Fundamental movement skills and physical activity recommendations for preschool children

Abstract

Problem statement: Although the evidence indicates that fundamental movement skills (FMS) are the building blocks to master complex and specific movements, are a component of physical development as well as a key prerequisite to develop adequate physical activity levels (PAL), this relationship remains underexplored in preschoolers. Purpose: To analyze the association between FMS and PAL identifying differences by age as well as determining which skills have the greatest influence on preschool children complying with the World Health Organization (WHO) PA Guidelines. The sample included 95 preschoolers (59 boys) aged 4 to 6 years (5.5 ± 0.6 years) participating in a national program implemented by the Chilean Sports Ministry. FMS were measured using the TGMD (2 nd edition); we considered the raw assessment scores and converted them into percentiles, while PAL, was assessed objectively using a triaxial accelerometer ActiGraph GT3X and Actilife-6 software. Moderate and vigorous physical activity was dichotomized into active (≥60 min/d) or inactive (≤60 min/d). Logistic regressions were used to determine associations among variables by age, adjusting by sex, nutritional status and time spent in sedentary behavior. Analysis of FMS scores and minutes spent at each PAL determined which skills had the greatest impact on children being active, at p  0.05, using Stata 15 software. Results No associations among subscales for locomotor skills and PAL were found (p=0.662), object control (p=0.264), or total score (p=0.704); however, FMS was associated with age. Preschoolers aged 5 and older who engaged in ≥60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) showed higher FMS, particularly in object control. Conclusion This study found no significant association between FMS and PAL in preschoolers, however a positive association was observed between FMS with age. Our study also supports the importance that FMS have for preschoolers in achieving WHO´s guidelines for PA. Specifically, object control development at 5 years old may be key in obtaining a greater PAL.

Full text

Journal of Physical Education and Sport
®
(JPES),Vol 21 (Suppl. issue 6), Art 436 pp 3286 – 3293, Nov. 2021
online ISSN: 2247 - 806X; p-ISSN: 2247 – 8051; ISSN - L = 2247 - 8051
© JPES
3286---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Corresponding Author: JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ, E-mail:
jsoto@upla.cl
Original Article
Fundamental movement skills and physical activity recommendations for
preschool children
PAZ FERNÁNDEZ-VALERO
1
, JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ
2
, JACQUELINE PÁEZ
3
,
BÁRBARA LEYTON-
DINAMARCA
4
, JULIANA KAIN
5
, JUAN HURTADO
6
, TOMÁS REYES- AMIGO
7
1,2,7
Department of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sciences of Physical Activity and Sports, Research Laboratory in
Physical Activity and Sport. University of Playa Ancha, CHILE
3,5
School of Physical Education, Pontifical Catholic University of Valparaíso, CHILE
4,6
Department of Public Health, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INTA), University of CHILE,
Santiago, CHILE
Published online: November 30, 2021
(Accepted for publication November 15, 2021)
DOI:10.7752/jpes.2021.s6436
Abstract
Problem statement: Although the evidence indicates that fundamental movement skills (FMS) are the building
blocks to master complex and specific movements, are a component of physical development as well as a key
prerequisite to develop adequate physical activity levels (PAL), this relationship remains underexplored in
preschoolers. Purpose: To analyze the association between FMS and PAL identifying differences by age as
well as determining which skills have the greatest influence on preschool children complying with the World
Health Organization (WHO) PA Guidelines. The sample included 95 preschoolers (59 boys) aged 4 to 6 years
(5.5 ± 0.6 years) participating in a national program implemented by the Chilean Sports Ministry. FMS were
measured using the TGMD (2
nd
edition); we considered the raw assessment scores and converted them into
percentiles,
while PAL, was assessed objectively using a triaxial accelerometer ActiGraph GT3X and Actilife-6
software. Moderate and vigorous physical activity was dichotomized into active (≥60 min/d) or inactive (≤60
min/d). Logistic regressions were used to determine associations among variables by age, adjusting by sex,
nutritional status and time spent in sedentary behavior. Analysis of FMS scores and minutes spent at each PAL
determined which skills had the greatest impact on children being active, at p  0.05, using Stata 15 software.
Results No associations among subscales for locomotor skills and PAL were found (p=0.662), object control
(p=0.264), or total score (p=0.704); however, FMS was associated with age. Preschoolers aged 5 and older who
engaged in ≥60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) showed higher FMS, particularly in
object control. Conclusion This study found no significant association between FMS and PAL in preschoolers,
however a positive association was observed between FMS with age. Our study also supports the importance that
FMS have for preschoolers in achieving WHO´s guidelines for PA. Specifically, object control development at
5 years old may be key in obtaining a greater PAL.
Key words: Motor Activity, Preschool Child, Motor Skills, Object Control, Locomotor Skills.
Introduction
Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are a component of physical development and a key factor in
promoting healthy and active lifestyles throughout life (Goodway et al., 2019). Which provide a unique
opportunity to increase physical activity (PA) time and decrease sedentary time, positively impacting cognitive
development and health indicators such as adiposity, skeletal and cardiometabolic health (World Health
Organization 2019).
