Content uploaded by Jhonatan A. Becerra-Duitama
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Jhonatan A. Becerra-Duitama on Mar 02, 2022
Content may be subject to copyright.
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +5731 4343 0816
Email address: jalexanderbecerra@jdc.edu.co
doi: 10.14456/easr.2022.
Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4):495-504 Review Article
Engineering and Applied Science Research
https://www.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/easr/index
Published by the Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Pozzolans: A review
Jhonatan A. Becerra-Duitama* and Diana Rojas-Avellaneda
Civil Engineering Program, Faculty of Engineering and Basic Sciences, Juan de Castellanos University, Tunja, Colombia
Received 6 July 2021
Revised 16 November 2021
Accepted 8 December 2021
Abstract
Natural and artificial pozzolans are widely used in building materials and play an increasingly important role in minimizing costs and
mitigating environmental effects in the manufacturing of building materials. These pozzolans can be obtained as by-products from
various industries, generally they are wastes without any application or added value. However, when implemented in cement mixtures,
their effectiveness is somewhat questionable. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the properties, characteristics, and behavior of
these materials. This study aims to summarize the main pozzolans used in building materials. Volcanic pozzolans, pozzolans of
sedimentary origin, fly ash, blast furnace slag, silica fume, metakaolin, ceramic wastes, demolition, and construction wastes, rice husk
ash, bagasse ash, biomass ash, and paper sludge were considered. The chief characteristics studied were particle size, specific area
chemical composition, and mineralogical composition. In addition, the impact on mechanical properties and durability in cement
mixtures using pozzolans was analyzed. It was observed that the mechanical properties of cement mixtures change by increasing
pozzolan replacement. The maximum percentage of replacement depends on the characteristics of the pozzolan. In the case of
durability, pozzolans decrease absorption and permeability by reducing the porosity of the binder. This decreases acid diffusion and
autogenous shrinkage, thus improving concrete durability. Finally, future studies are suggested to consider the implementation of
artificial intelligence techniques and machine learning algorithms to improve the properties of the concrete mixtures.
Keywords: Pozzolan, Industrial wastes, Agro-industrial wastes, Calcined clays, Compressive strength, Concrete durability
1. Introduction
Construction is an industry that contributes greatly to the emission of greenhouse gases and is responsible for the depletion of
non-renewable natural resources. A major negative impact on the environment is caused by concrete production [1]. The principal
component of concrete is Portland cement, of which 4.1 billion metric tons were produced globally during 2019 [2]. Whereas, the
production of concrete worldwide is almost 25 billion tons per year [3].
The cement industry causes 8-10% of greenhouse gas emissions [4] and 15% of global electrical energy consumption. Besides carbon
dioxide emissions, the cement production process creates hazardous dust, which affects the surrounding environment, causing
respiratory diseases in local inhabitants. The cement industry is also responsible for the exhaustion of non-renewable resources, such
as limestone, clay, and fossil fuels [5].
Thus, it is extremely important to focus on the efficient use of resources by replacing conventional materials, used in cement
production, with industrial by-products or waste materials. These alternative materials include construction and demolition waste
[6-10], glass waste [11-13], plastic waste [14-16], sludge from wastewater treatment [17-19] and supplementary cementitious materials
[20, 21]. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are inorganic materials that contribute properties to cementitious mixtures,
through hydraulic activity, pozzolanic activity, or by both means [22].
A material is considered hydraulic if it shows a high dissolution when mixed with water and if it produces calcium silicate hydrate
(CSH) and calcium hydroxide. In contrast, a material is considered pozzolanic, when it shows little dissolution concerning a hydraulic
material, and in most cases, an activator is needed to speed up the initiation of the reaction [23]. Cementitious materials can be divided
into those that can be used as cement replacement fly ash [24, 25], natural or artificial pozzolans [26-30], silica fume, and grainy blast
furnace slag [31-34].
Different pozzolans of waste origin are being investigated as alternatives to existing ones, and the best-performing ones are:
calcined clay, paper sludge, and different types of ash. These alternatives could reduce the total cement content by 20wt% whilst
preserving given strength and also reducing the cost of concrete by 9%. Pozzolanic activity is the characteristic that determines the
degree of reactivity in pozzolans. This mainly depends on the amount of amorphous silica and alumina in the composition of the
pozzolanic material, specific surface area, and particle size distribution [35].
Pozzolans are incorporated into concrete to reduce the percentage of cement required and enhance durability. Pozzolans decrease
absorption, permeability, and ion diffusivity by decreasing the binder porosity. The amount of pozzolan added varies from 5 to 40 wt.%
of the cement [35]. This review aims to evaluate the performance of cement mixtures using natural and artificial pozzolans. Therefore,
volcanic pozzolans, pozzolans of sedimentary origin, fly ash, blast furnace slag, silica fume, metakaolin, ceramic wastes, demolition
and construction wastes, rice husk ash, bagasse ash, biomass ash, and paper sludge were studied.
496 Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4)
2. Pozzolans
Pozzolanic material was discovered, for the first time, in the form of volcanic soil of a reddish-brown color in the city of Pozzuoli,
Italy, hence, the term pozzolan. It has been proven that Minoan, Greek, and Roman civilizations were using volcanic stone and pumice
in construction many centuries ago. For example, the Pantheon and the Pont du Gard aqueduct were built using lime-pozzolan mortars
and concrete, their longevity clearly demonstrating the remarkably durable properties of the binding materials employed [36].
Nowadays, different kinds of pozzolans are used as a substitute for cement content. These pozzolans are obtained from by-products of
industrial and Agro-industrial processes and are used to reduce the energy required for clinker production and so reduce the harmful
effects on the environment.
Pozzolan can be defined as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material that, in itself, possesses little or no cementitious value
but, in the presence of water and when finely divided, can react with calcium hydroxide (lime), at room temperature, to form compounds
with cementitious properties [37]. It is important to note that the definition of pozzolan does not depend on the origin of the material,
but on its ability to react with lime and water. When pozzolan reacts with lime in the presence of water, OH- ions are released, causing
an increase in the pH value (approximately 12.4). At that point, pozzolanic reactions occur, silicon and aluminum are combined with
the available calcium, generating cementitious compounds called calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) and calcium aluminate hydrates
(CAH). These reactions are represented in summary form below. One advantage of these compounds is that they improve the
mechanical properties of the mixture due to the continuous development of pozzolanic reactions [38].
Similarly, the presence of sulfate
in pozzolans generates a negative effect on pozzolanic reactions, since a highly hydrated
mineral called ettringite is formed ( ). The conditions for ettringite formation are given by the presence
of soluble aluminum, calcium, and sulfate, the presence of a high pH, and the amount of water. Also, the formation of ettringite is
accelerated by the effect of high temperatures, and, depending on the environmental conditions, can form in a matter of seconds. In the
reactions described, it can be seen that ettringite possesses some 26 water molecules; this shows that this compound is very expansive
and, consequently, it can destroy cementitious materials produced by pozzolanic reactions [39].
It is also worth mentioning that pozzolanic materials contain considerable amounts of silicon, iron, and aluminum oxide; in order
that a material can be designated as pozzolan, the sum of these three oxides, as weight percentage, must be 70% [40]. Due to these
chemical compounds, a cementitious gel (C-S-H) is produced. However, the amount of gel in the mixture is dependent on various
factors, such as; the specific surface of the pozzolan, its characteristics, the chemical compounds present, the way the pozzolan is
obtained, and the reactive silicon content. Considering this, pozzolans can be divided into two groups, natural pozzolans, and artificial
pozzolans [41]. In the following section, some pozzolans shown in Table 1, which provides a general classification of pozzolans, will
be discussed in more detail [42].
Table 1 General classification of pozzolans.
