Evaluation of Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activities of Tithonia diversifolia in Experimental Animal Models

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: sijuade@hotmail.com;
British Journal of Medicine & Medical Research
15(3): 1-8, 2016, Article no.BJMMR.25267
ISSN: 2231-0614, NLM ID: 101570965
SCIENCEDOMAIN international
www.sciencedomain.org
Evaluation of Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic
Activities of Tithonia diversifolia in Experimental
Animal Models
A. O. Sijuade
1,2*
, J. O. Fadare
1
and O. A. Oseni
3
1
Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.
2
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria,
Hatfield, Pretoria 0083, South Africa.
3
Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration between all authors. Author AOS designed the study, wrote
the protocol, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Author JOF managed the literature searches,
analysed the data. Author OAO managed the experimental process and editing of the manuscript. All
authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/BJMMR/2016/25267
Editor(s):
(1) Alex Xiucheng Fan, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida,
USA.
Reviewers:
(1) Preeya P. Wangsomnuk, Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
(2)
Anonymous, Medical University, Lublin, Poland.
(3)
Klara Kosova, Crop Research Institute, Czech Republic.
Complete Peer review History:
http://sciencedomain.org/review-history/14220
Received 25
th
February 2016
Accepted 9
th
April 2016
Published 18
th
April 2016
ABSTRACT
Aim
:
The common non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and opioids have adverse
effects. This has motivated for the search of new drugs with decreased or no side effects. In the
present study, we investigated analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of the methanol extract of
Tithonia diversifolia in vivo.
Methods: Analgesic activity of the methanol extract of T. diversifolia was carried out using an
analgesy meter to measure the tolerance of induced pressure. The method of carrageenan-
induced inflammation in rat was used for the anti-inflammatory effect.
Results: This study shows statistically significant improvements in pain resistance and paw
oedema suppression were observed in animals treated with 150 and 300 mg/kg body weight (b.w.)
Original Research Article

Sijuade et al.; BJMMR, 15(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.BJMMR.25267
2
methanol extract of Tithonia diversifolia, when compared to control groups treated with normal
saline and acetyl salicylic acid. The maximum analgesic effect was achieved at 300 mg/kg after 30
min with effective ratio of 5.92 when compared with the standard drug acetyl salicylic acid, and
twice the activity of 150 mg/kg at the same time.
Conclusion: The results suggest that the plant extract has analgesic and anti-inflammatory
activities, supporting its uses in traditional medicine.
Keywords: Tithonia diversifolia; plant extract; analgesics; anti-inflammatory; mice.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsley) A. Gray
(Asteraceae: Heliantheae), which is also called
Mexican sunflower, is a shrub which originated
from Mexico and Central America. This was later
introduced into Africa, Australia, Asia and South
America [1]. It is a bushy perennial weed
commonly found on the fields, wastelands and
road sides of Nigeria. The plant has many
applications apart from its medicinal values, it
has been used for ornamental purposes, as
manure and for treatment of diabetes mellitus.
The plant extract has been used in medicine for
its diverse healing power. In Nigeria, this plant
has been linked to treatment of pain [2].
Likewise, in Kenya, the plant is commonly used
for the treatment of stomach pains, sore throats
and liver ailments [3].
Pharmacologically, the plant has been reported
for anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhea, anti-amoebic,
spasmolytic and antimalarial activities [4,5,6].
The presence of phytochemicals such as
flavonoids, steroids, lignans, polyphenols,
coumarins, terpenes and alkaloids in medicinal
plants are scientifically proven to relieve
inflammation, pain and fever. Several other
reports have been made on medicinal plants with
analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic
properties [7-10]. Baruah et al. [11] reported the
insecticidal property of the T. diversifolia
containing tagitinin A–C and F with tagitinin A.
and isolation of some other chemicals such as
diversifol, tithonine, and sulphurein. The tagitinin
C, a sesquiterpene lactone from the plant has
been reported to exhibit antiplasmodial activity
and possessed cytotoxic properties in vitro [1].
