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Chapter 10: Laboratory designs and paradigms: Words, sounds, and sentences

Authors:

Judith Kroll

University of California, Riverside

Chip Gerfen

American University Washington D.C.

Paola E. Dussias

Pennsylvania State University

Content uploaded by Judith Kroll

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Running head: Experimental psycholinguistics

To appear in L. Wei & M. Moyer (Eds.), The Blackwell guide to research methods in

bilingualism. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers.

Chapter 10: Laboratory designs and paradigms: Words, sounds, and sentences

Judith F. Kroll, Chip Gerfen, and Paola E. Dussias

The Pennsylvania State University

Direct correspondence to:

Judith F. Kroll

Department of Psychology

641 Moore Building

Pennsylvania State University

University Park, PA 16802 USA

Phone: 814-863-0126

Fax: 814-863-7002

E-mail: jfk7@psu.edu

Laboratory designs and paradigms: Words, sounds, and sentences

In the past 10-15 years there has been a notable increase in the number of studies

that take a psycholinguistic or cognitive approach to bilingualism. Although there is a

long history of research on issues such as whether there is a critical period1 for second

language acquisition (see Birdsong, 1999, for a review), it is only recently that cognitive

scientists have begun to see that bilingualism is the norm for most of the world’s

population. Because cognitive science seeks to identify universal properties of thought,

the bilingual has become a model subject of study rather than a marked case. Researchers

have come to see that studies of bilingual cognition provide critical evidence regarding

the principles that constrain or permit interactions across cognitive systems. At the same

time, the development of a set of laboratory tools to investigate language performance

and its neurocognitive basis have enabled a new experimental approach to bilingualism

that is informed by studies of cognitive processing and brain function, in addition to the

linguistic approaches that have traditionally characterized bilingual research.

What do bilinguals tell us about cognition? And what can cognitive approaches

tell us about bilingualism? In the sections that follow we introduce readers to some of the

laboratory designs and paradigms that are commonly used in experimental studies of

bilingualism. The methods that we describe have been used to ask how a bilingual

manages the presence of two languages in a single mind. If the two languages were

entirely independent of one another, then the question might not be as pressing. However,

as we will see in the discussion that follows, there is a great deal of evidence that

suggests that the bilingual is not two monolinguals in one (Grosjean, 1989). Instead, the

recent experimental research demonstrates that the bilingual’s two languages interact

closely. These interactions influence the way in which bilinguals understand words

spoken and read each language, how speech is produced with or without a foreign accent,

and how sentences are comprehended and produced when the grammar of the two

languages is similar in some ways and distinct in others. What is remarkable is that the

observed interactions are not restricted to the second language only, but affect the native

language as well. The methods that have been developed to examine language processing

in bilinguals have been used to explore the scope of these interactions and the constraints

that are imposed by the structure of the specific languages themselves. Although it might

seem that a language system that has to cope with two sets of competing alternatives

might suffer in some respects, the recent evidence also suggests that bilingualism confers

benefits to cognition by virtue of having to develop cognitive skills to negotiate the

activity of the two languages (e.g., Bialystok, 2005) and that there may even be structural

consequences for brain organization (e.g., Mechelli et al., 2004).

In this chapter we review three major areas of research activity in experimental

psycholinguistics. The first section examines the way in which bilinguals recognize

words when they are spoken or read in each language and when they produce words in

the language in which they intend to speak. The second section addresses speech to ask

how the sounds of each of the bilingual’s two languages are processed when they are

heard or spoken. The final section concerns sentences to ask how the grammatical

structures and preferences associated with each of the bilingual’s languages are affected

by the presence of both languages. Within each of these topics our review will

necessarily be brief, but we hope to illustrate the logic of the experimental approach in a

way that will provide a useful guide to the primary literature.

Words

When a bilingual hears, reads, or speaks a word in one of his or her two

languages, is the other language also active? A great many studies of visual and auditory

word recognition have investigated the question of whether the bilingual lexicon is an

integrated representation across the word forms of both languages or whether words in

each language access independent representations, one for each language. A full

discussion of the theoretical alternatives associated with this debate are beyond the scope

of the present chapter but there are a number of summaries of this work available in

recent articles and chapters (e.g., Costa, 2005; Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002; Kroll &

Dijkstra, 2002; Kroll & Dussias, 2004; Kroll, Sumutka, & Schwartz, 2005; Kroll &

Sunderman, 2003; Thomas & Van Heuven, 2005). In brief, most of the evidence suggests

that lexical access is nonselective in that alternatives in both languages appear to be

activated in parallel when words are processed in one word alone.

How can we draw the conclusion that lexical access occurs in parallel across the

bilingual’s two languages? Here we describe three paradigms that will serve to illustrate

the logic of research on the bilingual lexicon: (1) visual lexical decision; (2) eye tracking;

and (3) the picture-word Stroop task. These paradigms have been used, respectively, to

examine visual word recognition, spoken word recognition, and spoken word production.

Visual lexical decision

In lexical decision, a string of letters is presented on a computer screen and the

participant must decide whether it forms a real word or not. Typically the participant

presses a “yes” button when the letter string is real word and a “no” button when it does

not and the speed and accuracy of his or her decision is recorded. When the letter string is

a real word, the word can be common and familiar (e.g., cat) or a word that is only

infrequently seen (e.g., obtuse). It can be a word whose spelling resembles many other

words (e.g., cat looks like hat, mat, rat, etc.) or few, or a word that is concrete and easy to

imagine (e.g., cat) or abstract and hard to imagine (e.g., obtuse). When the letter string

does not form a real word, it is typically a possible word in that is pronounceable and

follows the spelling rules of the language (e.g., blart). By using nonwords that are

possible words in the language, the participant cannot use spelling or phonology alone to

make the lexical decision; the mental lexicon itself must be accessed to determine

whether the word is known. The task has been used extensively in psycholinguistic

research within a single language to examine lexical access (e.g., Balota, 1994).

For bilinguals, lexical decision provides a context in which a set of factors can be

manipulated to determine whether only one or both languages are active when a string of

letters is presented. The logic in many of the bilingual studies is to exploit similarities

that exist across languages in orthography or phonology. For example, in languages such

as Dutch and English there are a significant number of translation equivalents that are

identical or very similar in their spelling patterns. These translations are called cognates

and provide a clever means to determine whether bilinguals are able to function

monolingually in performing a task such as lexical decision. In Dutch and English the

words “bed” and “hotel” are cognates because they have the same spelling in both

languages. Other cognates, such as “tomaat” in Dutch and “tomato” in English are

similar, but not identical, in the two languages. If a bilingual can access a word in one

language without contacting the other, then lexical decision performance for cognates

should be no different than lexical decision for words that are unambiguous. Thus, a

Dutch-English bilingual performing lexical decision exclusively in English (i.e., are these

strings of letters words in English or not?) should not be influenced by the fact that

cognates also have representations that are similar in Dutch (see Figure 1 for an

illustration of the task). The results of many experiments (e.g., Van Hell & Dijkstra,

2002; Dijkstra, Van Jaarsveld, & Ten Brinke, 1998) show that bilinguals are in fact faster

to decide that a string of letters is a real word in one language alone when it is a cognate.

A related type of experiment uses interlingual homographs, or words that have

similar orthography and/or phonology in two languages, but different meanings. For

example, in Dutch, the word “room” means cream, as in cream for your coffee. If a

Dutch-English bilingual can effectively switch off his or her Dutch when reading in

English, then a word like “room” should be processed no differently than any other

English word that does have this special relation to Dutch. The alternative sense of the

word “room” should not intrude. However, many experiments have shown that the

unintended language does affect lexical decision performance (e.g., Dijkstra et al., 1998;

Von Studnitz & Green, 2002). When lexical decision is performed in the second language

(L2), there is interference from the unintended sense of the word in the first language

(L1). However, Dijkstra et al. have shown that when the lexical decision task is altered

slightly to be a language-general task (what they call generalized lexical decision), there

is facilitation for interlingual homographs because under these conditions any activated

sense of the word is sufficient to make a “yes” response that the string of letters is a

word.