The FMS are the basic components necessary to master complex and specific movements, allowing
participation in sport, dance, and other motor activities, classified into three subcategories: locomotion skills (eg,
galloping and running), object control skills also known as manipulation (eg, catching and throwing) and finally
stability ability (eg, one-foot balance and inverted postures) (Goodway et al., 2019). Its development occurs
during early childhood, specifically between 3 to 5 years, and the participation of activities of moderate to
vigorous intensity contributes to its development (Figueroa & An, 2017), therefore it seems to be that the FMS
are potentiated by adequate levels of PA, as well as, the FMS allows a greater physical activity level (PAL),
manifesting a reciprocal (Hulteen et al., 2018) and dynamic (Stodden et al., 2008) relationship.
In recent decades, FMS have received significant attention as an important correlate for PA (Dobell et
al., 2020), being considered as keys to achieve and maintain adequate PAL throughout life (World Health
Organization 2019). However, only a few studies have examined the relationship between FMS and PA in
preschool age with varying results. Where preschoolers with greater development of FMS, spend significantly
more time in moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA), while those with less FMS seem to be less physically active at

PAZ FERNÁNDEZ-VALERO, JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ, JACQUELINE PÁEZ,
BÁRBARA LEYTON-
DINAMARCA, JULIANA KAIN, JUAN HURTADO, TOMÁS REYES- AMIGO
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
JPES ®
www.efsupit.ro
3287
an early age, evidence that competence in FMS is positively associated with being more active in childhood and
adolescence (Nilsen et al., 2019; Jaakkola et al., 2018).
When analyzing the association of two of the three subcategories of FMS with PAL in preschoolers and
its effect in adolescence, it was found that the control of objects between 3 and 6 years could play an essential
role over the skills of locomotion (Xin et al., 2020). However, when analyzing the relationship between the FMS
subcategories with PAL, it was found that in preschool age the findings are inconsistent (Schmutz et al., 2020),
even conflicting (Kain et al., 2018), especially with respect to the degree and direction of the association
(Matarma et al., 2018; Xin et al., 2020). Therefore, the objective of this study was to analyze the association
between FMS and PAL, identifying differences according to age and, as well as what is the most developed skill
in those who meet the PA recommendations.
Materials & Methods
Study and participant design
This cross-sectional study – registered in Clinicaltrials.gov, number NCT.04269135 – was conducted
from August to December, 2018, and included preschoolers from Valparaíso and Viña del Mar, Chile who were
part of the national program Jugar y Aprender” [Play and Learn]. This program is implemented by the Chilean
Ministry of Sport initiative, “Crecer en Movimiento” [Grow in Movement] – and has been in place since 2014. It
consists of structured physical education classes carried out by Physical Education teachers (PE) twice a week
for seven months of the school year (Kain et al., 2018).
Of the 70 schools registered in “Play and Learn”, six were invited to participate in the study. Incidental
sampling resulted in 95 preschoolers (59 boys and 36 girls), 4 to 6 years of age (5.56 ± 0.61 years). Preschoolers
and their parents and/or legal guardians expressed their willingness to participate through informed consent.
This study was approved by the Ethics and Human Research Committee of the Institute of Nutrition and
Food Technology (INTA) of the University of Chile (registry 9-2019), prepared in accordance with the Helsinki
Declaration (1961) and the current Chilean legal regulations (DL 20.120).
Procedure
Fundamental movement skills
The Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) (Ulrich, 2000) has been shown to evaluate FMS
with adequate validity and reliability for US populations, with values of r=0.88 for test-retest, and 0.98 for inter-
rater reliability. It has further been validated in several countries, such as Brazil (Valentini, 2012) and Chile
(Cano-Cappellacci et al., 2015).
Developed for children aged 3 to 10 years, the rating scales are established for 12 FMS across two
subscales in 6-month ranges: 6 locomotor skills (running, galloping, hopping on one foot, leaping over an object,
horizontal jumping, and sliding) and 6 object control skills (striking a stationary ball, stationary dribbling,
catching, hitting, overhand throwing, and underhand rolling) (Ulrich, 2000).
Each skill has three to five standardized criteria, scored with a “1” if performed correctly and “0”
otherwise. The test provides a standard score for each subscale, and the score for each subscale is summed to
obtain a total score (locomotor skills + object control scores). Although the TGMD-2 has seven levels of
performance, this study considered the raw assessment scores and converted them to percentiles, i.e., calculated
as greater than or equal to the 50th percentile (p50) for skills at or above the median of the sample; and,
conversely, below the 50th percentile (<p50) for poor skills.
The children completed the TGMD-2 in groups of eight in a space for sports practice. Each evaluation
lasted about 40 minutes. A PE teacher showed the correct technique, without indicating which skill criteria were
being assessed. Participants were assessed individually by a trained researcher and accompanied by the school
teacher There was no feedback on test performance, only motivational encouragement. Each child performed the
test twice.