Pozzolans
Natural pozzolans
Artificial pozzolans
Volcanic origin
Fly ash
Altered and unaltered pyroclasticmaterial
Blast furnace slag
Pumice stone and vitreous ashes
Silica fume
Zeolitic tuffs
Calcined organic matter residues
Sedimentary origin
Calcined clays and shales
Chemical sediments
Bottom ash from coal combustion
Diatomaceous earth
Steel industry slags
Detrital sediments
Municipal solid waste ashes
Naturally calcined clays
Glass wastes
Hydrothermal sintering of silicon
Fluid cracking catalyst residues
3. Classification of pozzolans
3.1 Natural pozzolans
Natural pozzolans can be divided into two major groups, one of volcanic origin and the other of sedimentary origin. The first group
can be found in the form of tuffs (igneous rocks formed by the accumulation of volcanic ash), volcanic ash, volcanic slag, obsidian,
and pumice stone (gray colored vitreous volcanic igneous rock). The second group, are found in the form of diatomaceous earth, cherts
(sedimentary rock high in silica), opaline silica, and clays naturally calcined by the flow of burning lava [42]. Natural pozzolans are
those that do not require any chemical treatment other than grinding to react with lime [26]. Likewise, natural pozzolans contain small
amounts of non-reactive minerals (clay minerals, alkali feldspar, and quartz), and large amounts of reactive minerals (zeolite and
volcanic glass) [27]. However, chemically, natural pozzolans are mostly composed of aluminum and silicon oxides. Table 2 shows the
chemical composition of some natural pozzolans.
Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4) 497
Table 2 Chemical composition of selected natural pozzolans
Chemical composition (%)
Chemical
compound
Natural zeolite
Pumice stone
Diatomaceous earth
Volcanic tuffs
Iran 1
Japan 2
U.S.A. 2
Turkey 3
U.S.A. 2
U.S.A. 2
Italy 2
Argentina 4
SiO2
67.79
71.65
65.74
77.52
85.97
60.04
54.68
62.53
Al2O3
13.66
11.77
15.89
12.99
2.3
16.3
17.70
10.76
Fe2O3
1.44
0.81
2.54
1.5
1.84
5.8
3.82
1.81
CaO
1.68
0.88
3.35
0.1
0.0
1.92
3.66
1.34
MgO
1.2
0.52
1.33
0.4
0.61
2.29
0.95
1.13
K2O
1.42
0.0
1.92
0.95
0.21
0.0
0.0
3.67
Na2O
2.04
1.8
4.97
0.12
0.21
0.0
3.43
5.66
SO3
0.52
0.34
0.0
0.52
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.34
1 [43], 2 [26], 3 [44], 4 [45]
3.1.1 Natural pozzolans of volcanic origin
Volcanic ash and pumice: are materials made up of a mixture of minerals and vitreous phases expelled during volcanic eruptions.
Volcanic ashes are fine fragments of pyroclastic materials, which are usually less than 2 millimeters in size. This type of pozzolan has
a high content of siliceous compounds [46]. In addition, pumice consists of 63% to 75% silicon oxide and is considered one of the
major pyroclastic deposits next to volcanic slag. Pumice is derived from an acid magma; its pH is approximately 7.5. Also, it is a highly
microvesicular compound, with a porosity ranging from 60% to 70%. Moreover, its density (700-1200 kg/m3) varies depending on its
formation and, in some cases, it can float on water. It is amorphous and is mainly composed of quartz, biotite, and feldspars [28, 47].
Volcanic slag: is a material of volcanic origin, with a low level of crystalline water and is porous. Its color ranges from black to
dark brown. Volcanic slag is very similar to pumice but is derived from basaltic or andesitic magma. Compared to pumice, it has a
lower silica content (40%-60%) and almost similar in pH (7.6) and density (500-1300 kg/m3). In turn, it has a vesicular nature
(with small spherical cavities) caused by of the escape of gases during eruptions. Its porosity is between 30% and 60% [47]. Sometimes,
these vesicles contain zeolite, calcite, and quartz, minerals formed from fluids with high content of hot water. Similarly, slags contain
vitreous phase and may contain phenocrysts such as feldspar and biotite [28, 42].
Zeolitic tuffs: these are volcanic ashes and lithified pumice stones. These rocks are composed of clay, zeolite, and carbonate
minerals (filler materials). However, the most plentiful compound is zeolite, which occurs due to zeolitization. Zeolitization is the
alteration of the vitreous phase in minerals of the zeolite group (clinoptilolite, paulingite, barrerite, among others) and occurs in a series
of geologically controlled alkaline conditions. In addition to zeolite, tuffs include combinations of silicate minerals, such as quartz,
feldspar, mica, clay minerals, and volcanic glass. The most abundant silicic zeolites are clinoptilolite and mordenite and the most
widespread aluminous zeolites are phyllipsia, analcime, and heulardite [28, 48].
3.1.2 Natural pozzolans of sedimentary origin
Diatomaceous earth: also known as diatomite, is a sedimentary rock composed of fossilized remains of freshwater unicellular plants
(diatoms). It is an amorphous siliceous pozzolanic material, containing carbonate and clay minerals, quartz, feldspar, and volcanic glass [49].
It is fine-grained, earthy, light-colored, finely porous, with low density, and chemically inert. The main applications of diatomites consist of
filters, absorbents, fillers, and insulation material. Due to its special pore structure, it is used to prepare nanocomposites for filling voids in
different substances. Likewise, it also serves as a pozzolanic material, either in natural or calcined form [50].
Sediments of detrital and mixed origin: detrital sediments are largely composed of minerals that appear as a result of weathering
and erosion of rocks [51]. One of the sediments that can be used as a pozzolan is Sacrofano soil, of a mixed origin, found near Viterbo,
Italy. This soil possesses a silicon oxide content of around 85% to 90% by weight. Diatoms, volcanic particles, and some crystalline
minerals were drastically altered by acidic fluids that infiltrated through the top of the deposit. Other materials derived from detrital
rocks are naturally burned clays, such as Trinidad porcelanite and Central Asian gliezh. Porcelanite is formed by spontaneous
combustion of bituminous clays, and the second type is composed of shales burned by natural from underground coal fires [36]. Another
kind of pozzolan of detrital origin is bentonite, which is an absorbent aluminum phyllosilicate clay mainly composed of montmorillonite
[29].