Pain is one of the most common reasons
patients visit hospitals for physician consultation
in most developed countries [12,13]. It is a major
symptom for diagnosing illness in many medical
conditions, and can interfere with person’s quality
of life and general function of the body [14].
Despite the extensive research work on drug
discovery, there is still a gap in the development
of a safe, effective and economical therapy for
managing chronic inflammation and pain. In
particular, the adverse cardiovascular and
gastrointestinal side effects associated with long
term use of selective or non-selective NSAIDs re-
enforces the need to develop new drug from
medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory and
analgesic activities without the side effects that
accompany NSAIDs [15,16]. Pain can be
inflammatory or neuropathic. Inflammatory pain
emanates from chemical and physical stimuli
through damaged tissue, and central pain is
caused by direct lesions or sensory nerve
disease. Many factors such as TNF-α, PGE2, 5-
HT, and NF-κB are involved in inflammatory or
central pain [17,18]. This study evaluated the
anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive properties
of T. diversifolia in vivo.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Plant Collection
Tithonia diversifolia whole plant (except the root)
was collected from surrounding of Ekiti State
University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. The identification
and authentication of the plant was done at the
Department of Plant Science, Ekiti State
University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. This was later
confirmed at the Forestry Research Institute,
Ibadan, Nigeria.
2.2 Preparation of the Plant Extract
The preparation of the plant extract was done at
the Department of Pharmacology, Ekiti State
University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Freshly collected
T. diversifolia (TD) plant was separated from
adhering materials such as weed, and rinsed
with distilled water. Plants were shade-dried for
two weeks before they were ground into a coarse
powder with a kitchen blender. The powder was
kept in a dry, cool and dark place in an airtight
container. Approximately, 400 g of powdered
T. diversifolia was mixed with 900 mL of 95%
methanol in a clean, flat-bottomed glass
container. The container was sealed and kept for

Sijuade et al.; BJMMR, 15(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.BJMMR.25267
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a week with occasional shaking. Coarse plant
material was separated from the mixture by
pouring through a clean filter. This extract was
filtered, and the filtrate was concentrated in
vacuo to dryness at 40°C using a rotary
evaporator. The extract yield was 13.8%. This
was stored at 4°C until used. The extracts were
dissolved in 0.9% NaCl solution to the desired
concentration just before use.
2.3 Experimental Animals
Swiss albino mice of mixed sexes weighing
between 25-30 g and Albino Rat (150-200 g)
bred from the experimental Animal House of
College of Medicine, Ekiti State University,
Nigeria were used for the experiment. The
animals were kept in cages within the animal
house and allowed free access to water and
standard livestock pellets. They were examined
and found to be free of wounds, swellings and
infections before the commencement of the
experiment. All experimental procedures were
conducted in accordance with accepted standard
guidelines of National Institutes of Health Guide
for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals
(Publication no. 85–23, revised 1985). All
experiments were conducted in the Research
Laboratory of Department of Pharmacology,
College of Medicine, Ekiti State University,
Nigeria.
2.4 Chemicals and Reagents
Chemicals used include carrageenan from
Sigma-Aldrich Chemie Gmbh (Steinheim,
Germany). All the chemicals and drugs used
were of analytical grade. Methanol (Merck,
Germany), Normal saline (0.9% Sodium chloride)
and Acetyl salicylic acid (Aspirin) or ASA.
2.5 Experimental Design
2.5.1 Determination of analgesic activity
2.5.1.1 Carregeenan induced paw oedema
An injection 0.1 ml of 1% (w/v) carrageenan was
applied into the sub-plantar tissue of rat left hind
paw to induce pedal inflammation according to
the method described elsewhere [19-21]. The
control group (I) received 10 ml/kg normal saline
and the reference drug group (II) received 10
mg/kg indomethacin (Strides, Belgium) orally.
The test groups (III and IV) of rats were treated
orally with 150 or 300 mg/kg of the extract,
respectively, 1 h before carrageenan injection.