A criticism of the logic of these word recognition studies is that both languages

are necessarily active by virtue of the participant’s knowledge that the experiment is

about their bilingualism. Grosjean (2001) has argued that when bilinguals are in

“bilingual mode” with both languages active to some degree, there will necessarily be

evidence for cross-language interactions of the sort that have been reported. A number of

recent studies have attempted to address this criticism and to evaluate the effect of the

participant’s expectations by keeping participants in a strictly “monolingual mode” in one

language alone. For example, Van Hell and Dijkstra (2002) recruited Dutch university

students to participate in an experiment in Dutch exclusively. Unbeknownst to the

participants, some of the items in the experiments were cognates in Dutch and English or

in Dutch and French. They showed that there was still facilitation in making lexical

decisions to the cognates relative to a set of controls even when there was no explicit

instruction regarding any language other than Dutch. The result is striking because Dutch

was the native and dominant language of these bilinguals and one might expect that they

would be able to function independently in their L1, yet the L2 and L3 affected their

performance in the task.

Eye tracking

Monitoring the movements of the eye while a person reads visually presented text

is a task that has often been used to infer the processes that underlie skilled reading (see

section below on processing sentences). Recent studies of spoken word recognition have

also used eye movements to track the pattern of eye fixations when a listener hears a

word while looking at a display of objects whose names bear some similarity to the

phonology of the spoken word. This paradigm, developed initially in the domain of

spoken word recognition in the native language to test the seriality of lexical selection

mechanisms (e.g., Allopenna, Magnuson, & Tanenhaus, 1998), has been extended to

investigate the parallel activation of words in both of the bilingual’s languages when they

hear a word in one language alone (e.g., Ju & Luce, 2004; Marian & Spivey, 2003;

Spivey & Marian, 1999, Weber & Cutler, 2004).

In this task, the participant, wearing a head-mounted eye tracker, is seated in front

of a display that contains four objects (either real objects or pictures on a computer

display). The person is instructed to fixate on a central point on the screen until he or she

hears a spoken target word. In the computerized version of the task, the participant clicks

on the picture that corresponds to the spoken word. The critical manipulation in these

studies is the presence of objects whose names sound like the spoken word either in the

language presented or in the bilingual’s other language. To illustrate, we use the materials

in Spanish and English from the Ju and Luce (2004) study (see Figure 2). Here, the

spoken target word is playa (meaning beach) in Spanish. The correct response is to click

on the picture of the beach. However, one of the distractor pictures shows a pair of pliers

(in Spanish the word for pliers is alicate). If a bilingual can perform this task in one

language exclusively, then the presence of the pliers should have no effect on

performance because the Spanish word alicate bears no resemblance to the word playa.

However, if both language alternatives are activated in parallel, then the English word

pliers, which is phonologically similar to playa, should intrude momentarily and the

pattern of eye fixations should reveal that participants are more likely to glance at the

picture with a phonologically similar name than at other control pictures. A series of

experiments by Marian and colleagues (Marian & Spivey, 2003; Spivey & Marian, 1999)

has shown that Russian-English bilinguals appear to activate both language alternatives.

However, Ju and Luce (and see Weber & Cutler, 2004) modified this claim to show that

whether evidence for parallel activation was obtained depended on the acoustic properties

of the spoken word. If the word was spoken with Spanish appropriate voice onset times,

bilinguals were less likely to fixate pictures with names that were phonologically similar

in English. For present purposes, the main point of this illustration is to demonstrate the

sensitivity of the cognitive system to processes that reveal themselves over time and

across modalities. Here, the pattern of eye fixations corresponds to the nature of the

lexical information that is activated when a spoken word is heard. The process of

perceiving spoken language can of course be studied within the auditory domain alone

(see the section below on phonology and Grosjean & Frauenfelder, 1997, for a review).

Picture-word Stroop

The final example we describe to illustrate how lexical processing has been

studied in bilinguals focuses on the way in which bilinguals plan spoken utterances to

produce a single word in only one of their two languages. Language production has been

far less studied than comprehension, in part because it is difficult to devise tasks that

encourage speakers to produce uniform utterances. As a consequence, most of the early

research on language production relied on patterns that could be inferred from large

corpora of speech errors (see Poulisse, 1999, for an example of a speech error analysis for

L2 learners). Although errors are informative with respect to the constraints that guide

speech planning, they do not provide a sensitive means to examine the planning process

as it unfolds over time when speech is produced accurately. A solution to this problem

has been to invent tasks that simultaneously constrain spoken utterances and, at the same

time, provide a method for asking what sort of information is available to the planning

process at different points in time prior to articulation.

The picture-word Stroop task has been used extensively in recent studies of

monolingual and bilingual language production to examine the time course of planning

and to evaluate alternative models of the planning process (e.g., Levelt, Roelofs, &

Meyer, 1999; Peterson & Savoy, 1998; Schriefers, Meyer, & Levelt, 1999; Starreveld &

La Heij, 1995). The task is a variant of the color word naming task first described by

Stroop (1935). In the original Stroop task, participants named the color of the ink in

which printed words appeared. The Stroop effect is the interference that is induced when

a color word appears in an incongruent color (e.g., the word blue printed in red ink). In

the picture-word task, a picture is presented and the participant is asked to speak its name

aloud as quickly as possible. At some point just prior to or following the presentation of

the picture, a word distractor is presented either auditorily or visually. The participant is

told to ignore the word and name the picture. By manipulating the relation of the

distractor word to the picture’s name and the timing of when it is presented, it has been

possible to map out the time course of speech planning. Generally, there is interference

for semantically related distractors when they are presented early in the planning process

and facilitation for phonologically related distractors when they are presented late in the

planning process (e.g., Schriefers et al., 1990).

The overall pattern of distractor effects in picture-word interference suggests that

the phonology of the spoken utterance can only be encoded once the meaning of the

intended utterance is specified. A debate in this area of research is whether the

sequencing that allows speech planning to proceed from meaning to phonology is a

strictly serial and encapsulated process or one that reflects interactions across different

levels of information (e.g., Dell & O’Seaghdha, 1991; Levelt et al., 1999; Peterson &

Savoy, 1998). Although a full discussion of the theoretical background is beyond the

scope of the present chapter, for the purpose of extending the methods used with

monolinguals into the bilingual domain, we consider briefly the focal issue towards

which the research has been designed. 2

Like research on bilingual word recognition, the question in bilingual word

production has been whether alternatives in the nontarget language (i.e., the language not

spoken) are active during the planning of an utterance (see Costa, 2005, for a review of

this literature). Unlike word recognition, production is a process that is initiated by a

conceptual event (e.g., a picture to be a named, a word to be translated, an abstract idea to

be spoken) so it might seem that in the course of conceptualizing the intended utterance

that only the language to be produced would be active. Although there is debate in the

literature about the selectivity of language production (e.g., Bloem, Van Den Boogaard,

& La Heij, 2004), a great deal of evidence suggests that words in both of the bilingual’s

languages are active at least to level of abstract lexical representations and perhaps to the

point of actually specifying the phonology associated with the translation.