Table 3 Chemical composition of some artificial pozzolans
Artificial pozzolan
Chemical compound
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
K2O
SO3
Ti2O
Na2O
Others
FA
FA 1
11.8-62.8
2.6-35.6
1.4-24.4
0.5-54.8
0.1-6.7
0.1-9.3
0.0-12.9
0.0
0.1-3.6
0.0
FA 2
45-64.4
19.6-30.1
3.8-23.9
0.7-7.5
0.7-1.7
0.7-2.9
0.0
0.0
0.3-2.8
0.0
BFS
BFS 3
32-42
6-19.3
0.0
35-48
3-14
0.0
1-4
0.2-2.1
0.3-1.2
0.0
BFS 4
35-40
10-15
0.3-2.5
30-42
8.0-9.5
0.0-0.3
0.0-1.3
0.0
0.0-1.4
0.8-8.3
SF
SF 5
99.5
< 0.004
< 0.001
< 0.003
< 0.002
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
SF 4
85-97
0.2-0.9
0.4-2.0
0.3-0.5
0.0-1.0
0.5-1.3
0.0-0.4
0.0
0.1-0.4
0.0-1.4
MK
MK 6
51.5
40.2
1.2
2.0
0.1
0.5
0.0
2.3
0.1
0.0
MK 7
52.17
44.5
0.45
0.01
0.0
0.15
0.0
1.42
0.0
0.12
MK 8, 9, 10
51.6
41.3
4.64
0.09
0.16
0.62
0.0
0.83
0.01
0.0
CW
CW 11, 12
67.03
19.95
6.29
0.11
1.37
3.54
0
0
0.21
0
CDW
CDW 13, 14
59.63
18.51
5.92
4.78
3.12
3.59
0.42
0.84
0.73
0.24
OMA
RHA 15
82.13
4.27
0.38
0.16
1.65
1.23
0.0
1.23
0.14
1.44
RHA 4
87.0-87.3
0.1-0.8
0.1-0.8
0.5-1.4
0.3-0.6
2.4-3.7
0.0-0.3
0.0
0.1-1.1
1.8-5.2
SCBA 16
31.4-81.2
0.09-24.1
0.09-15.7
0.84-16.1
0.48-8.65
0.9-9.0
0.1-4.1
0.0
0.09-2.1
1.9-8.8
SCBA 4
78-78.4
8.6-8.9
3.5-3.6
2.1-2.2
0.0-1.7
3.4-3.5
0.0
0.0
0.0-0.1
1.2-3.0
WA 17
11.6
4.4
2.6
34.9
4.4
6.5
11.4
0.25
1.4
6.273
WA 4
1.9-68.2
0.12-15.1
0.37-9.6
5.8-83.5
1.1-14.6
2.2-32
0.36-11.7
0.06-1.2
0.22-29.8
0.66-13
1 [24], 2 [25], 3 [32], 4 [29], 5 [34], 6 [52], 7 [53], 8 [54], 9 [55], 10 [56], 11 [57], 12 [58], 13 [59], 14 [9], 15 [60], 16 [61], 17 [62]
498 Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4)
3.2 Artificial pozzolans
Artificial pozzolans are materials that have been produced or altered through an industrial process, and in many cases, they are the
residue of production processes, for example, fly ash, obtained by burning coal [29]. Table 3 shows the chemical composition of some
artificial pozzolans. Amongst these can be found, fly ash (FA), blast furnace slag (BFS), silica fume (SF), metakaolin (MK), ceramic
waste (CW), construction and demolition waste (CDW), rice husk ash (RHA), sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) and wood ash (WA),
and others [30]. Chemically, artificial pozzolans are mainly composed of aluminum, iron, and silicon oxides. In order to address the
topic of artificial pozzolans as logically as possible, they will be divided into three groups; artificial pozzolans obtained from industrial
processes, metakaolin, and pozzolans from calcination of organic matter.
3.2.1 Pozzolans obtained from industrial processes
Fly ash (FA): Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion of pulverized coal in power plants, generally thermal power plants. Coal combustion
takes place at approximately 1500°C (2700°F), during combustion, the mineral impurities in the coal (clay, quartz, shale, and feldspar), melt and
disperse with the exhaust gases. As the molten material rises with the gas flow, it cools and solidifies into spherical particles. This fine-grained
material is collected by electrostatic precipitators or special filters [24]. Depending on its type and quality, fly ash contains different percentages
of silicon, aluminum, iron, and calcium oxides. Table 3 shows the physical, mineralogical, and chemical properties of fly ash depend largely on
the type, composition, and extent of pulverization of the coal, the combustion conditions, and the way it is collected, handled, and stored [25].
According to [40] fly ash can be divided into two classes, C and F. Class C fly ashes are generally produced from lignite or
sub-bituminous coal. They are characterized by having between 10% and 15% calcium oxide in their chemical composition, this allows
them to be hydraulic materials [25]. The crystalline phases of class C ashes include quartz, lime, mullite, gehlenite, anhydrite, tricalcium
aluminate (C3A), and dicalcium silicate (C2S) [63]. Whereas, class F fly ashes, have a lower calcium oxide content, therefore they are
considered pozzolanic materials. Generally, they result from the combustion of bituminous coal or anthracite. They have a high content
of amorphous silica, which determines pozzolanic behavior. Among the crystalline minerals present in type F fly ash: are quartz,
mullite, hematite, and magnetite [25]. Due to their chemical and mineralogical composition, fly ashes are widely used in cementitious
mixtures.
As well as being an indicator for classifying fly ash, calcium content also effects several factors of cementitious mixtures; such as,
fly ash reactivity, hardening rate, hydration evolution temperature, resistance at early ages, expansion due to alkali-silica reaction, and
resistance to sulfates [64]. Nevertheless, other compounds such as alkalis (Na2OyK2O) and sulfate (SO3), can affect the performance
of fly ash. Fly ash particles are finer than those of Portland cement, their size ranges from 1 to 100 µm. The shape of the particles is
predominantly spherical and some particles are massive. However, the vast majority are hollow [24]. Likewise, the color of fly ash
depends on its chemical and mineral compounds. A dark brown color is associated with a higher amount of lime, a brownish color for
those with higher iron content, and dark gray color for those with a high content of unburned coal [25].
Blast furnace slag (BFS): Blast furnace slag can be defined as a non-metallic product composed of calcium silicates and
aluminosilicates; it is generated by the smelting of iron in the steelmaking process [65]. The melting of iron ore, coking coal, and
limestone, at temperatures between 1300°C and 1600°C, produces pig iron and liquid slag. The slag, of lower density, floats, forming
a layer on top of the pig iron. Depending on the cooling method, three types of slag can be obtained: granulated slag, air-cooled slag,
and expanded slag. Granulated blast furnace slag is obtained by rapidly cooling the liquid slag using high-pressure water streams. The
granular particles formed are glassy and usually have a particle size of less than 5mm. After being dried and ground, they are used as
cement replacements in proportions between 30% and 85% [29, 64, 66].
When cooling of the molten slag occurs under atmospheric conditions, air-cooled slag is formed, which has a crystalline structure
similar to that of rock. These slags are characterized by being hard and dense materials. They are used mainly as ballast in railways, as
a roadbed stabilizer, and as aggregate in concrete [32]. However, expanded slag is produced using small amounts of water for
refrigeration. The material obtained is dry, porous, rough, and light. It is usually used in lightweight building blocks, in the manufacture
of bricks, and also as an aggregate in lightweight concrete mixtures [66]. The chemical compounds are quite similar in various types
of slag. Table 3 indicates that some of these compounds are oxides of silicon, aluminum, lime, iron, and magnesium. Similarly, some
minerals present in slags are melilite, merwinite, diopside, limestone, wustite, ferrite, monticellite, rankinite, and ancinamite [33].
Slags can also be classified by size and can be divided into fine and coarse slag. Finely granulated slag is amorphous and has the
approximate size of coarse sand (11.5 mm). When finely ground, it exhibits hydraulic properties similar to cement. The particles can
have subangular to sub rounded shapes [66] and have a pale white color. The specific surface area ranges from 400 to 600 m2/kg [33].
Whilst, coarse granulated slag is pellet-shaped. Slags with sizes ranging from 4 to 15 mm are porous and partially crystalline and have
been used as coarse aggregate in concrete. Coarse slag with sizes smaller than 4 mm are mostly glassy and are usually ground up for
use as a hydraulic binder in Portland cement clinker [67].
Silica Fume (SF): silica fume, or microsilica, is created as a by-product of the smelting of silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloys used
in the production of steel and aluminum [34]. Raw materials (quartz and carbon), are arranged in an electric-arc furnace and are melted
at a temperature close to 2000°C. As the quartz is reduced to alloy, silicon monoxide vapor emanates. At the top of the furnace, this
vapor is oxidized and condensed into amorphous silicon microspheres. This resulting fine powder is collected in bag filters and is
packaged for further distribution [29]. The color of silica fume can be white, gray, or black. The color depends on the amount of carbon
present in the production process [35].
Silica fume particles are spherical with a particle size of less than 1 µm and compared to Portland cement particles, they are
approximately 100 times finer. Because of this, the density of silica fume is lower compared to cement, making it lighter. Moreover,
the specific surface area of silica fume is between 15000 m2/kg and 30000 m2/kg, which is higher than Portland cement, resulting in a
higher pozzolanic behavior. The mineralogical composition of silica fume consists mainly of amorphous silica (cristobalite), with very
few crystalline particles [35]. Similarly, Table 3 shows that the chemical composition is of at least 85% silicon oxide, including small
amounts of iron oxides, aluminum oxide, and alkalis [29].
