-
duced the eosinophils in the lungs of ovalbumin-sensitized mice and suppressed the allergen-induced
Th2 cell-drivenn airway inflammation (Ahui et al., 2008). Ingestion of 6-, 8- gingerols, and 6-shogaol
reduced asthma disease at doses ranged between 100 to 300 µM, by prompt relaxation of precontracted
airway smooth muscle (Townsend et al., 2013).
Anti-diabetic and Anti-obesity Activity
The oral administration of ethanolic ginger extract significantly decreased fasting blood glucose levels
in streptozotocin (STZ) - treated type 1 diabetic rat model (Ojewole, 2006). Okamoto et al. (2011) re-
ported that [6]-gingerol reduce body weight and fat accumulation in mice. In another study, [6]-gingerol
inhibits rosiglitazone-induced adipogenesis through suppressing oil droplet accumulation and reduces
the oil droplet size in 3T3-L1 cells (Tzeng and Liu, 2013).
Cardio Protective and Lipid-Lowering Activity
Cardiovascular activity of ginger reported that ginger extract has an antioxidative potent, and it can
scavenge the superoxide anion and hydroxyl radicals (Fuhrman et al., 2000). In vitro and in vivo, studies
with animal models showed that ginger extract possessed antioxidant activity, and it might be triggering
the anti-inflammatory response and protect against cardiovascular disease (Masuda et al., 2004). The
ethanol extract of ginger at 400 mg/kg body weight of Wistar rats showed a significant decrease in all
the cardiac enzyme activities. (Amran et al., 2015).The aqueous ginger extract also exhibited durable
inhibitions against low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and platelet aggregation (Saputri and Jantan, 2011).
Ethanolic Zingiber officinale extract (200 mg/kg)p.o. for 20 days is substantially lowering the lipids in
streptozotocin (STZ) - induced diabetic rats (Bhandari et al., 2005).

75
Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Zingiber ocinale Essential Oil
Antithrombotic Activity
Earlier studies reported that ginger extract was found to possess antithrombotic activity as a result
of inhibiting platelet aggregation and thromboxane-B2(TXB2)in vitro. Whereas, effect of in vivo ex-
periments, oral administration of high doses of ginger extract in rats substantially reduced the level of
TXB2andprostaglandin-E2 (PGE2) production (Srivastava and Mustafa, 1989;Thomson et al., 2002).
CONCLUSION
Nowadays, plant based nutraceutical compounds have increased wider acceptance as chosen alternatives
to several synthetic medicines, mainly for cancer and diabetes. Also, people are aware that long term
uses of synthetic drugs are connected with various side effects. The rhizome of ginger is well known
for its medicinal value and flavor-enhancing agent. Gingerol is the key pungent constituent, it is a major
bioactive compound accumulated in the rhizome of fresh ginger. Presently, ginger is mainly used for the
prevention of travel sickness and chemoprevention of cancer. Several studies are extensively investigated
for discovering the therapeutic potential of ginger extracts, GEO and its bioactive compounds such as
α-zingiberene, gingerol and shogaol in humans and animal models.
Various results accounted that ginger has antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory,
antidiabetic, insecticidal, and other miscellaneous activities. Future research should focus on the ge-
netic variability of GEO and bioactive constituents from various cultivated varieties as well as the
country of origin. GEO contains major active constituents such as zingiberene, geranial, camphene,
β-sesquiphellandrene, neral, citrol, farnesene, bisabolene, and ar-curcumene. The presence of these
biologically active molecules as major constituents in ginger essential oil can be used in food, aroma,
cosmetics and pharmaceutical domains. Additionally, future research needs attention on the influence
of environmental factors attributed to ginger and its active compounds.
Further studies on determining the various pharmacological potential of the ginger extracts, GEO,
gingerol, shogaol and other active compounds should include human intervention clinical trials to in-
vestigate the activity against humans from various diseases. Future research should also focus on the
suitable duration, maximum dosage of ginger, concerns of overdosage and its side effects. Furthermore,
future investigations also are required to study the genetic diversity of phytochemicals among various
ginger germplasm lines grown across the world or country for improving GEO or particular bioactive
constituents, which are essential for developing varieties with higher beneficial bioactive constituents.
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