How can the picture-word Stroop paradigm be used to inform the debate about

whether alternatives in the bilingual’s other language are active when they intend to

speak in one language only? A number of studies have varied the language of the

distractor and the language in which the picture is to be named to investigate this issue

(e.g., Costa, Miozzo, & Caramazza, 1999; Hermans, Bongaerts, De Bot, & Schreuder,

1998). An illustration of the paradigm adapted from Hermans et al. (1998) is shown in

Figure 3. Here a Dutch-English bilingual is asked to name a picture of a mountain as the

word mountain in English. The distractor is presented immediately with the picture, at a

brief delay following the picture, or after a longer delay. The interval between the

presentation of the picture and the onset of the distractor is known as the stimulus onset

asynchrony, or SOA. In this example, the distractor is the word dal in Dutch which

means valley in English and is therefore semantically related to the word to be spoken but

presented in the nontarget language. By comparing the time it takes bilinguals to name

the picture when it is accompanied by a semantically related word, like dal, a

phonologically related word like mouw, which sounds like mountain in English but

means sleeve, or an unrelated control word, like kaars, which means candle in English, it

is possible to estimate what sort of information is active at any given moment in time

before the word “mountain” is actually spoken. Hermans et al. found a similar pattern of

results in picture naming in the L2 regardless of whether the language of the distractor

was L1 or L2. Semantically related distractors produced interference relative to unrelated

controls and the semantic interference was greatest early in the time course of speech

planning. Phonologically related distractors produced facilitation relative to unrelated

controls and the facilitation was greatest late in the time course of speech planning. Costa

et al. (1999) reported similar results for Catalan-Spanish bilinguals. Finding that

distractors in the nontarget language also produce interference and facilitation in picture

naming suggest that like the evidence for bilingual word recognition, lexical access in

bilingual speech production is also initially language nonselective, with alternatives

activated in both languages in parallel. Other production paradigms have produced

evidence that converges with these general conclusions. These include speaking the

translation of individual words (De Groot, 1992; Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and monitoring

the phonemes in the name of pictures (Colomé, 2001).

Sounds

A longstanding issue in the study of bilingual phonology involves how L2

phonetic categories are both produced and perceived. Much of this research focuses on

late bilinguals, i.e., bilinguals who have learned their second language near or past

puberty and who, in many cases, have lived for extended periods of time in the L2

environment. As is well known, late L2 speakers often differ in their production and

perception of phonetic categories from native speaker norms. From the perspective of the

researcher, the phonology and phonetics of bilingualism provides a fertile testing ground

for exploring hypotheses about the critical period for language acquisition, for examining

issues of neural plasticity throughout the development of L2 proficiency, for probing how

L2 learning is constrained in comparison to L1 learning and/or by the phonological

system of the L1 (see Flege, 2003 for a review), and for understanding the generally

complex issue of accentedness in L2 speech production and perception (see Piske,

MacKay, & Flege, 2001 for a review). While a lengthy discussion of the various

theoretical alternatives associated with the issues noted here is beyond the scope of this

chapter, in the rest of this section, we will examine a number of particular studies that

both exemplify a range of techniques employed and inform the theoretical questions

noted above.

Production

Production tasks are commonly employed as a means of assessing bilingual

speech for numerous theoretical goals. These can differ both in terms of elicitation

technique and size of the speech sample elicited. In most cases, the task involves having

participants read aloud either target phrases (e.g., Flege, 1987; Moyer, 1999), single

words (e.g., Flege & Eefting, 1987; Moyer, 1999), or larger chunks such as paragraphs

(e.g., Moyer, 1999) and recording their speech production for subsequent analysis. Some

studies have also employed repetition techniques in which participants listen to and then

repeat experimental items produced by a native speaker either immediately (e.g.,

Markham, 1997) or after a delay designed to minimize the chances of direct imitation

from sensory memory (e.g., Piske et al., 2001). Finally, other studies have employed less

controlled techniques designed to elicit speech tokens under increasingly natural

conditions, such as asking participants to talk about events in their lives (e.g., Moyer,

1999). In broad strokes, the recorded data are subjected to two kinds of analyses,

depending on the goals of the research. The first involves carrying out acoustic analyses

of the bilingual production data and comparing the results with measurements of native

speaker controls. The second involves using native speakers to rate the L2 productions of

the participants, an approach used extensively in studies assessing L2 accentedness (see

Piske et al., 2001 for an overview of rating techniques).

Flege (1987) provides a useful example of a typical production study and

illustrates how acoustic measurement techniques can be used to address questions of

neural plasticity and the critical period hypothesis, i.e., the hypothesis that language

learning (or, in our case, speech learning) is rigidly constrained by a critical period in

maturation ending around puberty (see DeKeyser, 2000 for a recent review). Flege

examined the L1 and L2 productions of English/French and French/English bilinguals for

the French and English alveolar stop /t/ and for the /i/ and /u/ vowels in English and the

/y/ and /u/ vowels in French. For reasons of space, we focus here on the production

results for /t/.

Both French and English have the voiceless stop /t/ in their phoneme inventories.

In English, the category /t/ (like other voiceless stops) is realized phonetically as a long

lag or aspirated stop [th] when initial in a stressed syllable (such as /tu/ two). In French,

however, /t/ is produced as a short lag or unaspirated stop [t] in the same position (as in

tous /tu/ “all”). The term lag refers to voice onset time (VOT), i.e., to the interval of time

between the moment when the closure of the stop consonant is released and the onset of

voicing in the following vowel. VOT can be measured with great precision from a

display of the acoustic waveform, as can be seen in Figure 4, made with the Praat©

acoustic analysis software.

Flege (1987) measured the VOTs of the stop /t/ for three groups of late

English/French bilinguals varying in experience with French (U.S. students 3-6 months

removed from a 9 month abroad program in France; French professors whose L1 was

English and who were living in an English language context; and L1 English speakers

living in Paris for an average of 11.7 years) and a group of late French/English bilinguals

living in an English context (French women living in Chicago for an average of 12.2

years). Their data were compared to production data from monolingual English and

French speakers collected under the same experimental conditions. As is standard in such

phonetic studies, multiple repetitions of the critical phonetic context were produced by

each speaker to allow for the calculation of a reliable mean VOT value for each

participant. Data were elicited in two conditions. In Condition 1, subjects read 7 phrases

in isolation. All phrases were matched for the initial phoneme sequence /tu/ by employing

the same initial word. The English phrases began with the word two (e.g., two little

boys), while the French phrases began with the word tous (e.g., tous le soldats ‘all the

soldiers’). In Condition 2, subjects were prompted to use each of the phrases in an

original sentence while being cued by the written phrases from Condition 1. VOT was

measured for each instance of initial /t/ in each condition, and a mean was calculated for

each speaker by condition. After Speaking Condition was found to be non-significant for

VOT duration, a mean of the two means was calculated for each speaker and used in the

analysis.

Of particular interest here are the results for two of the groups, the Americans

living in Paris and the French women living in the United States. Specifically, Flege’s

results show that for the bilingual L1-English/L2-French speakers, VOT durations in

English are significantly shorter than those of monolingual English controls. Likewise,

the bilingual L1-French/L2-English group produces the French stops with significantly

longer VOTs than do the French monolingual controls. That is, in these bilinguals, the

VOT targets for /t/ in their L2s (longer in English and shorter in French) are reshaping the

realization of their respective /t/ categories in their L1s. Here we can see how

bilingualism again provides a fundamental tool for testing theories of language learning.

The logic of the argument in this case is that a strong critical period hypothesis

incorrectly predicts that late learning of an L2 should not reshape the phonetic space of

an L1. By contrast, theories which do not assume that the neural plasticity necessary for

speech/language acquisition declines precipitously after a critical period predict that

sufficient experience in an L2 (such as longtime residency in an L2 context and constant

use of the L2) may affect even aspects of the phonetic system of the L1.

Perception

As with production, the perception of phonetic categories in an L2, particularly by

late L2 learners, often diverges from the perception of the same categories by native

speakers. Though theoretical models differ in the specifics of their approaches to the

problem, there is a general consensus that L2 perception is filtered by knowledge of the

L1 phonological system (see, e.g., The Perceptual Assimilation Model, Best, 1995, and

the Speech Learning Model, Flege, 1988, 2002). Much research indicates that one

particular way that L1 learning shapes the perception of L2 categories is that L1

acquisition involves perceptual tuning to the phonetic properties necessary for producing

and perceiving phonological distinctions in the L1. Over the course of maturation, this

tuning leads to a warping of the acoustic space through which subsequent L2 learning is

filtered (e.g., the Native Language Magnet, Kuhl, 2000).