Metakaolin (MK): clay is a clastic sedimentary rock, originating from the mechanical accumulation of rock fragments comprising
clay minerals and quartz. Clay minerals are crystalline elements and are included in the phyllosilicates group due to their foliated form.
Metakaolin is formed of silica and alumina and depending on the percentage of these compounds, it can present different colors, such
as white, gray, brown, orange, or red. The minerals with the highest presence in clay are kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, vermiculite,
talc, and pyrophyllite [68]. Kaolinite is the main mineral present in clay, and when mixed with water, provides the characteristic plastic
Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4) 499
state of unfired ceramics. Structurally, kaolinite consists of octahedral alumina lamellae and tetrahedral silica lamellae stacked in
interleaved form. [52].
When kaolinite is exposed to a temperature between 650°C and 900°C for a controlled time, its structure becomes disordered and
collapses; this is due to de-hydroxylation, which is the elimination of the water ions that are present in the kaolinite. The resulting
disorder, between the silica and alumina layers, produces a material called metakaolin [69]. This material is characterized as being
amorphous and as having high pozzolanic and hydraulic reactivity [70]. In addition, metakaolin, whose chemical formula can be written
as Al2O3.2SiO2 or AS2, differs from other pozzolans because it is neither completely natural nor the result of industrial processes.
Although calcination is performed in rotary kilns or muffle kilns, the energy consumption of metakaolin production is much lower
compared to that of cement production. [71].
The particle size of metakaolin is commonly 2 mm (smaller than cement particles). Metakaolin is white and, because of its
controlled production process, it is a consistent material both aesthetically and operationally. The particle shape is layered and its
specific area is 15000 m2/kg [53]. Metakaolin has a high a content of silicon oxide (50%-55%) and aluminum oxide (40%-45%). Also,
small amounts of other chemical compounds are present (Table 3). Mineralogically, metakaolin is composed of quartz, feldspar, mica,
and calcite. The percentages of these minerals depend on the characteristics of the calcined kaolin [70].
Ceramic waste (CW) and construction and demolition waste (CDW): these wastes come from the construction and demolition of
buildings and have been used as a replacement for cement, given that the particle size distribution of ceramic wastes is similar to
cement. The color of ceramic wastes is gray or white [72]. The specific gravity is between 2.3 and 2.8. Ceramic waste can be substituted
for cement and aggregates in cementitious mixtures. Its main compounds are silica, alumina, and iron oxide. Mineralogically, ceramic
wastes are composed of quartz, hematite, muscovite, and microcline; in addition, the content of amorphous material is approximately
38% [73].
Construction and demolition waste (CDW) consists of waste generated from the construction, reconstruction, expansion, alteration,
maintenance, and demolition of buildings and other infrastructure, in order for this waste to be used in cement mixtures their particle
size must be reduced. Therefore, reducing the particles sizes of under 63 μm to be used as a cement substitute material is recommended.
The mineralogical content of CDW is composed of illite, quartz, orthoclase, anorthite, calcite, dolomite, and hematite. Silicon oxide is
the major component (75%), followed by alumina and iron oxide [74].
3.3 Pozzolans from organic matter (OMA)
About one billion tons of agricultural wastes are produced every year, approximately 80% of which are of organic origin [75]. Due
to the low price of these residues, their economic value is lower than the cost of their collection, transportation, and processing.
However, when these wastes are used in incineration, they become valuable materials. The incineration of agricultural residues to
generate energy is called gasification. This process is carried out in a closed chamber and, as a by-product of the process, ash is
generated [76]. Some of the wastes used are rice and rice husks, sugarcane bagasse, and wood sawdust. They are characterized by low
inorganic content and high carbon content [77]. The composition of the ashes produced, as well as their origin, depends on the
temperature and duration of incineration and accordingly they l have unique properties and applications.
Rice husk ash (RHA): Rice husk makes up about 20% of rice weight, in terms of production, is about 120 million tons annually. Its
chemical composition consists mainly of cellulose (50%), lignin (25%-30%), silica (15%-20%) and water (10%-15%). In some regions,
rice husk is used as fuel; and, although its incineration is neither complete nor controlled, its calorific value is half that offered by coal
[78]. Large volumes of ash are generated as a result of calcination. It is estimated that, for every 100 kg of calcined husk, 25 kg of ash
are produced. If the burning of rice husk is controlled, organic matter is removed and the resulting ash is composed of amorphous silica
with a microporous structure, hence, the ash has high water absorption [60].
Rice husk ash is a fine material, with a specific surface area ranging from 20000 m2/kg y 270000 m2/kg. At the same time, the
particle size ranges between 5 and 10 µm [29]. Because of this, ashes obtained by controlled processes have high pozzolanic activity.
The color of the ashes obtained typically varies from gray to white. Likewise, their specific gravity varies between 2 and 2.1. whereas,
the chemical composition depends on the temperature at which the ashes are calcined. It is recommended that rice husks be incinerated
between 600°C and 700°C, to obtain ashes with better pozzolanity [60]. Table 3, shows the percentages of the most representative
compounds. It can be observed that more than 80% of the ash is silicon oxide, as a result of the nutrients absorbed during the growth
of the rice plant.
Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA): sugarcane is the largest crop by production quantity worldwide. As well, it is the raw material to
produce sugar, bioethanol, some liquors, and brown sugar [61]. When juice is extracted from sugarcane, a large amount of wet bagasse
is produced; approximately 30% to 40% by weight of collected sugarcane. The bagasse obtained, has a chemical composition consisting
of; cellulose (45%-55%), hemicellulose (20-25%), lignin (18-24%), and ash (1%-4%) [79]. Sugarcane bagasse is used in the sugar
process for the production of heat energy through combustion. As a result of this process, it generates ashes that are characterized by
having a high silica content and an amorphous structure, which makes them highly pozzolanic materials. These ashes are characterized
by their high silica content and amorphous structure, which makes them highly pozzolanic materials. The properties acquired by the
ashes depend on the origin and processing, temperature, and time of incineration [80].
Recently calcined bagasse ash samples are comprised of different kinds of particles. The vast majority are completely burned fine
particles; the rest are fibrous particles that have not been completely calcined. As a result, the ash is of low pozzolanity. Therefore, to
increase its reactivity it is recommended to pass it through a 300 µm sieve and grind it to a fineness similar to that of cement
(300-320 m2/kg) [81]. In a controlled incineration process, reactive amorphous silica is formed as the main compound. Table 3, shows
the various chemical compounds formed at different temperatures, which varies from 550°C to 1000°C [79]. It can be observed that
the compound with the highest percentage is silicon oxide, followed by aluminum and calcium oxide. Similarly, minerals with high
silica content can be found, such as quartz and cristobalite.
Wood ash (WA): is an inorganic residue generated by the combustion of wood (sawdust, bark, branches, and others), mainly to
produce electricity. The temperature at which wood is calcined varies between 400°C and 1100°C. The most common trees, from
which this wood used in power plants, comes from are pine and eucalyptus. Hardwood, bark, and leaves also produce a large amount
of ash; on average, between 6% and 10% are recovered [82]. Furthermore, 70% of wood ash ends up as landfill waste, 20% is used as
a supplement in agricultural crops, and 10% is used in construction, metal recovery, and pollution control. As always, the physical, and
chemical properties of wood ash determine its application. Some factors that influence these properties are tree species, geographic
location, growing conditions, and method of incineration, and the way the ash is collected [83].
500 Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4)
Newly calcined wood ash is a heterogeneous mixture of particles of different shapes and sizes. Generally, at temperatures between
400°C and 600°C, calcination is not complete, so that partially burned wood particles appear. In addition, average particle size is 230
µm, whilst specific gravity ranges between 1.65 and 2.6, and density, between 490 kg/m3 and 827 kg/m3 [84]. Ash color, varies between
black, brown, and gray. The chemical composition of wood ash is shown in Table 3. It is observed that the major components are
oxides that must be present in a pozzolanic material. In the same way, the predominant crystalline form in this type of ash is quartz.