Physical Activity
The physical activity level (PAL) of the children was assessed objectively using a triaxial accelerometer
(ActiGraph model GT3X, Florida), previously validated to measure PA in preschool children (Bornstein et al.,
2011). The accelerometer was used for seven consecutive days, and was removed for sleeping (at night) and
activities in contact with water. The accelerometers were set at a frequency of 100 Hz and epoch duration of 15
seconds. The accelerometer was placed in the right hip area over the iliac crest with an adjustable elastic strap
(Calahorro et al., 2015). The trained researchers placed the devices in the company of the school teacher. A
parent and/or legal guardian was provided with verbal and written information on the correct use, care and
position of the monitor. In addition, during the seven consecutive days, they were reminded by messaging of the
correct installation of the accelerometer.
Once the device was removed, the data was analyzed using Actilife-6 software (ActiGraph, USA).
Records that contained at least 3 weekdays and one weekend day with at least 8 hours (Migueles et al., 2017)
were included in the study. PAL was estimated using the cut-off points proposed by Butte et al. (2014). Light

PAZ FERNÁNDEZ-VALERO, JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ, JACQUELINE PÁEZ,
BÁRBARA LEYTON-
DINAMARCA, JULIANA KAIN, JUAN HURTADO, TOMÁS REYES- AMIGO
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
JPES ®
www.efsupit.ro
3288
intensity PA was defined as 240 to 2119 counts per minute; moderate, as 2120 counts per minute; moderate to
vigorous, as 2120 counts per minute to 4449 counts per minute; and vigorous, as ≥ 4450 counts per minute.
Sedentary behavior time - defined as minutes that children remained awake in sitting, lying, or reclining
positions - was estimated using the cutoff point of ≤ 239 counts per minute (Tremblay et al., 2017). To explore
which skill had the greatest impact on preschooler being active, MVPA was dichotomized (active ≥60 min/d or
inactive ≤60 min/d) in line with the WHO recommendation (2019 and 2020).
Anthropometry
Trained research staff measured height of participants (centimeters) using a portable altimeter (Seca
brand, model 213); and weight (kilograms), using a digital scale (Seca, model 813). Height was measured twice,
and in case of discrepancy of more than 0.05 cm for height and 0.05 kg for weight, was measured a second time.
These measurements were performed according to the Technical Standard for the monitoring of children aged 0-
9 years in Primary Health Care (Ministry of Health, 2014). BMI Z score was calculated to classify the nutritional
status according to the WHO reference (2007).
Statical analysis
Stata 15 statistical software (Stata Corporation, College Station, USA) analyzed data at a priori
significance level set at p  0.05. Prior to analysis, the data were explored to determine normality with the
Shapiro-Wilk test. Homogeneity of variance was confirmed with Levene’s test. Continuous variables were
described as mean and standard deviation. The sample was characterized by sex and age using Student’s t-tests
and ANOVA, for normally distributed data; and Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis, for non-normally
distributed data.
The degree of association between FMS and PAL was analyzed with a logistic regression in which FMS
was the dependent variable; age, PA and time in sedentary behavior the independent ones, adjusting by
nutritional status and sex. The Hosmer-Lemeshow test determined goodness of fit.
Results
Table 1 shows the descriptive characteristics of the study participants. No differences were observed by
sex in the anthropometric parameters; however, differences by age were observed.
Analysis of FMS and PA are shown in Table 2, where no association is evident between locomotor
skills (p=0.662), object control (p=0.264) and total FMS score (p=0.704) with PAL, adjusted for sex, age,
nutritional status and time of sedentary behavior. The generated model shows that age (6 years) explained results
obtained for object control skills (p=0.001), as well as for total FMS score (p=0.004). However, only age (5
years) explains object control skills (p=0.017).
Table 1. Description of the general characteristics of the sample.
SEX AGE
All
(n=95)
Boys
(n=59)
Girls
(n=36)
p 4 y
(n=16)
5 y
(n=48)
6 y
(n=31)
p
Age (years)
2
5.50
(5.10-6.10)
5.50
(5.00-6.10)
5.50
(5.20-6.27)
0.551
4.70
(4.70-4.80)
5.30
(5.20-5.60)
6.30
(6.10-6.50)
0.000*
Weight (kg)
2
21.05
(18.90-
23.45)
21.10
(18.80-
23.70)
20.82
(19.11-
23.33)
0.842
18.85
(17.74-
19.39)
21.07
(17.92-
23.56)
23.10
(20.75-
26.25)
<
0.001*
Height (cm)
1
112.12 ±
5.98
111.74 ±
5.80
112.76 ±
6.29
0.422
104.65 ±
3.71
111.31 ± 4.44
117.25 ±
4.05
<
0.001*
Nutritional
Status
Normal Weight
3
Overweight
3
Obese
3
45 (47.4%)
30 (31.6%)
20 (21.1%)
26 (44.1%)
17 (28.8%)
16 (27.1%)
19 (52.8%)
13 (36.1%)
4 (11.1%)
5 (31.3%)
8 (50.0%)
3 (18.8%)
24 (50%)
14 (29.2%)
10 (20.8%)
16 (51.5%)
8 (25.8%)
7 (22.6%)
Note.
