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Giant Snake-Human Relationships
Abstract
Human relationships with giant snakes are complex and evolving in unusual directions. Four or five of the largest snakes are human predators. Humans, however, are predators on the snakes, hunting them for food and skins and used in the leather industry. During much, if not all, of human history, we were sympatric with several of the most massive snakes, and these animals undoubtedly were selection factors in our evolution. They preyed upon us, we killed and ate them, and they were one of our competitors for much of the same protein. Today, the relationship has evolved, while we continue to hunt snakes for skins, we also keep them as pets and most surprisingly breed them for unusual color patterns and keep them as living works of art. Unfortunately, we have allowed them to escape into North America and become invasive. They have altered the species composition of natural communities and threaten endangered species. Recently, science has realized giant snake physiology may hold the key to controlling diabetes.
... These traits, combined with the requirements of typically large home ranges (McBride & Thompson, 2018), habitat quality and a suitable prey base (Lamichhane et al., 2018), mean they have high priority on conservation biology agendas, both as umbrella and flagship species (Terborgh & Estes, 2013). Conversely, apex predators often pose risks to human lives (Khan, 2009;Murphy, 2020), are relatively expensive to study (Morato et al., 2018) and are frequently disliked and feared by local communities (Bhattarai et al., 2019). Together, these elements can make apex predator conservation extremely challenging (Ibanez et al., 2016). ...
... Research in tropical regions mirrors this focus, with extensive research on mammalian carnivores (Eklund et al., 2017;van Eeden et al., 2018). Tropical guilds of apex predators are, however, highly diverse (Glen & Dickman, 2014;Murphy, 2020). In tropical ecosystems, pythons (Goursi et al., 2012), anacondas (Miranda, Ribeiro Jr & Str€ ussmann, 2016), crocodilians (Corvera, Manalo & Aquino, 2017) and large eagles (McPherson, Brown & Downs, 2016;Restrepo-Cardona et al., 2020) all prey on livestockand pose conservation challenges similar to those of mammalian carnivores. ...
Apex predators are widely threatened globally and generally considered a priority on the conservation biology agenda. The harpy eagle, Harpia harpyja, is an apex predator threatened by habitat loss and persecution and a flagship species for Neotropical conservation. We investigated the roles of social, economic and environmental factors related to livestock depredation by harpy eagles, causes of reported harpy eagle persecution by local landholders and the intent of future harpy eagle killings. We explored these issues using structured interviews with 184 local livestock owners, who had admitted killing a combined total of 181 harpy eagles. We found that livestock abundance and livestock husbandry were the best positive predictors of levels of self‐reported livestock predation by harpy eagles. Domestic livestock reported to be killed by harpy eagles (192) were mainly chickens (47.9%), followed by goats (22.4%), pigs (18.2%) and sheep (8.3%), with pets representing only ~3% of kills. Few harpy eagle killings were related to livestock predation, which accounted for less than 20% of all eagles killed. Instead, the main reason for killing harpy eagles was simple curiosity, and many interviewees reported later regretting their acts. Regarding intent to kill harpy eagles in the future, interviewees’ perceptions of the threat posed to livestock and humans by eagles, and the subjective norm, were unrelated to intent to kill harpy eagles further. The single most important factor in predicting intent to kill harpy eagles was whether the interviewee had suffered livestock predation by eagles in the past. Additionally, the intention to kill eagles was negatively associated with landholding size. Most of our interviewees were relatively large landowners, but they are typically outnumbered by smallholders who are more likely to persecute harpy eagles. Consequently, education, compensation and tourism activities should be directed to smallholders to mitigate unnecessary persecution and mortality of harpy eagles.
... Some tipologies of risks to humans posed by large predators (Harris and Herrero 2007;Caldicott et al. 2005) or by venomous species (Alirol et al. 2010) were presented in the first volume (see McLennan and Hockings 2016;Linnell and Alleau 2016). In the present volume, this theme is further examined with new cases (Perry et al. 2020c;Murphy 2020;Sheperd 2020). ...
... Despite the fact that few constricting species, mostly pythons, Python sebae and Malayopython reticulatus, and the green anaconda, Eunectes murinus, are implicated in humans' death, the fear that these large reptiles cause has a global dimension (Murphy and Henderson 1997). A very exhaustive and in-depth review on the conflicts between man and big snakes is reviewed in the book (Murphy 2020). ...