Minerals such as calcite, rutile, mullite, gypsum, magnetite, among others, can also be found [62]. The presence of these minerals
depends, to a great extent, on the nutrients absorbed during the growth of the tree.
Activated paper sludge (APS): is generated by the paper industry using recycled paper as raw material. When dry this sludge
(35%-40% humidity) is composed of 30% organic matter, 35% calcite, and 20% kaolinite. To activate this residue and eliminate all
the organic matter (80-90% reduction), it is necessary to calcine it at a temperature between 650°C and 700°C for two hours [85]. The
product obtained has particles smaller than 90 mm with a brightness of more than 90%. The chemical composition of this activated
sludge depends on the activation conditions, the nature of the recycled paper, and its chemical composition. This waste constitutes an
alternative source of metakaolinite and is mainly composed of 30% silica, 30% lime, 18% alumina, and <5% magnesium [86].
4. Uses of pozzolans in cement blends
Some research into the uses of natural pozzolans in construction materials is mentioned below. [87] investigated the effects of
volcanic ash on cement mortar. Mortar cubes (40×40×40 mm3) with a binder/sand to water proportion of 1/3/0.5 by weight were
prepared. The percentages of cement replacement levels by weight were 30% and 50% for volcanic ash, whilst the compressive strength
of the samples was determined on three mortar prisms during 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, and 91 days. The reported strength results were the average
of three mortar specimens. Volcanic ash reduced the mortars’ ultimate compressive strengths but at a proportion lower than their
replacement levels, signifying their participatory and influencing roles in hydration reactions. Similar research includes [42, 88].
In addition to natural pozzolans, artificial pozzolans have been used in construction materials. Fly ash, has been a highly
implemented pozzolanic material. [89, 90] prepared three cylindrical samples of 100x200 mm to measure compressive strength. The
compressive strength of the samples was determined at 3, 7, 28, and 91 days. The water/binder ratio for all mixes was 0.30. In the
mixes, the cement content was replaced by 10%, 30%, 50% and 70% fly ash (by mass). It was found that the early compressive strength
of the modified concrete was lower for all mixes than in the control concrete and that it generally decreased with the increase in the
amount of fly ash. Similar research includes [24, 25].
Blast furnace slag is another pozzolanic material used in construction materials. [91] prepared three mortar cubic samples these
were used for each age and curing condition. The dimension of the cubic samples was 70.6 mm×70.6 mm×70.6 mm the compressive
strength was determined at 7, 14, 28, 90, 180, and 270 days. The binder/sand ratio was fixed at a 1/1 ratio. BFS was increased from
30% to 60% of total cement by weight with increments of 10%. A noticeable reduction in compressive strength was observed at all
ages as the content of BFS reached 60%; thus, the maximum use of BFS is recommended to be 50% or less to achieve the best
long-term compressive strength development of the mixture. Similar studies include [66, 67].
In similar tests, [92] designed two concrete mixes of M40 and M50 grades, with a w/c ratio of 0.36 and 0.33 respectively. In both
cases, the cement was replaced with SF at increments of 5%, 7.5%, 10%, and 15%. Samples of standard cubes (150×150×150 mm)
and standard cylinders (150 mm diameter×300 mm height) were used. A compression testing machine (CTM) was used to test 28-day
compressive strength. The compressive strength of the two mixes, M40 and M50, with SF replacement, was increased gradually up to
an optimum replacement level of 7.5% and then decreased over 28 days. Similar research includes [34, 93].
Additionally, [94] prepared cubic samples of 100 mm×100 mm×100 mm to measure compressive strength. A water/binder ratio of
4.0 and a sand ratio of 0.44 were selected. Two substitution rates of metakaolin (9% and 15% by mass) were used. The compressive
strength was determined at 1, 3, 7, 28, and 90 days. The results showed that compressive strength increased as the metakaolin increased.
Adding 15% metakaolin increased the compressive strength at 28 days by approximately 24%. Whereas, [95] showed that the high
specific surface area and high reactivity of metakaolin decreased the workability of the mixture. However, the fineness of metakaolin
decreased the porosity and obtained a more permeable concrete with higher resistance to acid attack. In addition, the compressive
strength increased with the addition of metakaolin. However, the authors recommended adding up to 20% metakaolin by weight to the
mix; thus, the compressive strength would be higher than the control sample. Similar research includes [54-56].
Likewise, [96] prepared samples with ordinary Portland cement, coarse sand, and crushed stone using three different w/c ratios
(0.40, 0.50, and 0.60). To analyze the strength variation of concrete using RHA as partial replacement of cement specimens with 10%
and 15%, RHA of the total cement content by weight was used. Specimens for the compressive strength test were cast using cylindrical
molds of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height. Tests were conducted after 7, 14, and 28 days of curing. Results showed that the
increasing percentage of RHA, as a replacement of cement, caused a decrease in compressive strength. Replacement of 10% cement
by RHA is optimum and considerable with respect to the compressive strength of concrete. The replacement of cement by RHA up to
15% caused a decrease in compressive strength of 10-12% on average. Similar studies include [97, 98].
Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) is another type of agro-industrial waste used in the production of construction materials. [99] used
a design mix for M20 grade concrete, based on the standards, castings of cubes were made with different ratios (5%, 10%, and 15%)
and were tested at 7 and 28 days of curing. It was found that SCBA concrete provided more compressive strength than normal concrete.
The maximum compressive strength obtained in M20 grade concrete was obtained with the addition of 10% SCBA. The compressive
strength of 10% replacement of sugarcane bagasse gave improved strength when compared with 5% and 15%. Similar studies include
[29, 100].
In addition, [101] replaced cement in mortar mixes with wood ash at 5%, 10%, and 15% by volume. A volumetric ratio of 1:4
(binder: aggregates) was chosen. Prismatic specimens (40×40×160 mm3) were used to perform the mechanical behavior tests. The
compressive strength was determined at 7, 28, 90, 180, 365, and 730 days. Mortar with 5% WA content presented an increment in
compressive strength which was only discernible between 28 and 180 days. The remaining mortars presented a lower compressive
strength than those of the reference mortar. In addition, at 730 days, the reduction of compressive strength was greater, between 29%
and 45%. In fact, the incorporation of WA, decreased this strength when compared to a reference mortar. Similar research includes
[82, 83]. Table 4 summarizes the highlights of pozzolans in cement blends.
Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4) 501
Table 4 Summary of pozzolans in cement blends.
Pozzolan
High lights
Volcanic ash
The incorporation of volcanic slag in mortar and concrete increases properties such as durability, chloride permeability, and
compressive strength. These properties increase with the age of curing and decrease with the content of volcanic slag in the mixture.
This decrease is caused by the fact that pozzolanic reactions are retarded at room temperature [42, 87, 88].
Fly ash
Addition of fly ash in concrete improves workability, reduces runoff and linear shrinkage, decreases the amount of air in the
mixture and the heat of hydration. Also, compressive strength increases with the age of curing [24, 25, 89, 90].
Blast furnace
slag
Increases the compressive and flexural strength at mature ages. This depends to a large extent, on the fineness and percentages
used in the mix. Also, the porosity decreases, increasing the resistance to sulfate attack and improving durability. Blast furnace
slag decreases the heat of hydration but increases the bulk density [66, 67, 91].
Silica fume
Increases the compressive strength at mature ages, acid attack resistance, density, and durability of concrete [34, 92, 93].
Metakaolin
The recommended level of metakaolin as a cement substitute in concrete is between 10% and 20%. Within these percentages,
higher flexural and compressive strengths in the mix are achieved. Similarly, the addition of metakaolin to this pozzolan reduces
autogenous shrinkage and increases sulfate resistance and heat of hydration [54-56, 94, 95].