1
Average ± standard deviation, Student’s T-test and ANOVA;
2
Median, (25 and 75 percentiles), U-tests,
Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis;
3
N. Participants

PAZ FERNÁNDEZ-VALERO, JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ, JACQUELINE PÁEZ,
BÁRBARA LEYTON-
DINAMARCA, JULIANA KAIN, JUAN HURTADO, TOMÁS REYES- AMIGO
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
JPES ®
www.efsupit.ro
3289
Table 2. Association of fundamental movement skills with PA, sex, age, nutritional status and sedentary
behavior
Predicting variable
Adj. OR
Locomotor skills
95% CI
P> | z |
Adj. OR
Object Control
95% CI
P> | z |
FMS total
Adj. OR 95% CI P> | z |
Model:
PA
1.220
0.499-2.986
0.662
1.704
0.668-4.345
0.264
0.828
0.314-2.185
0.704
Sex 0.749 0.309-1.819 0.524 0.842 0.327-2.165 0.721
0.663
0.254-1.730 0.402
Age
5
6
1.215
2.470
0.368-4.009
0.628-9.721
0.749
0.196
5.978
14.66
1.382-25.853
2.838-75.818
0.017*
0.001*
2.229
9.989
0.676-7.769
2.114-47.187
0.183
0.004*
NS 0.526 0.222-1.243 0.144 0.480 0.189-1.220 0.123
0.480
0.189-1.220 0.123
Sedentary 0.716 0.305-1.680 0.443 0.616 0.246-1.543 0.301
0.821
0.328-2.055 0.675
Hosmer-Lemeshow 0.325 0.924 0.540
Note. Logistic regression; Homes-Lemeshow: goodness of fit for logistic regression models; OR: Odds Ratio; 95
% CI: 95 % Confidence Interval; FMS: fundamental movement skills; PA: physical activity; NS: nutritional
status; * p  0.05
Table 3 shows PAL according to FMS categorization by age, considering FMS categories p50 and
<p50 for the TGMD-2 test and minutes of PA at each level. Preschoolers aged 5 and 6 years in p50 category for
locomotor skills, object control and total FMS spent more time in light, moderate, vigorous and moderate to
vigorous PA compared to preschoolers in the <p50category. At 4 years, this pattern was not observed. Boys and
girls in the ≥ p50 category of the object control subscale showed more time in MVPA. Preschoolers aged 4
years, regardless of their FMS score and in light of the PA recommendations for this age group, exceeded 180
minutes of PA of light to vigorous PA intensity; however, when analyzing only the sum of MVPA, they did not
reach 60 minutes per day. The 5-year age group at ≥ p50 reached the recommendations. However, at 6 years of
age, all preschoolers reached the WHO recommendation for MVPA, regardless of their FMS score.
Table 4 shows the time (in minutes) of PA by sex and age. Minutes of PA in which preschoolers
participated in light PA were 220.94 ± 62.71 per day, including 50.75 (41.25-67.50) of moderate PA; 8.75 (6.0-
15.00) of vigorous PA; and 62.25 (59.75-80.75) of MVPA. No differences were observed by sex (Table 4). Boys
aged 6 years engaged in more moderate PA, vigorous PA, and MVPA than girls the 4 year-olds spent more time
in sedentary behavior and light PA. No differences were observed by age (Table 4).
Table 3. PA level according to FMS categorization by age.