In the second volume of Problematic Wildlife, we explore relevant topics related to the ecology of the planet and the inevitable overlap between ecosystems, habitats, wildlife conservation, and human activities. The book is divided into six parts. The first is devoted to the species that can pose a danger to human health and safety, the second is about the urban wildlife and its related conflicts with humans, and the third is about hunting and ecotourism as possible tools for conservation. The fourth part of the book is devoted to the major problem of species extinction, while the fifth part consists in a broad collection of works about the debated role of the zoos for conservation, animal welfare, and animal rights. Finally, the last part of the book covers specific cases related to humans and herpetofauna convivence and conflicts.
Freshwater megafauna, such as sturgeons, giant catfishes, river dolphins, hippopotami, crocodylians, large turtles, and giant salamanders, have experienced severe population declines and range contractions worldwide. Although there is an increasing number of studies investigating the causes of megafauna losses in fresh waters, little attention has been paid to synthesising the impacts of megafauna on the abiotic environment and other organisms in freshwater ecosystems, and hence the consequences of losing these species. This limited understanding may impede the development of policies and actions for their conservation and restoration. In this review, we synthesise how megafauna shape ecological processes in freshwater ecosystems and discuss their potential for enhancing ecosystem restoration. Through activities such as movement, burrowing, and dam and nest building, megafauna have a profound influence on the extent of water bodies, flow dynamics, and the physical structure of shorelines and substrata, increasing habitat heterogeneity. They enhance nutrient cycling within fresh waters, and cross‐ecosystem flows of material, through foraging and reproduction activities. Freshwater megafauna are highly connected to other freshwater organisms via direct consumption of species at different trophic levels, indirect trophic cascades, and through their influence on habitat structure. The literature documenting the ecological impacts of freshwater megafauna is not evenly distributed among species, regions, and types of ecological impacts, with a lack of quantitative evidence for large fish, crocodylians, and turtles in the Global South and their impacts on nutrient flows and food‐web structure. In addition, population decline, range contraction, and the loss of large individuals have reduced the extent and magnitude of megafaunal impacts in freshwater ecosystems, rendering a posteriori evaluation more difficult. We propose that reinstating freshwater megafauna populations holds the potential for restoring key ecological processes such as disturbances, trophic cascades, and species dispersal, which will, in turn, promote overall biodiversity and enhance nature's contributions to people. Challenges for restoration actions include the shifting baseline syndrome, potential human–megafauna competition for habitats and resources, damage to property, and risk to human life. The current lack of historical baselines for natural distributions and population sizes of freshwater megafauna, their life history, trophic interactions with other freshwater species, and interactions with humans necessitates further investigation. Addressing these knowledge gaps will improve our understanding of the ecological roles of freshwater megafauna and support their full potential for facilitating the development of effective conservation and restoration strategies to achieve the coexistence of humans and megafauna.
Motivation
I present a database that contains information on multiple key traits for all 11,744 recognised species of squamates worldwide. The database encompasses key traits and a reasonably comprehensive picture of available public knowledge. I present comprehensive description of the sources and rationale leading to the assignment of each particular trait state for each species. I hope the dataset can serve the scientific community, promote research and understanding of the group, comparisons with other taxa, and assessment of conservation needs. Furthermore, gaps in our knowledge of squamate traits become readily apparent and will hopefully lead to further study and even better knowledge.
Main types of variables contained
Morphological, ecological, life history, geographical and conservation‐related traits.
Spatial location
Global.
Time period
Late Holocene to recent.
Major taxa and level of measurement
Squamata, species.
Software format
xlsx.
Overview of literature size records for Australian Morelia (now Simalia) amethistina with measurement of largest reliably documented specimen.
The Burmese python, Python bivittatus Kuhl, is a well-established invasive species in the greater Everglades ecosystem of southern Florida, USA. Most research on its ecological impacts focuses on its role as a predator and its trophic interactions with native vertebrate species, particularly mammals. Beyond predation, there is little known about the ecological interactions between P. bivittatus and native faunal communities. It is likely that established populations of P. bivittatus in southern Florida serve as hosts for native mosquito communities. To test this concept, we used mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I DNA barcoding to determine the hosts of blood fed mosquitoes collected at a research facility in northern Florida where captive P. bivittatus and Argentine black and white tegu, Salvator merianae (Duméril and Bibron), are maintained in outdoor enclosures, accessible to local mosquitoes. We recovered python DNA from the blood meals of three species of Culex mosquitoes: Culex erraticus (Dyar and Knab), Culex quinquefasciatus Say, and Culex pilosus (Dyar and Knab). Culex erraticus conclusively (P = 0.001; Fisher’s Exact Test) took more blood meals from P. bivittatus than from any other available host. While the majority of mosquito blood meals in our sample were derived from P. bivittatus, only one was derived from S. merianae. These results demonstrate that local mosquitoes will feed on invasive P. bivittatus, a recently introduced host. If these interactions also occur in southern Florida, P. bivittatus may be involved in the transmission networks of mosquito-vectored pathogens. Our results also illustrate the potential of detecting the presence of P. bivittatus in the field through screening mosquito blood meals for their DNA.