Rice husk ash
Improves compressive, tensile, and flexural strength. Moreover, rice husk ash reduces autogenous shrinkage. It also decreases the
diffusion of acids in the mixture. The authors recommend a 20% substitution of cement for better results [96-98].
Sugarcane
bagasse ash
Increases compressive strength at mature ages reduces permeability and increases resistance to acid attack. However, it has not yet
been established how it affects concrete durability [29, 99, 100].
Wood ash
Workability and bulk density were not affected by this substitution. However, the mechanical performance was reduced by up to
45% compared to the reference samples. However, cement can be substituted with wood ash, up to 15%, without affecting the
performance of mortars [82, 83, 101].
5. Conclusions
The conclusions that may be drawn from the present paper are set out below:
Compressive strength at early ages of concrete containing pozzolans is lower than the compressive strength of the reference
concrete. Only metakaolin increase the early age compressive strength. However, all pozzolans increase their compressive strength at
mature ages.
For optimum concrete performance, the percentage of cement substitution depends on the type of pozzolan. For example, the
recommended level of metakaolin is between 10% and 20%, the suggested percentage of rice husk ash is 20%, the recommended level
of blast furnace slag should not exceed 50%, and the suggested percentage of wood ash should not exceed 15%.
Pozzolans decrease absorption and permeability by reducing the porosity of the binder. This increases resistance to acid attack,
reduces autogenous and linear shrinkage, and improves concrete durability.
6. Future works
The properties of concrete mixtures can be estimated by laboratory experiments. However, these tests are expensive, imprecise,
and time-consuming. Besides, finding the best mix design and the exact quantity of materials is complicated. In order to improve
mixtures, future work using artificial intelligence (AI) techniques and machine learning algorithms is suggested, as their capabilities
for knowledge processing and pattern recognition are among the best methods for solving engineering problems.
As an example, [102] reviewed the available studies on the application of AI techniques to model the behavior of concrete elements
and estimate the properties of concrete mixtures. Also, that paper provided recommendations on the selection of the appropriate input
variables for developing the predictive models. In addition, two types of hybridized machine learning algorithms (Type-1) fuzzy
inference system (T1FIS) and interval type-2 fuzzy inference system (IT2FIS) were used to develop predictive models for the
compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete [103]. The findings indicated that the importance of the variables, concrete age,
total coarse aggregate to cement ratio, and water to binder ratio were of the first to third orders, respectively. It is hoped that this present
review will provide the stimulus for further investigation.
7. Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Juan de Castellanos University for the generous funding and time permitted for the development of the
project.
8. References
[1] Cabeza LF, Rincón L, Vilariño V, Pérez G, Castell A. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) of
buildings and the building sector: a review. Renew Sustain Energ Rev. 2014;29:394-416.
[2] Cemnet.com [Internet]. The global cement report - 13th edition. Dorking: International Cement Review; 2019 [cited 2021 Jul 24].
Available from: https://www.cemnet.com/Publications/Item/182291/the-global-cement-report-13th-edition.html.
[3] Gursel AP, Masanet E, Horvath A, Stadel A. Life-cycle inventory analysis of concrete production : a critical review. Cem Concr
Compos. 2014;51:38-48.
[4] Garrett TD, Cardenas HE, Lynam JG. Sugarcane bagasse and rice husk ash pozzolans: cement strength and corrosion effects
when using saltwater. Curr Res Green Sustain Chem. 2020;1-2:7-13.
[5] Van den Heede P, Maes M, Gruyaert E, De Belie N. Full probabilistic service life prediction and life cycle assessment of concrete
with fly ash and blast-furnace slag in a submerged marine environment : a parameter study. Int J Environ Sustain Dev.
2012;11(1):32-49.
502 Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4)
[6] Robalo K, Costa H, do Carmo R, Julio E. Experimental development of low cement content and recycled construction and
demolition waste aggregates concrete. Constr Build Mater. 2021;273:121680.
[7] Medina C, Banfill PFG, Sánchez de Rojas MI, Frías M. Rheological and calorimetric behaviour of cements blended with
containing ceramic sanitary ware and construction/demolition waste. Constr Build Mater. 2013;40:822-31.
[8] Medina C, Saez del Bosque IF, Asensio E, Frías M, Sánchez de Rojas MI. Mineralogy and microstructure of hydrated phases
during the pozzolanic reaction in the sanitary ware waste/Ca(OH)2 system. J Am Ceram Soc. 2016;99(1):340-8.
[9] Asensio E, Medina C, Frías M, Sánchez de Rojas MI. Fired clay-based construction and demolition waste as pozzolanic addition
in cements. J Clean Prod. 2020;265:121610.
[10] Amiri M, Hatami F, Golafshani EM. Evaluating the synergic effect of waste rubber powder and recycled concrete aggregate on
mechanical properties and durability of concrete. Case Stud Constr Mater. 2021;15:e00639.
[11] Siddique R, Cachim P. Waste and supplementary cementitious materials in concrete: characterisation, properties and applications.
Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2018.
[12] Rani GY, Krishna TJ, Murali K. Strength studies on effect of glass waste in concrete. Mater Today Proc. 2021;46(1):8817-21.
[13] Ibrahim KIM. Recycled waste glass powder as a partial replacement of cement in concrete containing silica fume and fly ash.
Case Stud Constr Mater. 2021;15:e00630.
[14] Abu-Saleem M, Zhuge Y, Hassanli R, Ellis M, Rahman M, Levett P. Evaluation of concrete performance with different types of
recycled plastica waste for kerb application. Constr Build Mater. 2021;293:123477.
[15] Jain A, Siddique S, Gupta T, Jain S, Sharma RK, Chaudhary S. Evaluation of concrete containing waste plastic shredded fibers:
ductility properties. Struct Concr. 2021;22(1):566-75.
[16] Ojeda JP. A meta-analysis on the use of plastic waste as fibers and aggregates in concrete composites. Constr Build Mater.
2021;295:123420.
[17] Kadir AA, Salim NSA, Sarani NA, Rahmat NAI, Abdullah MMAB. Properties of fired clay brick incoporating with sewage
sludge waste. AIP Conf Proc. 2017;1885(1):020150.
[18] Mathye RP, Ikotun BD, Fanourakis GC. The effect of dry wastewater sludge as sand replacement on concrete strengths. Mater
Today Proc. 2021;38:975-81.
[19] Kumar M, Shreelaxmi P, Kamath M. Review on characteristics of sewage sludge ash and its partial replacement as binder material
in concrete. In: Das BB, Nanukuttan SV, Patnaik AK, Panandikar NS, editors. Recent trends in civil engineering. Singapore:
Springer; 2021. p. 65-78.
[20] Juenger MCG, Snellings R, Bernal SA. Supplementary cementitious materials: new sources, characterization, and performance
insights. Cem Concr Res. 2019;122:257-73.
[21] Muslim F, Wong HS, Choo TH, Buenfeld NR. Influences of supplementary cementitious materials on microstructure and
transport properties of spacer-concrete interface. Cem Concr Res. 2021;149:106561.
[22] ASTM. ASTM C 1697-18, Standard specification for blended supplementary cementitious materials. USA: ASTM; 2018.
[23] Duchesne J. Alternative supplementary cementitious materials for sustainable concrete structures: a review on characterization
and properties. Waste Biomass Valor. 2021;12(3):1219-36.
[24] Marinkovic S, Draga J. Fly ash. In: Siddique R, Cachim P, editors. Waste and supplementary cementitious materials in concrete.
Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2018. p. 235-60.
[25] Sideris K, Justnes H, Soutsos M, Sui T. Fly ash. In: De Belie N, Soutsos M, Gruyaert E, editors. Properties of fresh and hardened
concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2018. p. 55-98.
[26] Ramezanianpour AA. Natural pozzolans. Cement replacement materials. Germany: Springer; 2014. p. 1-46.
[27] Xia J, Guan Q, Zhou Y, Wang J, Gao C, He Y, et al. Use of natural pozzolans in high-performance concrete for the Mombasa-
Nairobi railway. Adv Cem Res. 2021;33(7):318-30.