FMS
PAL
Sedentary Light Moderate Vigorous MVPA
M ± SD p M ± SD p M ± SD p M ± SD p M ± SD p
4 years (16)
Locomotor
skills
<p50
 p50
358.78
± 111.5
324.5
± 117.14
0.558
239.53
± 65.73
200.15
± 55.22
0.215
49.62 ±
14.01
46.03
± 12.39
0.595
6.75
± 3.07
6.18
± 2.50
0.694
56.37
± 14.05
52.21
± 14.32
0.567
Object
control
<p50
 p50
337.40
± 110.11
360
± 143.25
0.764
219.53
± 65.61
221.16
± 55.38
0.969
47.44
± 14.05
49.5 ± 7.70
0.813
6.11
± 2.83
8 ± 1.75
0.296
53.55
± 14.92
57.5
± 9.41
0.672
FMS total
<p50
 p50
339.33
± 119.50
344.60
±
110.61
0.929
229.47
± 68.49
207.46
±
55.31
0.500
50.69
± 13.49
44.14
±
12.07
0.330
6.83
± 2.88
6 ± 2.64
0.562
57.52
± 13.59
50.14
±
1
4.11
0.306
5 years (48)
Locomotor
skills
<p50
 p50
355.52
± 143.26
321.13
± 91.28
0.322
222.59
± 77.10
202.98
± 52.08
0.303
50.89
± 23.61
53.96
± 25.86
0.670
9.03
± 6.48
12.6
± 10.20
0.159
59.92
± 27.64
66.56
± 35.29
0.474
Object
control
<p50
 p50
337.82
± 121.62
337.42
±
119.18
0.990
225.93
± 66.76
200.91
±
63.05
0.189
49.19
± 19.31
55.27
±
28.39
0.398
8.78
± 5.72
12.67
±
10.40
0.125
57.97
± 23.20
67.95
±
37.28
0.282

PAZ FERNÁNDEZ-VALERO, JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ, JACQUELINE PÁEZ,
BÁRBARA LEYTON-
DINAMARCA, JULIANA KAIN, JUAN HURTADO, TOMÁS REYES- AMIGO
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
JPES ®
www.efsupit.ro
3290
FMS total
<p50
 p50
336.96
± 127.89
338.07
± 114.65
0.975
223.1
± 78.79
204.72
± 53.95
0.341
48.35
± 22.11
55.44
± 26.20
0.329
8.77
± 6.09
12.40
± 10.03
0.157
57.12
± 26.08
67.84
± 34.94
0.252
6 years (31)
Locomotor
skills
<p50
 p50
321.37
± 126.67
333.01
± 93.67
0.775
227.52
± 55.59
238.22
± 60.56
0.640
67.42
± 27.93
65.47
± 24.76
0.845
14.42
± 9.57
13.11
± 9.63
0.726
81.85
± 36.87
78.59
± 32.58
0.804
Object
control
<p50
 p50
382.09
± 133.87
310.88
± 86.67
0.093
246 ± 47.51
230.86
± 62.07
0.536
61.96
± 17.44
67.54
± 27.79
0.600
13.59
± 9.82
13.52
± 9.57
0.985
75.56
± 26.48
81.06
± 35.96
0.695
FMS total
<p50
 p50
354.75
± 163.55
324.35
± 91.64
0.556
250.35
± 52.02
231.77
± 59.89
0.523
67.1
± 12.65
65.91
± 27.32
0.925
12.95
± 7.17
13.65
± 9.96
0.882
80.05
± 19.73
79.56
± 35.77
0.977
Nota. T test; mean ± standard deviation; FMS: fundamental movement skills; PA: physical activity; MVPA:
moderate to vigorous physical activity; < p50: below the 50
th
percentile;  p50: above the 50
th
percentile; p 
0.05
Table 4. Time (minutes) of Physical Activity by sex and age.
Sex Age
Physical
Activity
Level
All
(n=95)
Boys
(n=59)
Girls
(n=36)
p 4 y
(n=16)
5 y
(n=48)
6 y
(n=31)
p
Sedentary
2
(min/day)
322
(245 – 399)
311
(241.50 –
398)
341.38
(248.81 –
432.25)
0
.392
296.50
(251.50 –
444.25)
319.87
(246.18 –
395.25)
329.75
(229.75 –
402.00)
0.964
Light
1
(min/day)
220.94 ±
62.71
218.07 ±
63.72
225.65 ± 61.62 0.570
221.62 ± 62.07
212.38 ± 65.31
234.77 ±
58.29
0.303
Moderate
2
(min/day)
50.75
(41.25 –
67.50)
52.00
(42.00 –
67.50)
50.75
(41.25 –
68.87)
0.673
49.62
(39.68 – 55.06)
48.25
(37.68 – 62.75)
66.00
(47.75 –
81.25)
0.008
Vigorous
2
(min/day)
8.75
(6.00 –
15.00)
9.75
(6.75 –
15.75)
7.50
(4.81 – 12.87)
0.117
7.12
(3.62 – 8.50)
9.50
(4.56 – 15.00)
9.75
(7.00 – 18.50)
0.021
MVPA
2
(min/day)
62.25
(59.75 –
80.75)
64.25
(49.75 –
82.25)
58.87
(48.18 –
77.75)
0.394
57.12
(45.56 – 64.18)
59.87
(44.06 – 77.18)
74.50
(56.50 –
100.25)
0.009
Note:
1
Mean ± standard deviation, Student’s t-test and ANOVA;
2
Median, (25th and 75th percentile), Mann-
Whitney U-test and Kruskal-Wallis; MVPA: moderate to vigorous physical activity; p  0.05.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to analyze the association between FMS and PAL in preschoolers,
categorized by age and skill development in those who comply with the WHO PA Guidelines
No association was observed between these variables; however, an association of FMS with age was
found. These results are consistent with previous studies observing that the relationship between FMS with PA is
weak in early childhood (3-5 years) (Schmutz et al., 2020) and moderate in middle to late childhood (6-12 years)
(Engel et al., 2018; Hulteen et al., 2018; Stodden et al., 2008); i.e., this relationship strengthens as children age
(Goodway et al., 2019; Stodden et al., 2008). In addition, no association between FMS with PA in children aged
5 and 6 has been found (Matarma et al., 2018). Nevertheless, most studies differ with our results observing
associations between FMS with vigorous PA and MVPA (Nilsen et al., 2019; Xin et al., 2020), although the
findings cannot establish causality of such associations. Nilsen et al. (2019) considered all categories of PA
intensity for data analysis, which may explain the differences with our study, along with other factors, such as

PAZ FERNÁNDEZ-VALERO, JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ, JACQUELINE PÁEZ,
BÁRBARA LEYTON-
DINAMARCA, JULIANA KAIN, JUAN HURTADO, TOMÁS REYES- AMIGO
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
JPES ®
www.efsupit.ro
3291
preschoolers’ predisposition or early experiences (Barnett et al., 2019), as these has been shown to be
fundamental building blocks for the development of motor skills later (Goodway et al., 2019).