A number of experimental paradigms have been deployed to examine questions of

both how and how well L2 phonetic categories are perceived. For example, Iverson et al.

(2003) utilize three different tasks in examining how language experience with the L1

shapes the perception of non-native categories. Specifically, they examine how Japanese

listeners differ from native English listeners in their perception of the English /l/ vs. /r/

contrast. For their stimuli, Iverson et al. created a set of eighteen CV syllables,

synthesizing a continuum from /ra/ to /la/ in English by systematically varying two

spectral properties, the frequencies of the second (F2) and third (F3) formants of the

initial liquid consonant. They tested their participants in three ways: via the collection of

identification and goodness ratings, via similarity scaling, and via a discrimination task.

The identification and goodness tasks involved having subjects listen to a

stimulus item—items were presented twice in this experiment in two randomized

blocks—and identify it with a phonetic category in their native language. Upon

identification, subjects were also asked rate each token on a scale of 1 (bad) to 7 (good)

as an exemplar of that category. In similarity scaling tasks, subjects are also asked to

provide ratings. In this case, however, subjects were presented aurally with pairs of

stimuli and asked to rate their similarity on a scale of 1 (dissimilar) to 7 (similar). Stimuli

were presented in a single randomized experimental block of 306 trials, with every pair

of the 18 stimuli items presented in both possible orders. Finally, AX discrimination tasks

consist of asking subjects to listen to a pair of stimuli and make a determination as to

whether they have heard the same or different items. In this experiment, stimuli were

presented in a single randomized block of 480 trials, consisting of 48 same pair and 48

different pair trials for each pair of stimulus items. The different condition pairs differed

in this task only along the dimension of the third formant (F3).

For Iverson et al. (2003) the similarity scaling and discrimination tasks yielded

converging results. Japanese listeners are erroneously well-tuned to changes along the F2

dimension, while American listeners are finely tuned to changes along the F3 dimension

that signal the phonetic category boundary between English /r/ and /l/. Iverson et al. argue

that the identification and goodness ratings are relevant in that they provide a means of

explaining why Japanese listeners differentially tune to spectral components of the

stimuli. Specifically, as F2 falls Japanese listeners begin to identify stimuli as belonging

to the Japanese /w/ category instead of as belonging to /r/. That is, their experience with

Japanese has shaped their acoustic space in such a way as to lead them to attend to cues

such as the F2 difference signaling the contrast between /r/ and /w/. By contrast, the F3

changes to which English speakers are highly tuned fall within a single Japanese

category, /r/, and Japanese listeners thus show a reduced sensitivity to change along this

dimension.

If L2 perception is constrained by the filter of L1, the question then arises of how

malleable the system is over the course of L2 learning. Escudero and Boersma (2004),

tested Spanish speakers perception of the English /i/ ~ /I/ contrast using a synthetic /i/ ~

/I/ continuum which varied both the frequency of F1 and the duration of the synthetic

vowel in an experimental design similar to that of Iverson et al. (2003). This contrast is

notoriously difficult for Spanish learners of English (cf. Bradlow, 1995; Fox, Flege, &

Munro, 1999). Interestingly, Escudero and Boersma tested two groups of L1 Spanish

speakers living in the L2 environment: a group living in a Scottish English environment

where the /i/ ~ /I/ distinction is realized primarily by differences in the frequency of the

first formant (F1) of the vowel—a property inversely related to vowel height—and a

group living in southern England, where the dialect primarily uses duration differences in

realizing the difference between the categories. In the Escudero and Boersma study,

participants listened to each stimulus token in isolation and performed a forced choice

task, selecting between a picture of a sheep (indicating the /i/ category) or a picture of a

ship (indicating the percept of the /I/) category. The task is different from the Iverson et

al. (2003) identification task in that participants in this study were forced to choose

between L2 categories (indirectly in the form of pictures) rather than identifying the

stimulus item with an L1 category. Importantly, the results indicate that although they did

not exhibit native-like perception with respect to the L1 English speaker controls, more

advanced L2 learners adopted strategies that involved tuning to the properties of the

dialect in which they were immersed, thus exhibiting a good degree of plasticity in their

developing sensitivity to dialect-particular acoustic cues.

A striking contrast with the cases of L2 plasticity that we have noted in both

production and perception can be found in the research conducted on the /e/ ~ /ε/ contrast

in Spanish/Catalan bilinguals—a phonemic distinction present in Catalan but lacking in

Spanish. In a series of experiments ( Bosch, Costa, & Sebastián-Gallés, 2000; Pallier,

Bosch, & Sebastián-Gallés, 1997; Pallier, Colomé, & Sebastián-Gallés, 2001; Sebastián-

Gallés & Soto-Faraco, 1999) researchers have employed a range of techniques and found

that highly proficient, yet Spanish-dominant early Spanish/Catalan bilinguals perform in

a non-native fashion in tasks involving the processing of the Catalan /e/ ~ /ε/ distinction,

in comparison with the superior performance of Catalan-dominant early Catalan/Spanish

bilinguals. Two of these studies are particularly useful in that they allow us to review

additional experimental approaches found in the bilingual perception literature.

Sebastián-Gallés and Soto-Faraco (1999) employ a modified version of the gating

technique (Grosjean 1980, 1988) to probe for differences in the way that highly proficient

Spanish dominant, i.e. Spanish/Catalan bilinguals process the Catalan /e/ ~ /ε/ distinction

(among other contrasts) in comparison with the performance of highly proficient, Catalan

dominant, i.e., Catalan/Spanish bilinguals. In a gating experiment, an aurally presented

stimulus, usually a word, is played for participants in successively larger increments. In

this sense, the participant’s exposure to the stimulus is gated. At each gate, participants

must make a forced choice between possible forms and then rate the confidence with

which they have made their choice. In the Sebastián-Gallés and Soto-Faraco study, gated

stimuli consisting of one of two minimally distinct non-words in Catalan were presented

while written pairs of the non-words were shown on a computer screen. During each

gating trial, participants chose one of the displayed forms and rated the confidence of

their choices on a 1 to 9 scale. The authors analyzed their results in terms of two key

points: 1) the isolation point, the gate at which subjects correctly identified a target word

with no further change in their subsequent choices upon hearing larger chunks of the

gated form; and 2) the recognition point, the gate after which subjects expressed a

confidence rating of 8 or higher in their choice. The results indicate that despite the fact

that the Spanish/Catalan bilinguals are all highly proficient Catalan speakers who had

acquired Catalan in their early childhood, these speakers are less efficient, i.e., they need

significantly more acoustic information than did the Catalan dominant bilinguals in

successfully completing the gating task. Arguably, then, the gating task provides a fine-

grained way of distinguishing in a fairly precise manner between even highly proficient

bilingual groups. In a larger sense, Sebastián-Gallés and Soto-Faraco claim that their

results demonstrate that the tuning effect of L1 categories (in this case, driven by the lack

of an /e/ ~ /ε/ distinction in the L1 Spanish) may persist deeply into L2 acquisition, even

when an individual’s L2 is learned early, involves intensive exposure, and is used

extensively.

With the exception of the gating task (the status of which is ambiguous; see, e.g.,

Grosjean 1996), the techniques most often used in bilingual phonetic perception studies

involve off-line tasks. Pallier et al. (2001) provide a useful example of how on-line tasks

can also be used to address the issue of how the phonological system of L1 filters the

perception of L2 phonetic categories. In continuing to examine the difficulty that highly

proficient Spanish/Catalan bilinguals have in perceiving the Catalan /e/ ~ /ε/ distinction,

Pallier et al. employ a medium term auditory repetition priming technique. The auditory

repetition priming technique is a variation on an auditory lexical decision task.