[28] Dedeloudis C, Zervaki M, Sideris K, Juenger M, Alderete N, Kamali-bernard S, et al. Natural pozzolans. In: De Belie N, Soutsos
M, Gruyaert E, editors. Properties of fresh and hardened concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials. Cham:
Springer International Publishing; 2018. p. 181-231.
[29] Paris JM, Roessler JG, Ferraro CC, Deford HD, Townsend TG. A review of waste products utilized as supplements to Portland
cement in concrete. J Clean Prod. 2016;121:1-18.
[30] Sobolev K, Kozhukhova M, Sideris K, Menéndez E, Santhanam M. Alternative supplementary cementitious materials. In: De
Belie N, Soutsos M, Gruyaert E, editors. Properties of fresh and hardened concrete containing supplementary cementitious
materials. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2018. p. 233-82.
[31] Black L. Low clinker cement as a sustainable construction material. In: Khatib J, editor. Sustainability of construction materials.
2nd ed. Leeds: Elsevier; 2016. p. 415-57.
[32] Matthes W, Vollpracht A, Villagr Y, Kamali-Bernard S, Hooton D, Gruyaert E, et al. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag. In:
De Belie N, Soutsos M, Gruyaert E, editors. Properties of fresh and hardened concrete containing supplementary cementitious
materials. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2018. p. 1-53.
[33] Ramezanianpour AA. Granulated blast furnace slag. Cement replacement materials. Germany: Springer; 2014. p. 157-91.
[34] Khan MI. Nanosilica/silica fume. In: Siddique R, Cachim P, editors. Waste and supplementary cementitious materials in concrete.
Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2018. p. 467-98.
[35] Bumanis G, Vitola L, Stipniece L, Locs J, Korjakims A, Bajare D. Evaluation of industrial by-products as pozzolans: a road map
for use in concrete production. Case Stud Constr Mater. 2020;13:e00424.
[36] Snellings R, Mertens G, Elsen J. Supplementary cementitious materials. Rev Mineral Geochem. 2012;74(1):211-78.
[37] Sánchez de Rojas Gómez MI, Frías Rojas M. Natural pozzolans in eco-efficient concrete. Eco-efficient concrete. Cambridge:
Woodhead Publishing; 2013. p. 83-104.
[38] Pourakbar S, Huat BK. A review of alternatives traditional cementitious binders for engineering improvement of soils. Int J
Geotech Eng. 2017;11(2):206-16.
[39] Seco A, Ramirez F, Miqueleiz L, Urmeneta P, García B, Prieto E, et al. Types of waste for the production of pozzolanic materials-
a review. In: Show KY, Guo X, editors. Industrial waste. London: IntechOpen; 2012. p. 141-50.
[40] ASTM. ASTM C 618-19, Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete. USA:
ASTM; 2019.
Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4) 503
[41] Davraz M, Ceylan H, Topcu IB, Uygunoglu T. Pozzolanic effect of andesite waste powder on mechanical properties of high
strength concrete. Constr Build Mater. 2018;165:494-503.
[42] Aref M. Volcanic scoria as cement replacement. In: Aiello G, editor. Volcanoes-geological and geophysical setting, theoretical
aspects and numerical modeling, applications to industry and their impact on the human health. London: IntechOpen; 2018. p.
211-38.
[43] Najimi M, Sobhani J, Ahmadi B, Shekarchi M. An experimental study on durability properties of concrete containing zeolite as
a highly reactive natural pozzolan. Constr Build Mater. 2012;35:1023-33.
[44] Kabay N, Tufekci MM, Kizilkanat AB, Oktay D. Properties of concrete with pumice powder and fly ash as cement replacement
materials. Constr Build Mater. 2015;85:1-8.
[45] Alderete NM, Villagran Zaccardi YA, Coelho Dos Santos GS, De Belie N. Particle size distribution and specific surface area of
SCM’s compared through experimental techniques. In: Jensen OM, Kovler K, de Belie N, editors. Proceedings of the
International RILEM Conference Materials, Systems and Structures in Civil Engineering 2016 Segment on Concrete with
supplementary cementitious materials; 2016 Aug 22-24; Lyngby, Denmark. Paris: RILEM; 2016. p. 61-72.
[46] Brown RJ, Bonadonna C, Durant AJ. A review of volcanic ash aggregation. Phys Chem Earth. 2012;45-46:65-78.
[47] Lemougna PN, Wang K, Tang Q, Nzeukou AN, Billong N, Melo UC, et al. Review on the use of volcanic ashes for engineering
applications. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2018;137:177-90.
[48] Yuna Z. Review of the natural, modified, and synthetic zeolites for heavy metals removal from wastewater. Environ Eng Sci.
2016;33(7):443-54.
[49] Aksakal EL, Angin I, Oztas T. Effects of diatomite on soil physical properties. Catena. 2012;88(1):1-5.
[50] Ahmadi Z, Esmaeili J, Kasaei J, Hajialioghli R. Properties of sustainable cement mortars containing high volume of raw
diatomite. Sustain Mater Technol. 2018;16:47-53.
[51] Chengula DH. Improving cementitious properties of blended pozzolan based materials for construction of low cost buildings in
Mbeya region, Tanzania. Germany: Kassel University Press GmbH; 2018. p. 4-64.
[52] Wang F, Kovler K, Provis JL, Buchwald A, Cyr M, Patapy C, et al. Metakaolin. In: De Belie N, Soutsos M, Gruyaert E, editors.
Properties of fresh and hardened concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials. Cham: Springer; 2018. p. 153-79.
[53] Paiva H, Velosa A, Cachim P, Ferreira VM. Effect of pozzolans with different physical and chemical characteristics on concrete
properties. Mater de Constr. 2016;66(322):1-12.
[54] Frías M, Sánchez de Rojas MI, Cabrera J. The effect that the pozzolanic reaction of metakaolin has on the heat evolution in
metakaolin-cement mortars. Cem Concr Res. 2000;30(2):209-16.
[55] Rojas MF, Sánchez de Rojas MI. The effect of high curing temperature on the reaction kinetics in MK/lime and MK-blended
cement matrices at 60 °C. Cem Concr Res. 2003;33(5):643-9.
[56] Frías M, Vigil de la Villa R, Martínez-Ramírez S, García-Giménez R, Sanchez de Rojas MI. Mineral phases in metakaolin-
portlandite pastes cured 15 years at 60°C. New data for scientific advancement. Appl Clay Sci. 2020;184:105368.
[57] Sánchez de Rojas MI, Frías M, Rodríguez O, Rivera J. Durability of blended cement pastes containing ceramic waste as a
pozzolanic addition. J Am Ceram Soc. 2014;97(5):1543-51.
[58] Sánchez de Rojas MI, Marín FP, Frías M, Rivera J. Properties and perfomances of concrete tiles containing waste fired clay
materials. J Am Ceram Soc. 2007;90(11):3559-65.
[59] de Lucas EA, Medina C, Frías M, Sánchez de Rojas MI. Clay-based construction and demolition waste as a pozzolanic addition
in blended cements. Effect on sulfate resistance. Constr Build Mater. 2016;127:950-8.
[60] Singh B. Rice husk ash. In: Siddique R, Cachim P, editors. Waste and supplementary cementitious materials in concrete.
Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2018. p. 417-60.
[61] Paya J, Monzó J, Borrachero MV, Tashima MM, Soriano L. Bagasse ash. In: Siddique R, Cachim P, editors. Waste and
supplementary cementitious materials in concrete. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2018. p. 559-98.
[62] Martínez-Lage I, Velay-Lizancos M, Vázquez-Burgo P, Rivas-Fernández A, Vázquez-Herrero C, Ramírez-Rodríguez A, et al.
Concretes and mortars with waste paper industry: biomass ash and dregs. J Environ Manag. 2016;181:863-73.