The level of inflammation induced by the
carrageenan was determined by measuring the
diameter of the paw at 0 min, 30, 60, 90 and 120
min after the administration of carrageenan using
a micrometer screw gauge. The anti-
inflammatory effect of the extract and reference
drug was calculated from the formula
% Inhibition=(X
0
–X
t
) /X
0
* 100
where X
0
was the average inflammation, i.e.,
mean paw size, of the control group, and X
t
was
the average inflammation, i.e., mean paw size, of
the drug-treated groups (indomethacin and plant
extract).
2.5.1.2 Hot plate test
Mice were randomly divided into the following 5
groups of 5 mice each: (I) a vehicle group
(Normal Saline, NS), (II) aspirin group (15 mg/kg
ASA), and (III and IV) two Tithonia diversifolia
extract groups (150 or 300 mg/kg). Anti-
nociceptive drug activity was assessed using the
hot plate test as previously reported [22]. The
temperature of the metal surface was maintained
at 55.0±0.5°C. The latency between the
placement and shaking or the licking of the hind
paws or the jumping response of the animals
was recorded as the latent response. The mice
were screened in advance, and a pre-test latency
of 5–30 s qualified them for the experiment. The
mice were treated with NS (10 ml/kg, p.o.) or TD
extract (150 or 300 mg/kg, p.o.) 30 min before
the test. Aspirin (15 mg/kg, p.o.) was used as a
positive control drug and was administered 30
min before the experiment. A 60-s cut-off time
was used to minimize tissue damage in the
mouse. Latencies were measured prior to
treatment and at 30, 60, 90, and 120 min after
drug administration.
2.5.1.3 Pressure test using analgesy meter
Mice were randomly separated into 4 groups of 5
as follows:
Group I, the control group, received 0.2 ml of
normal saline. Group II, the positive control
group, was treated with standard drug aspirin at
15 mg/kg body weight. Group III, test group,
administered with 150 mg/kg body weight (b.w)
extract. Group IV, test group, administered with
300 mg/kg b.w. extract respectively. Treatments
(control vehicle, extracts and standard drug)
were administered orally 30 min prior to pressure
test.

Sijuade et al.; BJMMR, 15(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.BJMMR.25267
4
In these experiments, different doses of the
extract and standard drug were tested in mice
using an Ugo Basile Analgesy Meter (N° 7200).
A constant force was applied to the left hind paw
of experimental animals by the Analgesy Meter
plunger. Mice were restrained in the upright
position while their left hind paws were placed
between the plinth and the plunger. Pain was
determined by the physical struggles of the
animal to set itself free. The weight causing pain
before treatment was used at time intervals: 30
min, 60, 90,120 and 180 min after treatment of
animals with the various doses. The time at
which the animal starts physical struggling to free
itself was recorded.
2.6 Statistical Analysis
GraphPad Prism Version 5 software was used
for statistical analysis. Values are expressed as
mean±S.E.M. Student’s t-test was carried out to
compare the results of control and test drug
groups. Data were considered to be significant
when P<0.05.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Carrageenan-induced Paw Oedema in
Rats
The results of the anti-inflammatory and
analgesic activities of the methanol extract of
T. diversifolia are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Using the carrageenan method, the size of the
oedema reduced from 4.2±0.05 to 0.62±0.01 mm
in all the test groups. There was a significant
difference between the effect of the doses of the
extract and control (NS) throughout the study
frame time (p<0.001). The effect of the extract at
300 mg/kg and that of the reference drug were
pronounced at 90 min after carrageenan
injection, while that of 150 mg/kg was highest at
120 min after carrageenan injection. The effect of
the extract (150 mg/kg) was not as pronouced as
that of the Indomethacin between 60-120 min
(p<0.05) (Table 1).