In the first years of life, the influence of FMS on PAL is inconsistent (Alves et al., 2021). Our findings
suggest that, after 5 years of age, higher FMS performance may be related to more (minutes) of MVPA. This
confirms that, between 3 and 5 years, FMS is usually at the initial stages of development, and that, by around 7
to 9 years, these should be in more mature stages of development; i.e., the older a child, the better the
performance in the different skills (Goodway et al., 2019).
In relation to object control subscale percentiles, 5- and 6-year-old preschoolers perform greater
intensity locomotor activities, and therefore achieve more MVPA. Despite not reaching the significance
threshold in the object control test, children over the 50 th percentile comply with the WHO recommendations
(2019 and 2020). The difference in MVPA time categorizes active versus inactive, and so it is a clinically
relevant confirmation (WHO, 2020). An adequate level of FMS is necessary to move and control the body to
allow participation in physically active play (Goodway et al., 2019; Stodden et al., 2008). Our results are in line
with evidence suggesting that age may be an important factor in elucidating the nature of the relationship
between FMS and PA (Schmutz et al., 2020).
Our findings demonstrated that children with high levels of object control spend more time in MVPA,
which is similar to previous studies that relied on TGMD-2 and accelerometers. These showed that that object
control skills - but not locomotor skills - was significantly associated with PA (Capio & Eguia, 2021). There is
strong evidence in the literature to support a low to moderate positive association between object control and
MVPA (Xin et al., 2020). Our data suggest that adequate object control skills may be an important element in
increasing higher-intensity PA, because the development of object control during childhood is an important
predictor of PA during adolescence (Sallen et al., 2020). Therefore, it is essential to intervene at preschool age
with structured programs preferentially focused on object control skills to prevent decreases in MVPA and
organized PA during adolescence.
It is important to note that our participants were beneficiaries of the “Play and Learn” component of a
program, which considers 180 minutes of structured PA per week led by a professional. This may explain the
object control skill performance as previous studies have shown improvements in object control after PE
interventions in children (Lee et al., 2020), especially when children are directly instructed by professionals (e.g.,
PE teachers) (Engel et al., 2018).
Our results show that, although boys were more active than girls and that PA increases with age,
children spend a significant time in sedentary behaviors or light PA, which is similar to previous evidence
(Nilsen et al., 2019). In Chile, previous studies using accelerometer have shown the same trend, that is greater
MVPA in preschool boys, however, those studies were limited due to the device being used only during the time
at school. (Kain et al., 2018).
Prioritizing FMS instruction may lead preschoolers to engage more willingly in different levels of PA
during childhood (Lee et al., 2020; Engel et al., 2018). However, the only opportunity children have to engage in
activities that require FMS is free play; which although may encourage movement, it does not promote learning
of these skills (Goodway et al., 2019; Marcel, 2019). Therefore, health strategies for improving FMS should
preferentially develop competencies involved in object control as a priority component of early childhood
education programs for this age group. Additionally, early childhood education programs after 5 years of age
should ideally focus moderate to vigorous intensity activities and/or games. Thereby, professionals in this field
should consider activities that stimulate object control skills when the goal is to achieve the WHO PA
recommendations (2019 and 2020).
The strengths of our study include the use of objective assessments for both PA and FMS using a
validated instrument (TGMD-2). However, the accelerometer - although used widely for measuring PAL - does
not evaluate motor activities such as swimming, riding bicycles, or activities with a ball in a stationary position.
Future studies should survey parents to collect data on these activities. Finally, due to the nature of the study,
causality could not be established.
Conclusion
In conclusion, although this study found no significant association between FMS and PAL in
preschoolers, a positive association between FMS and age was observed. We recommend carrying out additional
longitudinal studies to confirm the impact of age and sex on this relationship.
Our study supports the importance of FMS in PA behaviors in preschoolers. Furthermore, we show the
importance of object control skills to achieve a higher PAL as early as 5 years of age therefore, we recommend
that these skills be promoted through structured PE classes conducted by a Physical Education teacher in
preschool, and considering activities that involve manipulating or controlling objects such as throwing, kicking,
catching, hitting, rolling and kicking / dribbling with various materials, progressing from the simple to the
complex and with activities that involve objects with different sizes, colors and integrating both girls and boys.
Conflicts of interest - the authors don’t have any conflicts of interest to declare.