Specifically, it involves presenting participants with both spoken words and non-words

and asking them to make a decision as quickly as possible regarding whether the

presented stimulus is a word or not. The task is called an auditory repetition priming

technique, because some of the words and non-words in the stimuli list are presented

twice. A general finding of this task is that real words are responded to more rapidly

when seen for a second time (i.e., they are primed), while response times for non-words

are not faster when presented a second time. Pallier et al. capitalize on this effect by

including minimal pairs of Catalan words such as [pere] ‘Peter’ and [perε] ‘pear’. The

logic of their experimental design is that if listeners process such minimal pairs as

acoustically different and thus distinct lexical items, no priming effects should be found

for them. On the other hand, if listeners hear such forms as homophones by failing to

perceive the difference in their final vowels, priming effects are expected. Their results

are consistent with the other studies in which Spanish dominant Spanish/Catalan

bilinguals do not perform in the same fashion as Catalan dominant bilinguals.

Specifically, the Spanish dominant group differs significantly from the Catalan dominant

group in that they exhibit a facilitation effect for minimal pairs of Catalan forms that is of

the same magnitude as the facilitation effect found for real repetitions of identical forms.

This indicates that Spanish dominant subjects are not appropriately tuned to the spectral

differences cueing contrasts such as /e/ versus /ε/. At the same time, the overall reaction

time data corroborate the authors’ claim that they are testing highly proficient bilinguals,

given that the Spanish dominant group did not differ significantly from the Catalan

dominant group in either their response times or error rates in the lexical decision task for

Catalan words. Methodologically, these results are interesting for our purposes in that

they show how converging results can be obtained with a variety of tasks involving both

behavioral, on-line techniques, gating, and off-line tasks such as discrimination and

identification (e.g., Pallier, Bosch, & Sebastián-Gallés, 1997).

Imaging

Recent advances in imaging techniques have also been brought to bear on many

of the questions addressed above. Though a thorough review is beyond the scope of this

chapter, we will discuss here Winkler et al.’s (1999) event-related potentials (ERP) study

of phonetic category perception in native, naïve non-native, and proficient L2 speakers of

Finnish (see Handy, 2004 for an overview of ERP experimental designs, approaches, and

applications). Broadly speaking, ERP is a functional brain scanning technique that

allows for the non-invasive measuring of brain activity during cognitive processing.

Electrodes are attached to the scalp in order to measure ongoing electrical activity as an

electroencephalogram (EEG). Event-related potentials are calculated as averages of

electrical activity in the brain that are time-locked to the presentation or to the response

of particular stimuli. The experimental approach taken in Winkler et al. employs a design

in which a “standard” binaurally presented stimulus (a synthesized Finnish /e/ vowel) is

played repeatedly to participants (82.5% of the time) and occasionally interrupted by one

of two “deviant” stimuli (either the Finnish vowel /ae/ or the Finnish vowel /y/, also both

synthesized). The experiment tests for the elicitation of what is known as a mismatch

negativity event-related potential (MMN) during the processing of the deviant stimuli.

Research has shown the MMN potential to be associated with bottom-up, pre-attentional

phonetic processing (see Näätänen, 2001 for an extensive review). Of most relevance

here is that elicitation of the MMN reflects the perception of change along a particular

phonetic dimension, in this case as a function of change from the repeated “standard” to

the “deviant” stimulus.

Winkler et al. (1999) tested the perception by Hungarians of a Finnish vowel

contrast /e/ ~ /ae/ that falls in the acoustic space of a single vowel category in Hungarian.

Given the preattentional nature of MMN elicitation, they reasoned that an ERP study of

the perception of non-native contrasts would provide a useful mechanism for exploring

the issue of brain plasticity in the late learning of a second language. Specifically, they

hypothesized that if Hungarian speakers are unable to perceive the vowel contrast, they

should also fail to elicit MMN potentials on deviant trials. By contrast, the elicitation of

MMN potentials on deviant trials would indicate a deep, low level sensitivity to the

acoustic difference between the two vowel categories in Finnish. Importantly, they found

that MMNs were not elicited for the naïve Hungarian speakers when exposed to the

Finnish vowel contrast, i.e. in response to the presentation of the deviant stimuli /ae/

vowels. In keeping with the performance of a different group of naïve speakers on an off-

line discrimination task, the ERP data indicated that these naïve speakers were simply not

perceiving the difference between the Finnish vowels but rather we perceiving both /e/

and /ae/ as tokens of a single vowel category. By contrast, the relatively proficient

Hungarian L2 speakers of Finnish displayed a clear MMN response to the presentation of

the deviant tokens—a response pattern, in fact, that did not differ significantly from that

of native speaking Finnish control subjects. These results are a bit of a conundrum when

compared to the apparent non-plasticity characterizing the early and highly proficient

Spanish/Catalan bilinguals’ performances on an array of tasks as described above. For the

late L2 Hungarian speakers, the results, when taken together with the non-elicitation of

MMN responses in the naïve group, strongly suggest that late L2 learning is characterized

by continued brain plasticity at the very lowest levels of phonetic perception. Finally,

from a methodological perspective, imaging studies are interesting in that they show how

non-behavioral tasks can add to our arsenal of experimental paradigms for testing

questions of bilingual phonetic processing.

Sentences

When we try to comprehend sentences in our second language (and, for that

matter, in our first language), we face many uncertainties about how the people or objects

referred to are connected to one another. This is so because when our eyes move along

the printed text in a left-to-right fashion, the information needed to establish correct

dependencies between word strings is not yet available. In other words, we need to wait.

So what does the L2 reader do under these conditions of uncertainty? Given that L2

speakers approach the task of sentence processing with a fully developed processing

system from their L1, one may ask what representations are created while speakers

process written text in their L2, what types of information are used in constructing them,

and when are these representations formed. It is reasonable to imagine that during the

earlier stages of L2 learning, L2 speakers rely, at least partially, on sources of

information from their first language (e.g., lexical information encoded in verbs, such as

verb argument structure) to construct a licit syntactic construction (i.e., parse) in the L2.

And one would expect that as language proficiency increases, sentence processing in the

L2 should approximate that of monolingual speakers of the target language.

Experimental work in L2 sentence comprehension has investigated these questions

using an array of psycholinguistic techniques, ranging from the very simple to the more

highly sophisticated and powerful (Dussias, 2001, 2003; Felser, Roberts, Gross, &

Marinis, 2003; Fernández, 1999, 2003; Frenck-Mestre, 2002 and 2005; Frenck-Mestre &

Pynte, 1997; Hahne, 2001; Hahne & Friederici, 2001; Juffs, 1998; Juffs & Harrington,

1995, 1996; Papadopoulou & Clahsen, 2003; Weber-Fox & Neville, 1996; Zagar, Pynte &

Rativeau, 1997). This rapidly-growing body of work suggests that when parsing

sentences in the L2, the L2 learner’s performance is sometimes strikingly close to that of

native speakers, but other times it is not. The most compelling type of evidence in support

of the first claim comes from studies that have used event-related brain potentials (ERPs)

while speakers are exposed to sentences that vary systematically with respect to particular

semantic characteristics. Monolingual English speakers and L2 speakers of English faced

with the sentence The scientist criticized Max’s event of the theorem will be, by and large,

equally sensitive to the semantic anomaly contained within it (Weber-Fox & Neville,

1996). At the same time, apparent discrepancies between L1 and L2 speakers have been

obtained in the ambit of syntactic processing, providing support for the second claim.

Methodological advances in psycholinguistics have provided the community of

researchers interested in L2 sentence comprehension with valuable information about the

experimental techniques commonly used to advance our understanding of the

psychological processes underlying sentence comprehension, as well as with rich and

remarkably detailed evaluations of what each technique can and cannot reveal about

comprehension processes. In the next section, we will consider the methods that have

been most commonly used to investigate L2 sentence comprehension. Because

researchers are most often interested in tracking L2 sentence processing as it unfolds in

real time, we will limit our discussion to a family of techniques that have come to be

known as on-line methods.

Self-paced reading

Without a doubt, self-paced reading has been the on-line method most widely used

in L2 sentence comprehension research. In this task, a stimulus sentence is presented on a

computer screen, segmented into words or phrases commonly referred to as displays,

which are presented one at a time. Typically, the participant initiates the experiment by

pressing a trigger (e.g., a foot pedal, a key on a button box or on a computer keyboard).