[63] Thomas M, Jewell R, Jones R. Coal fly ash as a pozzolan. In: Robl T, Oberlink A, Jones R, editors. Coal combustion products
(CCP’s). Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2017. p. 121-54.
[64] Karthik D, Nirmalkumar K, Priyadharshini R. Characteristic assessment of self-compacting concrete with supplementary
cementitious materials. Constr Build Mater. 2021;297:123845.
[65] ASTM. ASTM C 125-16, Standard terminology relating to concrete and concrete aggregates. USA: ASTM; 2016.
[66] Yuksel I. Blast-furnace slag. In: Siddique R, Cachim P, editors. Waste and supplementary cementitious materials in concrete.
Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2018. p. 361-415.
[67] Ozbakkaloglu T, Gu L, Pour AF. Normal-and high-strength concretes incorporating air-cooled blast furnace slag coarse
aggregates: effect of slag size and content on the behavior. Constr Build Mater. 2016;126:138-46.
[68] Fernandes FM. Clay bricks. In: Ghiassi B, Lourenc
o PB, editors. Long-term performance and durability of masonry structures:
degradation mechanisms, health monitoring and service life design. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2019. p. 3-19.
[69] Frías M, Rodriguez O, Sánchez de Rojas MI. Paper sludge, an environmentally sound alternative source of MK-based
cementitious materials. Constr Build Mater. 2015;74:37-48.
[70] Ramezanianpour AA. Metakaolin. Cement replacement materials. Germany: Springer; 2014. p. 225-55.
[71] Jafari K, Rajabipour F. Performance of impure calcined clay as a pozzolan in concrete. Transp Res Rec. 2021;2675(2):98-107.
[72] Sánchez de Rojas MI, Frías M, Sabador E, Asensio E, Rivera J, Medina C. Durability and chromatic behavior in cement pastes
containing ceramic industry milling and glazing by-products. J Am Ceram Soc. 2019;102(4):1971-81.
[73] Sánchez de Rojas MI, Marin F, Rivera J, Frías M. Morphology and properties in blended cements with ceramic wastes as a
pozzolanic material. J Am Ceram Soc. 2006;89(12):3701-5.
[74] Asensio E, Medina C, Frías M, Sánchez de Rojas MI. Characterization of ceramic-based construction and demolition waste: use
as pozzolan in cements. J Am Ceram Soc. 2016;99(12):4121-7.
[75] Aja OC, Al-Kayiem HH. Review of municipal solid waste management options in Malaysia, with an emphasis on sustainable
waste-to-energy options. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag. 2013;16(4):693-710.
[76] Asadullah M. Barriers of commercial power generation using biomass gasification gas: a review. Renew Sustain Energ Rev.
2014;29:201-15.
504 Engineering and Applied Science Research 2022;49(4)
[77] Aprianti E, Shafigh P, Bahri S, Farahani JN. Supplementary cementitious materials origin from agricultural wastes-a review.
Constr Build Mater. 2015;74:176-87.
[78] Ramezanianpour AA. Rice husk ash. Cement replacement materials. Germany: Springer; 2014. p. 257-98.
[79] Sarker TC, Azam SMGG, Bonanomi G. Recent advances in sugarcane industry solid by-products valorization. Waste Biomass
Valor. 2017;8(2):241-66.
[80] Batool F, Masood A, Ali M. Characterization of sugarcane bagasse ash as pozzolan and influence on concrete properties. Arab J
Sci Eng. 2020;45:3891-900.
[81] Bahurudeen A, Marckson AV, Kishore A, Santhanam M. Development of sugarcane bagasse ash based Portland pozzolana
cement and evaluation of compatibility with superplasticizers. Constr Build Mater. 2014;68:465-75.
[82] Siddique R. Utilization of wood ash in concrete manufacturing. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2012;67:27-33.
[83] Thomas BS, Yang J, Mo KH, Abdalla JA, Hawileh RA, Ariyachandra E. Biomass ashes from agricultural wastes as
supplementary cementitious materials or aggregate replacement in cement/geopolymer concrete: a comprehensive review. J Build
Eng. 2021;40:102332.
[84] Chowdhury S, Mishra M, Suganya O. The incorporation of wood waste ash as a partial cement replacement material for making
structural grade concrete: an overview. Ain Shams Eng J. 2015;6(2):429-37.
[85] Mavroulidou M, Shah S. Alkali-activated slag concrete with paper industry waste. Waste Manag Res. 2021;39(3):466-72.
[86] Frias Rojas M, Sánchez de Rojas Gómez MI. Artificial pozzolans in eco-efficient concrete. In: Pacheco-Torgal F, Jalali S,
Labrincha J, John VM, editors. Eco-efficient concrete. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2013. p. 105-22.
[87] Celik K, Hay R, Hargis CW, Moon J. Effect of volcanic ash pozzolan or limestone replacement on hydration of Portland cement.
Constr Build Mater. 2019;197:803-12.
[88] Davraz M, Ceylan H, Topçu ÍB, Uygunoğlu T. Pozzolanic effect of andesite waste powder on mechanical properties of high
strength concrete. Constr Build Mater. 2018;165:494-503.
[89] Dinakar P, Reddy MK, Sharma M. Behaviour of self compacting concrete using Portland pozzolana cement with different levels
of fly ash. Mater Des. 2013;46:609-16.
[90] Yoon S, Monteiro PJM, Macphee DE, Glasser FP Imbabi MSE. Statistical evaluation of the mechanical properties of high-
volume class F fly ash concretes. Constr Build Mater. 2014;54:432-42.
[91] Lim SK, Ling TC, Hussin MW. Strength properties of self-compacting mortar mixed with GGBFS. Constr Mater.
2012;165(2):87-98.
[92] Hussain ST, Sastry KVSGK. Study of strength properties of concrete by using micro silica and nano silica. Int J Res Eng Technol.
2014;3(10):103-8.
[93] Adil G, Kevern JT, Mann D. Influence of silica fume on mechanical and durability of previous concrete. Constr Build Mater.
2020;247:118453.
[94] Zhang S, Zhou Y, Sun J, Han F. Effect of ultrafine metakaolin on the properties of mortar and concrete. Crystals. 2021;11(6):665.
[95] Thankman GL, Thurvas Renganathan N. Ideal supplementary cementing material-metakaolin : a review. Int Rev Appl Sci Eng.
2020;11(1):58-65.
[96] Siddika A, Al Mamum MA, Ali MH. Study on concrete qith rice husk ash. Innov Infrastruct Solut. 2018;3(1):1-9.
[97] Ye G, Huang H, Van Tuan N. Rice husk ash. In: De Belie N, Soutsos M, Gruyaert E, editors. Properties of fresh and hardened
concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2018. p. 283-302.
[98] Ahsan MB, Hossain Z. Supplemental use of rice husk ash (RHA) as a cementitious material in concrete industry. Constr Build
Mater. 2018;178:1-9.
[99] Loganayagan S, Chandra Mohan N, Dhivyabharathi S. Sugarcane bagasse ash as alternate supplementary cementitious material
in concrete. Mater Today Proc. 2021;45:1004-7.
[100] Neto JSA, de França MJS, de Amorim Junior NS, Riberio DV. Effects of adding sugarcane bagasse ash on the properties and
durability of concrete. Constr Build Mater. 2021;266:120959.
[101] Farinha CB, de Brito J, Veiga R. Influence of forest biomass bottom ashes on the fresh, water and mechanical behaviour of
cement-based mortars. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2019;149:750-9.
[102] Benhood A, Golafshani EM. Artificial intelligence to model the performance of concrete mixtures and elements: a review. Arch
Computat Methods Eng. 2021:1-24.
[103] Golafshani EM, Benhood A, Hosseinikebria SS, Arashpour M. Novel metaheuristics-based type-2 fuzzy inference system for
predicting the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete. J Clean Prod. 2021;320:128771.