PAZ FERNÁNDEZ-VALERO, JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ, JACQUELINE PÁEZ,
BÁRBARA LEYTON-
DINAMARCA, JULIANA KAIN, JUAN HURTADO, TOMÁS REYES- AMIGO
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
JPES ®
www.efsupit.ro
3292
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the support of the children, parents, teachers and management of the
following schools: Ana Maria Janer, Mar Abierto, Padre Zanandrea, República Paraguay, República de México,
and Canal Beagle. We would also like to thank the Crecer en Movimiento program, specifically the Jugar y
Aprender component, of the National Sports Institute of the Ministry of Sports. This study is part of the project
funded by the National Commission for Scientific and Technological Research CONICYT called “Preschool Fit-
healthy and Smart PREFIT-Chile Study Linking Physical Fitness to non-invasive health-related markers and
Executive Function” (REDI170474). Additionally, this study was funded under the Postgraduate Thesis Funding
Competition of the General Directorate of Research of the Universidad de Playa Ancha and Project No. EFI03
2017-2018.
References
Alves, T., Ribeiro, P., Neco de Souza, A., Craig, C., Pinto, J., Duncan, M. & de Lucena, C. (2021). A network
perspective on the relationship between moderate to vigorous physical activity and fundamental motor
skills in early childhood. Journal of Physical Activity and Health. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2020-
0218
Barnett, L., Telford, R., Strugnell, C., Rudd, J., Olive, L. & Telford, R. (2019). Impact of cultural background on
fundamental movement skill and its correlates. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37, (5), 492-499.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2018.1508399
Bornstein, D. B., Beets, M. W., Byun, W., & McIver, K. (2011). Accelerometer-derived physical activity levels
of preschoolers: a meta-analysis. J Sci Med Sport, 14(6), 504-511.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2011.05.007
Butte, N. F., Wong, W. W., Lee, J. S., Adolph, A. L., Puyau, M. R., & Zakeri, I. F. (2014). Prediction of energy
expenditure and physical activity in preschoolers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 46(6), 1216-1226.
https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000209
Calahorro, F., Torres-Luque, G., Lopez Fernandez, I., Santos-Lozano, A., Garatachea, N., & Alvarez Carnero, E.
(2015). Physical activity and accelerometer; methodological training, recommendations and movement
patterns in school [en español]. Nutr Hosp, 31(1), 115-128. 10.3305/nh.2015.31.1.7450
Cano-Cappellacci, M., Leyton, F. A., & Carreno, J. D. (2015). Content validity and reliability of test of gross
motor development in Chilean children. Rev Saude Publica, 49. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-
8910.2015049005724
Capio, C. & Eguia, K. (2021). Movement skills, perception, and physical activity of young children: A mediation
analysis. Pediatr Int, 63(4), 442-447. 10.1111/ped.14436
Dobell, A., Pringle, A., Faghy, M. & Roscoe, C. (2020). Fundamental movement skills and accelerometer-
measured physical activity levels during early childhood: A systematic review. Children, 7, 224.
10.3390/children7110224
Engel, A., Broderick, C., van Doorn, N., Hardy, L. & Parmenter, B. (2018). Exploring the relationship between
fundamental motor skill interventions and physical activity levels in children: A systematic review and
meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 48, 1845-1857. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0923-3
Figueroa, R., & An, R. (2017). Motor Skill Competence and Physical Activity in Preschoolers: A Review.
Matern Child Health J, 21(1), 136-146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-016-2102-1
Goodway, J., Ozmun, J. & Gallahue, D. (2019). Understanding Motor Development. Infants, Children,
Adolescents, Adults (8
th
edition). Jones & Bartlett Learning
Hulteen, R. M., Morgan, P. J., Barnett, L. M., Stodden, D. F., & Lubans, D. R. (2018). Development of
Foundational Movement Skills: A Conceptual Model for Physical Activity Across the Lifespan. Sports
Med, 48(7), 1533-1540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0892-6
Kain, J., Leyton, B., Soto-Sanchez, J., & Concha, F. (2018). In preschool children, physical activity during
school time can significantly increase by intensifying locomotor activities during physical education
classes. BMC Res Notes, 11(1), 438. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3536-x
Jaakkola, T., Hakonen, H., Kankaanpää, A., Joensuu, L., Kulmala, J., Kallio, J., Watt, A. & Tammelin, T. (2018).