3.2 Analgesy Meter Test
The analgesic activity of the methanol extract of
Tithonia diversifolia, normal saline, acetyl
salicylic acid evaluated using analgesy meter
method are given in Table 2. The extract
exhibited good analgesic effect up to 120 min at
a dose of 300 mg/kg and 150 mg/kg as
compared to control groups. The maximum
analgesic effect was achieved at 300 mg/kg after
30 min with effective ratio of 5.92 when
compared with the standard drug acetyl salicylic
acid, and twice the activity of 150 mg/kg at the
same time (Fig. 1). The methanol extract has a
higher analgesic effect than ASA, the reference
drug used in this study (Table 2).
Table 1. Anti-inflammatory activity of the methanol extract of T. diversifolia (150 mg/kg and
300 mg/kg) and indomethacin on carrageenan-induced oedema in the left hind limb of rats
Test groups
Paw
oedema (mm)
0 min
30 min
60 min
90 min
120 min
Normal saline (NS) 2.47±0.30 2.90±0.10 3.43±0.30 3.93±0.23 4.20±0.05
Indomethacin
10 mg/kg 2.67±0.33 1.83±0.03 0.87±0.09 0.60±0.06 0.46±0.03
T. diversifolia 150
mg/kg extract 2.47±0.27 1.80±0.06* 1.20±0.07*
$
0.80±0.04*
$
0.63±0.03*
$
T. diversifolia 300
mg/kg extract 2.53±0.23 1.87±0.09*
¶
0.97±0.03*
¶
0.61±0.01*
¶
0.47±0.05*
$
*p<0.001 extract and control (NS),
¶
p>0.05,
$
P<0.05, extract and Indomethacin.
Table 2. Analgesic activity of T. diversifolia tested by analgesy-meter method in mice
Reaction time (Seconds)
Test
groups
0 min
30 min
60 min
90 min
120 min
Normal Saline 6.30±0.17 4.17±0.88 5.83±0.67 5.50±0.76 5.50±0.29
ASA 15 mg/kg 6.67±0.44 7.23±0.15 8.50±0.76 10.33±2.40 11.33±0.66
T. diversifolia 150
mg/kg extract 6.57±0.70 10.70±1.67 12.83±1.30 14.33±2.40 15.00±0.57*
T. diversifolia 300
mg/kg extract 7.53±0.26 15.50±2.30* 19.50±2.30* 17.50±3.01* 19.00±1.26*
n=5, *: P<0.01 as compared to ASA (significant).

Sijuade et al.; BJMMR, 15(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.BJMMR.25267
5
0 50 100 150
0
20
40
60
80
100
Normal Saline
ASA
150 mg/kg Extract
300 mg/kg Extrac
t
Time (min)
Percentage (%) inhibition
Fig. 1. Effect of methanol extract of
T. diversifolia
and Acetyl salicylic acid (ASA) on pressure
of mice paw test. After drug administration, the reaction time of mice to analgesy-meter was
measured prior to treatment and after that. Each point represents percentage inhibition
(mean±SEM) of the reaction time for n=5 mice
0 30 60 90 120
0
5
10
15
20 NS
ASA
150mg/kg TD
300mg/kg TD
***
***
**
** *** *** *** **
*
******
Time (min)
Latency Time (s)
Fig. 2. Effects of methanol extract of
T. diversifolia
on hot plate analgesic test in mice. Vehicle
control mice were administered with normal saline and ASA (15 mg/kg) was used as the
positive control. Results are expressed as the mean±SEM (n=5) of the reaction time in seconds
*p<0.05,**p<0.01,***p<0.001 were considered significant when compared at the same time with the vehicle
control (Normal saline) after administration
3.3 Hot Plate Method
Results of analgesic activity of acetyl salicylic
acid and treatment doses of Tithonia diversifolia
measured by hot plate method are given in
Fig. 2. The methanol extract of T. diversifolia
exhibited good analgesic effect at two doses
used (150 and 300 mg/kg) as compared to
control and standard drug (p<0.05). Maximum
analgesic effect was noted at a dose of
300 mg/kg at 60 min after administration of the
extract as compared to control and standard
drug.