This action brings up the first display. Participants read the display, press the trigger to

request the next display, and continue performing the same routine until they reach the

end of the experiment. In this task, the measure of interest is the time that participants

spend reading a critical display (i.e., the time that has elapsed between successive trigger

presses), compared to a control condition.

Self-paced reading tasks have been extensively used in the L2 parsing literature to

investigate how the L2 parser proceeds in the absence of lexical constraints, as is the case

of adjunct phrases or modifier phrases. In one such study, Dussias (2003, see also Felser,

Roberts, Gross, & Marinis, 2003; Fernández, 1999, 2003; Papadopoulou & Clahsen,

2003) employed the task with Spanish-English and English-Spanish bilinguals to

investigate their attachment preferences for structures of the type NP1-of-NP2-RC (e.g.,

El perro mordió al cuñado de la maestra/ que vivió en Chile/ con su esposo/ ‘The dog bit

the brother-in-law of the teacher (fem.) who lived in Chile with her husband.’). All

sentences were segmented into three displays--as indicated by the forward slashes in the

example above. When the first sentence was requested, the first display of an item

appeared centered on the screen and the clock started. The participants read this display

and then pressed a key to request the second display. The time that elapsed between the

onset of the first display and the request for the second display was recorded.

Additionally, the first display was replaced by the second display, and the clock started

again. This sequence on events repeated itself until the end of the sentence was reached.

The critical comparison in this study was the reading time for the last display; however,

reading times for displays 1 and 2 were also compared to ensure that there were not

significant differences between them. The findings revealed that the control groups (i.e.,

Spanish and English monolinguals) showed the conventional bias for high attachment

and low attachment (respectively) reported in the literature. The English-Spanish

bilinguals did not exhibit any preference for high or low attachment when processing the

ambiguous sentences, but remarkably, the Spanish-English speakers showed a consistent

preference for low attachment when reading sentences in their first and second languages,

suggesting that the parsing routines used to process the L2 had an impact on the

processing of the L1, and that the methodology did not distort the cognitive processes

that are linked with the detection of the syntactic ambiguity being studied. Like the

studies reviewed earlier on recognizing words and speech sounds, these results suggests a

high degree of plasticity and interaction across the bilingual’s two languages.

In one variation of the self-paced reading task, dubbed the reading moving-window

(Just, Carpenter, & Woolley, 1982), the display moves from left to right in tandem with

each trigger press to allow the words of the sentence to occupy the same position in the

screen that would surface if the sentence had been displayed as a whole. All letters, apart

from the letters of the word in current view, are replaced with dashes (or equivalent types

of markers). In the reading moving window paradigm, the text can be presented in a non-

cumulative fashion (as each successive word in the sentence is prompted, the previous one

disappears) or cumulatively (previously read words remain on the screen as new ones are

added). Because the cumulative version has the disadvantage that participants may press

the trigger to display all the words in a sentence, and only later initiate the actual reading

task, researchers typically favor non-cumulative displays over cumulative ones.

One advantage of the moving window task is that it allows for the collection of

word-level reading times, thereby allowing the experimenter to identify the specific loci

of processing difficulty. To illustrate, Juffs and Harrington (1996) compared a full-

sentence presentation task with a non-cumulative moving window task to examine how

Chinese learners of English processed sentences such as Who did Ann believe ____ likes

her friend? and Who did Ann believe her friends like ___?. The sentences differed in that

the first one is assumed to require extraction of the wh element from a subject site

(indicated by the ____), whereas the second requires extraction from an object site. Juffs

and Harrington predicted that subject extraction sentences ought to present more

difficulty for the parser than object extraction sentences, because the former would force

the parser to re-analyze the wh-gap several times before finally arriving at a complete

analysis of the sentence. Although the overall findings supported the claim that extraction

from a subject site was more difficult than extraction from an object site, the different

techniques produced somewhat distinct results. For example, no significant differences

were found between subject and object extractions from finite clauses in the full-sentence

condition, whereas these effects emerged in the moving window condition. Moreover, the

Chinese learners had proportionally more difficulty than the monolingual English group

judging ungrammatical sentences in the moving window condition than in the full-

sentence condition, suggesting that the increased processing demands of the moving

window task placed a greater burden on the participants’ available cognitive resources.

One of the criticisms leveled against self-paced reading in all its forms is the

likelihood that syntactic parsing may be influenced by the type of segmentation employed

by the experimenter (Gilboy & Sopena, 1996; but see Mitchell, 2004 for a counter-

argument). For example, Gilboy and Sopena (1996) found that relative clause ambiguity

resolution was affected by whether the sentences were broken into large segments (e.g.,

El perro mordió al cuñado de la maestra/ que vivió en Chile/ con su esposo/) or smaller

segments (e.g., El perro mordió/ al cuñado/ de la maestra/ que vivió en Chile con su

esposo). A second objection raised against the task is that it relies on a secondary task (a

button, a key or a foot pedal press) to produce the dependent measure. These and other

factors (see, e.g., Mitchell, 2004) have led researchers to favor methods that provide a

richer body of data than the single latency that results from self-paced reading. In the next

section, we discuss a few of the measures that have allowed researchers to determine with

more precision the existence, locus and time course of processing difficulty.

Eye movements

Eye movement records have become a very popular technique in the study of

sentence comprehension because they provide an on-line measure of processing difficulty

with high temporal resolution, and do not require additional tasks (e.g., button or pedal

presses) to yield the dependent measure. An additional advantage of eye-movement

records is its high ecological validity. For example, eye-movements are a normal

characteristic of reading, the reader is free to move back and forth along the printed lines

of text, and the text under examination need not be segmented into unnatural displays.

The existence of a large body of literature in experimental psychology that studies

eye movements to answer questions about language processing has helped us to better

understand the cognitive processes involved in reading. For example, we know that

readers extract useful information from a restricted area of the text, usually spanning

about 4 characters to the left of a fixation and about 15 characters to the right of the

fixation (McConkie & Rayner, 1975). This maximum region from which information is

extracted is referred to as the perceptual span. We also know that our eyes do not move

smoothly along a line of printed text, but rather advance in short jumps called saccades.

The average English reader makes about three to four saccadic movements in a second,

each lasting between 20 and 40 ms. When a word is brought into fovea by a saccade, it is

fixated for an average of about 225 ms, though a reader’s fixation patterns over a text

varies greatly depending on the linguistic characteristics of the words (Carreiras &

Clifton, 2004; Pollatsek & Rayner, 1990). For instance, a word’s lexical frequency affects

its first fixation duration and gaze duration even when length is controlled (Inhoff &

Rayner, 1986; Just & Carpenter, 1980; Rayner & Duffy, 1986). Also, the predictability of

a word from prior context influences the first fixation duration and the gaze duration on

that word (Balota, Pollatsek, & Rayner, 1985; Zola, 1984), as well as the time it takes to

incorporate it into the representation that the reader is constructing for a particular

sentence.

What dependent variables are available to the investigator when collecting eye-

movement records? For any critical region or regions of interest, a number of

measurements can be distinguished. The earliest measure is first fixation, defined as the

first time the eyes land on a region (whether a single word or a string of words). This

measure appears to be sensitive to word frequency (Pickering, Frisson, McElree, &

Traxler, 2004). The next measure is first pass time, and refers to the sum of all fixations in

a region, from first entering it until the eyes first exit to the left or right of the region. On

regions with only one word, first pass time equals gaze duration (e.g., Rayner & Duffy,

1986). First pass time has been found to be most informative in revealing detections of

syntactic anomalies. We note here that for both gaze duration and first pass time, most

researchers exclude trials in which the region is initially skipped. Another commonly used

measure is second pass time, which refers to the time spent reading a region after leaving

the region (in other words, excluding first pass time or after an initial skip of the region).