Longitudinal associations of fundamental movement skills with objectively measured physical activity
and sedentariness during school transition from primary to lower secondary school. Journal of Science
and Medicine in Sport, 22(1), 85-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2018.07.012
Lee, J., Zhang, T., Lun, T. & Gu, X. (2020). Effects of a need-supportive motor skill intervention on children´s
motor skill competence and physical activity. Children, 7, 21. 10.3390/children7030021
Marcel, D. (2019). The level of manifestation of children´s motor skills. Journal of Physical Education and
Sport, 19(6), 2115-2119. 10.7752/jpes.2019.s6317
Matarma, T., Lagstrom, H., Hurme, S., Tammelin, T. H., Kulmala, J., Barnett, L. M., & Koski, P. (2018). Motor
skills in association with physical activity, sedentary time, body fat, and day care attendance in 5-6-
year-old children-The STEPS Study. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 28(12), 2668-2676.
https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13264

PAZ FERNÁNDEZ-VALERO, JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ, JACQUELINE PÁEZ,
BÁRBARA LEYTON-
DINAMARCA, JULIANA KAIN, JUAN HURTADO, TOMÁS REYES- AMIGO
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
JPES ®
www.efsupit.ro
3293
Migueles, J. H., Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Ekelund, U., Delisle Nystrom, C., Mora-Gonzalez, J., Lof, M., Labayen,
I., Ruiz, J. R., & Ortega, F. B. (2017). Accelerometer Data Collection and Processing Criteria to Assess
Physical Activity and Other Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Practical Considerations. Sports Med,
47(9), 1821-1845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0716-0
Ministry of Health (2014). Technical Standard for the supervision of boys and girls from 0 to 9 years of age in
Primary Health Care [en español].
https://www.minsal.cl/sites/default/files/files/2014_Norma%20Técnica%20para%20la%20supervisión
%20de%20niños%20y%20niñas%20de%200%20a%209%20en%20APS_web2.pdf
Nilsen, A. K. O., Anderssen, S. A., Loftesnes, J. M., Johannessen, K., Ylvisaaker, E., & Aadland, E. (2019). The
multivariate physical activity signature associated with fundamental motor skills in preschoolers. J
Sports Sci, 38(3), 264-272. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1694128
Sallen, J., Andrä, C. Ludyga, S., Mücke, M. & Hermann, C. (2020). School children´s physical activity, motor
competence, and corresponding self-perception: A longitudinal anlysis of reciprocal relationships.
Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 17, 1083-1090. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2019-0507
Schmutz, E., Leeger-Aschmann, C., Kakebeeke, T., Zysset, A., Messerli-Bürgy, N., Stülb, K., Arhab, A., Meyer,
A., Munsch, S., Puder, J., Jenni, O. & Kriemler, S. (2020). Motor competence and physical activity in
early childhood: Stability and relationship. Frontiers in Public Health, 8,39. 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00039
Stodden, D. F., Goodway, J. D., Langendorfer, S. J., Roberton, M. A., Rudisill, M. E., Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. E.
(2008). A Developmental Perspective on the Role of Motor Skill Competence in Physical Activity: An
Emergent Relationship. Quest, 60(2), 290-306. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2008.10483582
Tremblay, M., Aubert, S., Barnes, J., Saunders, T., Carson, V., Latimer-Cheung, A., Chastin, S., Altenburg, T.,
Chinapaw, M. & on behalf of SBRN Terminology Consensus Project Participants. (2017). Sedentary
Behavior Research Network (SBRN)- Terminology Consensus Project process and outcome.
International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14,75.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0525-8
Ulrich, D. (2000). Test of gross motor development 2: Examiner´s manual (Vol. 2nd). PRO-ED.
https://33202576.weebly.com/uploads/1/4/6/8/14680198/tgmd-2-2.pdf
Valentini, N. C. (2012). Validity and reliability of the TGMD-2 for Brazilian children. J Mot Behav, 44(4), 275-
280. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.2012.700967
World Health Organization (2007). Who Child Growth Standards: Methods and development.
https://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/second_set/technical_report_2.pdf?ua=1
World Health Organization (2019). Guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behavior and sleep for children
under 5 years of age [en español]
https://iris.paho.org/bitstream/handle/10665.2/51805/9789275321836_spa.pdf?sequence5&isAllowedy
World Health Organization (2020). Who guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behavior [en español]
https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/337004/9789240014817-spa.pdf
Xin, F., Chen, S., Clark, C., Hong, J., Liu, Y. & Cai, Y. (2020). Relationship between fundamental movement
skills and physical activity in preschool-aged children: A systematic review. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 3566. doi:10.3390/ijerph17103566
Contribution in topic
Kain, J., Leyon, B., Soto-Sánchez, J. & Concha, F. (2018). In preschool children, physical activity during school
time can significantly increase by intensifying locomotor activities during physical education classes. BMC Res
Notes, 11:438
Kain, J., Leyon, B., Concha, F. Close, M. & Soto-Sánchez. (2017). Preschool children´s physical activity
intensity during school time: influence of school schedule. Preventive Medicine Reports, 8, 6-9.
Oñate, C., Batalla, A. & Paez, J. (2020). Elaboración y validez de un cuestionario de las habilidades motrices
iniciales para estudiantes de enseñanza media chilena. Retos, 38, 465-471.
Reyes-Amigo, T., Saa, J., Martinez, G., Lima, J., Ibarra, J. & Soto-Sánchez, J. (2021). Contribution of high and
moderate-intensity physical education classes to the daily physical activity level in children. Journal of Physical
Education and Sport, 21(1), 29-35. 10.7752/jpes.2021.01004