4. DISCUSSION
Traditional medicines derived from medicinal
plants are used by over 50% of the world’s
population making the consumption of traditional
medicine to be very common nowadays People

Sijuade et al.; BJMMR, 15(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.BJMMR.25267
6
are taking it as either in form of food supplement
or raw for the treatment of one ailment or the
other. In another view, it is also consumed as
liquor drinks in some part of West Africa,
especially, Nigeria. Approximately 21,000 plants
has been listed by the World Health Organization
(WHO) for medicinal purposes around the world.
This study was able to evaluate the response of
experimental animal when exposed to heat and
mechanical stimuli and carrageenan
administration as a measure of anti-nociceptive
and anti-inflammatory effects of the T. diversifolia
plant extract. The methanolic extract of the plant
has shown analgesic and anti-inflammatory
properties. A similar study was also conducted
by Owoyele et al. [2] but did not study pain using
mechanical pressure. However this study, used a
standard mechanical pressure-induced model,
analgesy meter. The mechanical pressure form
of pain was selected to mimic human accidental
pain or mechanically induced pain.”
Carrageenan, a phlogistic agent that is widely
used to induce inflammation in experimental
animal for the screening of plants that possess
anti-inflammatory activity [23,24]. It has a
biphasic effect during inflammation induction.
Carrageenan was used to induce inflammation in
this study and the induced oedema involves the
synthesis or release of mediators at the injured
site. Such mediators include prostaglandins,
especially the E series, histamine, bradykinins,
leukotrienes and serotonin, all of which also
cause pain and fever [25]. Thus, the extract was
able to reduce oedema significantly as evidence
by its anti-inflammatory activity. Studies have
reported phytochemicals such as alkaloids and
flavonoids are responsible for the anti-
inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activity of
prostaglandin synthetase inhibition,
prostaglandins which are observed in the late
phase of acute inflammation and pain perception
[26]. In addition, it has been reported that
carrageenan-induced paw oedema test is
effectively controlled with the arachidonate
cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors due to its COX-
dependent mechanism, thus, from the observed
results, it is suggested that T. diversifolia may
possess arachidonate COX inhibitory property
[27].
In the hot plate test, ASA and the two doses of
extract displayed marked anti-nociceptive effects.
The analgesic effect of ASA was similar (p>0.05)
with other two doses of extract at 90 min post-
treatment. However, at 60 min post-treatment,
the high and lower doses of the extract displayed
a stronger effect on the nociceptive threshold
than ASA, although the effects of the extract did
not show a dose-dependent response. Hence,
anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of the
methanolic leaf of the plant extract may be
attributable to the existence of alkaloids and
flavonoids either in single form or in combination.
And previous studies have shown the presence
of these phytochemicals in T. diversifolia extract
[28]. These analgesic models suggested that the
analgesic effect of T. diversifolia extract may be
mediated by inhibiting the synthesis and release
of prostaglandins and other pro-inflammatory
cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α
[8,29].
The major challenge is that the plant has been
shown to possess both haematological and acute
toxic effects on the kidney and liver though,
these effects are time and dose dependent [30].
The group also showed that repeated
administration of the extract at high doses (≥400
mg/kg/day) could cause irreversible damage to
the kidney and liver organs and the LD
50
was
found to be greater than 1600 mg/kg/day
in the toxicity test. The doses used in this
study are lower, not lethal and there was no sign
of toxicity during the study. However, care must
be taken when using the plant as home
concussion.
5. CONCLUSION
T. diversifolia leaf extract exhibited significant
anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities. Thus,
the present study validates the traditional use of
T. diversifolia in treatment of pain and
inflammatory related disorder. However,
further studies are warranted to elucidate the
exact mechanism of action and confirm the
chemical constituents responsible for the anti-
inflammatory and analgesic effects of Tithonia
diversifolia.
CONSENT
It is not applicable.
ETHICAL APPOVAL
It is not applicable.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing
interests exist.

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© 2016 Sijuade et al.; This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
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