Finally, total time is the sum of all fixations in a region (effectively, the sum of first pass

time and second pass time). In addition to the measurement of time, another useful

dependent measure is the probability of a regression, defined as the percentage of

regressive eye movements (leftward movements in a language like English) out of a

region. This index is usually restricted to first-pass regressions.

Figure 5 provides an illustration of an actual eye-movement record of a highly

proficient Spanish-English bilingual reading a structurally ambiguous sentence (see

Frenck-Mestre & Pynte, 1997 for a discussion of how French-English and English-French

bilinguals process this ambiguity). Arrows indicating the trajectory of the eye have been

omitted to simplify the image (fixation duration values appear to the left of the fixation).

The ambiguity in this construction arises because the noun phrase “the pretty little girl”

can be interpreted either as a complement of the verb “obeyed”, or as the subject of the

ensuing clause. A reader who commits to the first interpretation will be forced to revise

the attachment decision once the eyes reach the disambiguating region “showed.” We

observe for the first word in the sentence (i.e. “every”) a fixation on the letter r, with a

duration of 196 ms. Given that no other fixations occurred on this word, first fixation and

gaze duration equal 196 ms. The reading proceeds fairly smoothly, until the participant

reaches the disambiguating region (i.e., “showed”). First fixation on this region occurs on

the letter s, at a duration of 348 ms. The two subsequent left-to-right fixations fall on the

letter o and the letter d. These are sequenced fixations, with duration values of 252 ms and

228 ms, respectively. Because all three fixations occurred before the eye was launched to

another region in the sentence, gaze duration for this region equals the sum of the three

fixations (828 ms). The next fixation occurs at the word her, and lasts 320 ms. The

participant then launches a regressive movement back to the disambiguating region, which

lands on the letter e and lasts 228 ms. In this case, then, second regression time equals 228

ms, and the total time spent reading the region is 1156 ms. It is worth noting at this point

that processing difficulty at the disambiguating region occurred during early stages of

cognitive processing as indexed by first pass reading times. This finding could easily have

been missed if the data had been collected with self-paced reading, because initial analysis

and re-analysis cannot readily be distinguished. Returning now to our example, we note

that the last word of the sentence is fixated twice, for 404 ms and 172 ms (576 ms).

Generally, the last word in a sentence will show elevated fixation durations because it is

the point in the construction where the sentence can be comprehended as a whole (Just &

Carpenter, 1980; Hoover & Dwivedi, 1998). Therefore, it is standard practice not to place

the region of interest at sentence final position. Likewise, the first word position of the

sentence is a poor region for analysis as this region is skipped more frequently than other

regions of the sentence.

In spite of the richness of information that can be obtained from eye-movement

data, eye-movement records have been used less extensively in the study of L2 sentence

parsing for a number of reasons (one notable exception is the work by Frenck-Mestre and

her colleagues). For one, eye-tracking equipment is very costly to purchase and to

maintain, and can be technically demanding. In contrast, self-paced reading studies are

easy to implement and are relatively inexpensive. Virtually any experiment can be set up

on a standard desktop or laptop computer, and experimental-generating software is

available for different platforms at a modest cost. In addition, many of the signature

results found with eye-tracking measures have been obtained using self-paced reading (for

a discussion, see Mitchell, 2004).

Event-related potentials (ERPs)

As noted previously, ERPs are small voltage changes measured at the surface of

the scalp, which reflect brain activity that is triggered by sensory stimuli or cognitive

processes. An ERP consists of positive and negative voltage peaks, referred to as

components. In ERP studies, participants listen to or read text while

electroencephalographic recordings are taken from different positions on the scalp. With

this methodology, changes in ambient conditions such as lighting are kept at a minimum,

and blinks are discouraged as the resulting waveforms can obscure the time course of

linguistic processing. By varying information-processing requirements through the use of

different tasks, qualitatively different ERP patterns have been found to correlate with

particular aspects of language processing. For instance, Kutas and Hillyard (1980)

demonstrated that sentences ending in a word that could not be semantically integrated

into the prior sentence context (“He spread the warm bread with socks”), elicited a

negative-going waveform peaking at around 400 ms after the onset of the presentation of

the critical word; therefore difficulty with semantic integration is associated with an

N400-component. A second component, the P600, is a positive waveform with an onset

at about 500 ms, which has been correlated with syntactic anomalies of various types

(Osterhout & Holcomb, 1993).

One particular strength of ERP methodology over other techniques that are based

exclusively on reading is that it allows a natural way of studying how linguistic material

is processed when it is presented in an auditory modality (Mitchell, 2004). In this

respect, ERP measures have been used successfully in L2 sentence processing studies to

determine whether the specific semantic and syntactic subprocesses engaged during L2

language comprehension are different for second language speakers as compared to

native speakers. For example, Hahne (2001) compared semantic and syntactic processing

in proficient second language learners of German who are native Russian speakers. ERP

responses to auditory stimuli containing semantic and syntactic anomalies were recorded.

Similar to previous findings (Weber-Fox & Neville, 1996), the differences in processing

semantic incongruities between native and L2 speakers were only quantitative, but there

were qualitative differences with regard to syntactic processing between the two groups,

suggesting that the L2 learners did not process or integrate syntactic information into the

existing phrase structure in the same way as native listeners did. In contrast to the reading

studies described above that show that structural processing of sentences in one language

are affected by the presence of the other language, the ERP evidence suggests constraints

in the degree to which the syntax of the L2 can be processed in a native-like manner (see

MacWhinney, 1997 for another view of cross-language interactions in sentence

processing, and Tokowicz & MacWhinney, 2005 for evidence that the ERP record may

provide a sensitive means to detect the formation of syntactic representations in the L2

during early stages of acquisition).

Summary

In this chapter we introduced a subset of the laboratory methods that have been

used to investigate the way in which bilinguals and second language learners recognize

words, understand and produce speech, and process sentences in each of their languages.

As noted earlier, our review is hardly exhaustive, but we have attempted to illustrate the

methods that are representative of experimental approaches to bilingualism. In the

process of doing so, we hoped to show how these tools can be used to infer the nature of

the cognitive processes that bilinguals bring to the task of comprehension and production

in their two languages. We have also tried to provide a glimpse into the theoretical

debates that guide this research. A list of laboratory designs without the theoretical

foundation would be misleading because it is these questions about how the mind

accommodates the presence of two languages that lead us to the methods that we use. We

invite the reader to sample the primary literature on experimental approaches to

bilingualism. We also append below a section on resources that may provide useful

information for laboratory investigations of bilingualism. We believe that this approach

will inform not only theories of the bilingual mind but also cognitive and language

science more generally.

Experimental psycholinguistics

Footnotes

1. The term “critical period” refers to a time in early childhood, typically assumed to be

prior to the onset of puberty, when individuals are hypothesized to be sensitive to the

input of the languages to which they are exposed in a manner that allows native-like

acquisition. Although there is agreement that early exposure results in superior language

acquisition, there is little agreement about its basis.

2. The issue of whether processes are encapsulated refers to an longstanding debate in

psycholinguistics concerning the modularity of language (e.g., Fodor, 1983). The basic

question is whether certain language functions (e.g., parsing a sentence into its

grammatical components or retrieving the meaning of a word) are separate from other

cognitive representations and goals or guided by them.

Experimental psycholinguistics

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Experimental psycholinguistics

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Experimental psycholinguistics

Selected Resources for Laboratory Research

There are a wealth of tools available to students new to experimental laboratory research.

We list below a number of programs that are commonly used by psycholinguists to

implement the sorts of experimental paradigms we have reviewed in this chapter. We also

provide information on databases that may be useful in generating experimental

materials. Students interested in pursuing laboratory research are well advised to take

courses in experimental design and statistics. There are many introductory texts on each

of these topics. The resources listed below are intended to supplement a basic

introduction to research design and statistical methods. Although some of the techniques

reviewed in the chapter (e.g., eye tracking and acoustic analysis) require additional

training that cannot be easily accomplished without immersion in a laboratory setting,

others (e.g., lexical decision and picture naming) can be sampled in web-based

experiment programs that are readily available.