Zootherapy plays a role in healing practices in Mozambican society. Although several studies have focused on ethnobotany and traditional medicine in the country, little research has been conducted on the use of reptiles in zootherapy. The aim of this study was therefore to fill this gap by assessing the reptile species traded for traditional medicine in the Xipamanine and Xiquelene Markets in Maputo, Mozambique. We found that few reptile species are traded domestically for traditional medicine and that their use appears to be in decline in Mozambique. Our findings also suggest that the domestic trade of reptiles for traditional medicines in Maputo markets is unlikely to have a significant impact on the conservation of reptiles in Mozambique. However, we suggest that international trade with South Africa is likely having a larger impact, given observations of Mozambican nationals selling a diverse range of fauna in urban traditional medicine markets in Johannesburg and Durban.
Sustainability of wildlife harvests is critical but difficult to assess. Evaluations of sustainability typically combine modelling with the measurement of underlying abundances. For many taxa harvested in developing countries, however, abundances are near-impossible to survey and a lack of detailed ecological information impedes the reliability of models. In such cases, repeated surveys of the attributes of harvested individuals may provide more robust information on sustainability. If the numbers, sizes and other demographic attributes of animals taken for the commercial trade do not change over biologically significant time intervals (decades), there is a prima facie case that the harvest is indeed sustainable. Here, we report the results of examinations of > 4,200 reticulated pythons (Python reticulatus) taken for the commercial leather industry in northern and southern Sumatra, Indonesia. The numbers, mean body sizes, clutch sizes, sizes at maturity and proportion of giant specimens have not decreased between our first surveys (1995) and repeat surveys (2015). Thus, despite assumptions to the contrary, the harvest appears to be sustainable. We use our data to inform the design of future monitoring programs for this species. Our study underpins the need for robust science to inform wildlife trade policy and decision-making, and urges wildlife managers to assess sustainability of difficult-to-survey terrestrial wildlife by drawing inferences directly from the harvest itself.
Human-wildlife conflict is a widespread problem that threatens both animals and local livelihoods. When this conflict involves predators, the additional risks to human life worsen the problem. The perceptions of human-predator conflict have been investigated multiple times, usually to generate data for conflict resolution. However, such efforts have largely involved mammals from the order Carnivora. In this work, we tested hypotheses about the feeding habits of two species of constricting anacondas from the genus Eunectes and human perception of risks and attitudes associated with such habits. In particular, we investigated the consequences for the snake after predation on domestic or wild animals. We also tested the relationship between human killing of anacondas and local development indicators – a proxy for general education level. Data were obtained from internet videos using a standardized method for information retrieval. A total of 330 videos of human-anaconda encounters were recovered from ten different South American countries. We found that visual evidence of a recent meal (distended abdomen) and predation on domestic animals did not affect the probability of the anaconda being killed, but this probability increased as the Human Development Index (HDI) diminished and as anaconda size increased. Although retaliatory killing is described as one of main causes of animal mortality following human-wildlife conflicts, our results suggest that killing of anacondas are not retaliatory or related to economic losses, but preventive, because these snakes are seen as life-threatening animals. Adding social context information on human-predator conflicts, together with taxon-free research on this subject can improve our knowledge about human-wildlife conflict. Further research could focus on the actual impacts (direct or indirect) of anacondas on stakeholders, and on the role of other non-mammalian predators in human-wildlife conflicts (whether actual or perceived).
An early example of the travel-writing genre, William Bosman's collection of letters, originally written in Dutch and first published in English in 1705, describes the geography and political and natural history of the coast of Guinea. This 1907 edition is presented as a facsimile of the 1705 version, retaining the original typography. Bosman (born in 1672) went to Africa at the age of sixteen in the service of the Dutch West India Company, and spent fourteen years on the Gold Coast. This collection of twenty letters, written to his uncle in the Netherlands, remains an important source of information about this area of west Africa in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Bosman's accounts are highly descriptive, and his writings cover all aspects of the area, from its flora and fauna to its political, social and legal systems, its enterprising natives and its climate and diseases.