Programs for experimentation and analysis

Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2005). Praat: doing phonetics by computer

(Version 4.3.22). [Computer program]. [http://www.praat.org/]

Cohen, J. D., MacWhinney, B., Flatt, M., & Provost, J. (1993). PsyScope: A new graphic

interactive environment for designing psychology experiments. Behavioral Research

Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 25, 257-271.

Forster, K. I., & Forster, J. C. (1999). DMDX [Computer software]. Tucson, AZ:

University of Arizona.

PST (Psychology Software Tools, Inc.). E-prime. [http://www/pstnet.com/]

Websites for online experimentation

There are a number of websites where you can participate in actual experiments or try out

demonstrations of psycholinguistic phenomena. Here are a few of those sites:

http://psych.hanover.edu/research/exponnet.html

http://psychexps.olemiss.edu/

http://www.york.ac.uk/res/prg/PRGexp.html

Useful databases for psycholinguistic research

Note: The Psychonomic Society has recently established an archive that contains many

useful databases: http://psychonomic.org/archive/ and the Max Planck Institute for

Experimental psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics in the Netherlands, maintains a data base of relevant corpora:

http://www.mpi.nl/world/corpus/index.html/.

Balota, D. A., Cortese, M. J., Hutchinson, K. A., Neely, J. H., Nelson, D., Simpson, G.

B., & Trieman, R. (2002). The English Lexicon Project: A web-based repository of

descriptive and behavioral measures for 40,481 English words and nonwords. Available

at: http://elexicon.wustl.edu/.

Buchanan, L., & Westbury, C. (2000). Wordmine database: Probabilistic values for all

four to seven letter words in the English language. Available at:

http://www.wordmine.org/.

Davis, C. J., & Perea, M. (in press). BuscaPalabras: A program for deriving orthographic

and phonological neighborhood statistics and other psycholinguistic indices in Spanish.

Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers.

Prado, M. (1993). Spanish false cognates. Chicago, IL: NTC Publishing Group.

Sebastián-Gallés, N., Martí Antonín, M., & Cuetos Vega, F. (2000). Léxico informatizado del

Español. Barcelona, Spain: Universitat de Barcelona Press.

Snodgrass, J. G., & Vanderwart, M. (1980). A standardized set of 260 pictures: Norms

for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity. Journal of

Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 174-215.

Tokowicz, N., Kroll, J. F., De Groot, A. M. B., & Van Hell, J. G. (2002). Number-of-

translation norms for Dutch-English translation pairs: A new tool for examining language

production. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 34, 435-451.

A guide to writing experimental reports

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition (2001).

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Representative journals that publish laboratory studies of bilingualism

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition

Brain and Language

International Journal of Bilingualism

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

Journal of Memory and Language

Journal of Phonetics

Language and Cognitive Processes

Language Learning

Language and Speech

Experimental psycholinguistics

Memory & Cognition

Phonetica

Studies in Second Language Acquisition

Experimental psycholinguistics

Author notes

The writing of this chapter was supported in part by NSF Grant BCS-0418071

and NIH Grant MH62479 to Judith F. Kroll and by NIH Grant HD50629 to Paola E.

Dussias. We thank Natasha Tokowicz for helpful comments on an earlier version of the

chapter. Correspondence should be addressed to Judith F. Kroll, Department of

Psychology, 641 Moore Building, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park,

PA 16802, USA. Electronic mail may be sent to jfk7@psu.edu.

Experimental psycholinguistics

Figure captions

Figure 1. An illustration of a lexical decision task performed in English exclusively but

including words that are ambiguous with respect to language membership. For a Dutch-

English bilingual, the word room is an interlingual homograph, meaning cream. The

word bus is a cognate, with the same meaning in Dutch and in English.

Figure 2. An illustration of the eye tracking paradigm used to study cross-language

activation in spoken word recognition. The materials are adapted from Ju and Luce

(2004). Here a Spanish-English bilingual hears the word playa and must click on the

appropriate picture of a beach scene. The question is whether the bilingual glances briefly

at the picture of the pliers which is phonologically similar to playa but in English.

Figure 3. An illustration of the cross-language picture-word Stroop task. The materials

are adapted from Hermans et al. (1998). Here a Dutch-English bilingual names a picture

in English and attempts to ignore distractor words presented in Dutch.

Figure 4. An illustration of how VOT is measured as the time interval between the

release of th stop (as indicated by the arrow to the left) and the onset of voicing in the

vowel following the stop. This is the acoustic wave for a token of the English CV syllable

[pho].

Figure 5. An illustration of eye-movement records while Spanish-English speakers are

reading a structurally ambiguous sentence. The materials are adapted from Frenck-Mestre

& Pynte (1997).

Experimental psycholinguistics

dress blart room bus

“yes” “no” “yes” “yes”

English lexical decision: Is the string of letters a real word in English?

interlingual

homograph:

sense of meaning

conflicts with English

cognate:

same

meaning in

Dutch

Only Dutch-English bilinguals

will respond differentially to

room and bus because both

language alternatives are active

Experimental psycholinguistics

Eye tracking: Click on the picture of “playa” (beach in Spanish)

Experimental psycholinguistics

“mountain”

distractors

short

soa

long

soa

dal: semantically related

mouw: phonologically related

kaars: unrelated control

Picture-word Stroop task: name the picture, ignore the distractor

distractors in Dutch,

picture named in English

Experimental psycholinguistics

Time (s)

00.291417

–0.1536

0.2885

Stop

release

Onset of

voicing

time (s)

VOT

Experimental psycholinguistics

A. First pass fixations

B. Re-fixations on the critical region

ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.

Mediated and Convergent Lexical Priming in Language Production: A Comment on

Article

Full-text available

Oct 1991

Levelt et al. (1991) argued that modular semantic and phonological stage theories of lexical access in language production are to be preferred over interactive spreading-activation theories (e.g., Dell, 1986). As evidence, they show no mediated semantic–phonological priming during picture naming: Retrieval of sheep primes goat, but the activation of goat is not transmitted to its phonological relative, goal. This research reconciles this result with spreading-activation theories and shows how the absence of mediated priming coexists with the convergent priming necessary to account for mixed semantic–phonological speech errors. The analysis leads to the proposal that the language-production system may best be characterized as globally modular but locally interactive.

Ultimate Attainment in L2 Phonology: The Critical Factors of Age, Motivation, and Instruction

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1999
STUD SECOND LANG ACQ

Alene Moyer

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Consequences of Bilingualism for Cognitive Development

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Feb 2009

Ellen Bialystok

Until recently, cognitive science virtually ignored the fact that most people of the world are bilingual. During the past ten years this situation has changed markedly. There is now an appreciation that learning and using more than one language is the more natural circumstance of cognition. As a result, there is a wealth of new research on second-language learning and bilingualism that provides not only crucial evidence for the universality of cognitive principles, but also an important tool for revealing constraints within the cognitive architecture. In this volume, Judith Kroll and Annette de Groot have brought together the scientists at the forefront of research on second-language learning and bilingualism to present chapters that, rather than focusing simply on their own research, provide the first comprehensive overviews of this emerging field. Bilingualism provides a lens through which each of the central questions about language and cognition can be viewed. The five sections of this book focus on different facets of those questions: How is language acquired when infants are exposed to multiple-language input from birth, and how is it acquired when adults are required to learn a second language after early childhood? How do adult bilinguals comprehend and produce words and sentences when their two languages are potentially always active and in competition with one another? What are the neural mechanisms that underlie proficient bilingualism? What are the general consequences of bilingualism for cognition and for language and thought? This handbook will be essential reading for cognitive psychologists, linguists, applied linguists, and educators who wish to better understand the cognitive basis of bilingualism and the logic of experimental and formal approaches to language science.

Parsing effects in L2 sentence processing: Subjects and objects asymmetries in wh-extraction

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